Pira International Ltd-Extended Shelf Life-Ismithers

packaging > e-book
Extended Shelf Life Technologies
This report examines the technologies available to the

packaging industry to extend the shelf life of products. It
also includes a summary of the main end-use applications for
extended-shelf-life technologies, the leading suppliers and the
likely future trends and developments.
www.pira-international.com
Extended Shelf Life Technologies
David Platt Pira Business Intelligence
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table of contents
2 5
Executive Summary Packaging Technology Developments 4Inorganic and Organic Vapour Coatings Outlook to 2015
Key Drivers Active Packaging 4 Silicon Oxide Coatings 4Oxygen Scavengers
4Consumer Lifestyle and Demographic Changes 4Oxygen Scavengers and Emitters 4 Aluminium Oxide Coatings 4Moisture Scavengers and Desiccants
4Growth in Plastic Packaging 4Moisture Scavengers and Desiccants 4 Carbon 4Antimicrobial Agents
4Barrier PET Bottles 4 Moisture Pads 4Edible Coatings 4CO2 Scavengers and Emitters
4Growing Presence of Large Retail Chains 4 Desiccants Barrier Films 4Antioxidants
4Organic Food 4 Humectants 4Biaxially Oriented Polyethylene Terephthalate 4Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
Active, MAP and Intelligent Packaging 4Antimicrobial Agents (BOPET) 4 Safety Concerns
Technology Developments 4CO2 Scavengers and Emitters 4Polyamides 4 Appearance of MAP Packaging
4Active Packaging 4Ethylene Scavengers and Emitters 4Liquid Crystal Polymers 4 Alternatives to MAP Appearing
4Modified Atmosphere Packaging 4Ethanol Emitters 4Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) on the Market
4Intelligent Packaging 4Antioxidants 4Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) 4Modified Interactive Packaging (MIP)
Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional 4Flavour or Odour Absorbers and Emitters 4Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC) 4Barrier films
Additive Technology Developments Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 4Moisture-Barrier Films 4 Oxygen and Other Gas-Barrier Films
4Barrier Coatings 4MAP Explained 4Other Barrier Films 4 Moisture-Barrier Films
4Barrier Films 4Packaging Formats for MAP 4Barrier Coatings and Film Developments 4 Food-Contact Films
4Functional Additives 4 Bags and Pouches 4Food Contact Films 4Nanopackaging
End-Use Sector Developments 4 Horizontal Form-Fill-Seal Functional Additives 4Ormocers
Outlook to 2014 4 Vertical Form-Fill-Seal 4Anti-fogging Agents 4Hyperbranched Polymers
4
– Future Trends and Technology Developments 4 Tray Lidding 4Atmospheric Pressure Plasma
1
4 Thermoform-Fill-Seal End-Use Sector Developments 4Sustainable Barrier Coatings
Introduction and Methodology Intelligent Packaging Food 4Intelligent Packaging and Active Packaging
Introduction and Industry Overview 4Time-temperature Indicators 4Fresh and Processed Meat 4Regulations and Legislation
4Key Drivers 4Oxygen Indicators 4Fresh Fish and Shellfish 4 European Union Legislation
4 Consumer Lifestyle and 4Freshness Indicators 4Fresh Fruit and Vegetables 4 U.S. Legislation
Demographic Changes 4Leak Indicators 4Ready Meals
4 Growing Awareness of 4Intelligent Sensors 4Dairy Products
Health and Wellness 4Biosensors 4Bakery Products List of Tables and Figures
4 Rising Urbanisation and Busy Lifestyles 4Gas Indicators 4Snack Foods
3
4 Growing Participation of 4Dried Foods and Soups
Women in the Workforce Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional Drinks
4 Growing Numbers of Additive Technology Developments 4Oxygen Scavengers
Asset-Rich/ Time-Poor Consumers Introduction 4Barrier Coatings
4 Rise in Number of Single-Person and Barrier coatings 4Beer
Single-Parent Households 4Metallised Films 4Wine and Spirits
4 Growth in Plastic Packaging 4Organic Liquid Coatings 4Juice Drinks
4PET Bottles with Gas-Barrier Protection 4 Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVdC) 4Hot Beverages
4Growing Presence of Large Retail Chains 4 Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH) 4Ready-to-Drink Beverages
4Organic Food 4 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH) 4Dairy Drinks
Scope 4 Acrylics Nonfood
Methodology 4 Epoxy 4Pharmaceuticals and Health Care
Definitions 4Cosmetics and Personal Care
packaging > e-book > extended shelf life technologies
Executive Summary
This report examines the technologies available to the packaging As plastics have become more common in these packaging
industry to extend the shelf life of products. It also includes a applications, concerns have arisen about their ability to allow the The key drivers for
summary of the main end-use applications for extended-shelf-life exchange of gases and vapours that can compromise the quality shelf-life extenders
technologies, the leading suppliers and the likely future trends and and safety of the packaged products.
developments. While there is some crossover between the types of
in the packaging
packaging technology that affects shelf life, this report classifies Barrier PET Bottles PET bottles with enhanced gas-barrier industry include
the technology available as follows: protection are a key demand driver for PET packaging. Barrier changing consumer
• Active Packaging PET bottles currently represent a small part of the total PET bottle lifestyles and
• Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) market, but demand for them is growing at a much higher rate demographics,
• Barrier coatings, films and functional additives than PET bottles as a whole. Growing interest in sustainability and growth of plastic
• Intelligent Packaging reductions in packaging-related CO2 emissions are key drivers.
packaging,
Key Drivers Growing Presence of Large Retail Chains National and advances in barrier
The key drivers for shelf-life extenders in the packaging industry international chains have dominated many of the retail markets in PET bottles, the
include changing consumer lifestyles and demographics, growth advanced countries for many years. These large retail outlets have growing presence of
of plastic packaging, advances in barrier PET bottles, the growing expanded the market for packaged food with their focus on cost large retail chains
presence of large retail chains and rising demand for organic food. reduction and shelf-life extension. and rising demand
for organic food.
Consumer Lifestyle and Demographic Changes The demand Organic Food There is growing demand for organic foods in
for increasingly sophisticated packaging is being driven by changes Europe and the U.S., and this requires longer distribution chains
in consumer lifestyles and demographic trends, which include and longer shelf lives. Conventional shelf-life extenders, such as
growing awareness of health and wellness, rising urbanisation artificial preservatives, colours or flavour enhancers, do not meet
and busy lifestyles, the growing participation of women in the organic food regulations, so organic food manufacturers must find
workforce and an increase in number of single-parent households new ways to extend their products’ shelf life.
with children.
Active, MAP and Intelligent Packaging
Growth in Plastic Packaging The demand for packaging Technology Developments
materials to better protect their contents is rapidly increasing,
particularly in the food, beverage and pharmaceuticals industries. Active Packaging Active packaging interacts with its contents
CHAPTER ES 1 2 3 4 5 TOC
Executive Summary
to extend shelf life and improve quality, product safety or usability. national and international food retail groups has also led to a
Active systems are available in many forms, including sachets, highly competitive trading environment, with greater emphasis on
labels and films, and can be incorporated into flexible or rigid operational efficiency and competitive pricing. MAP is widely used
packaging designs. Absorber or scavenger systems remove in the packaging of meat, seafood and minimally processed fruit
unwanted oxygen and compounds from a package to help extend and vegetables; it is also used for pasta, cheese, bakery goods,
shelf life, and emitters release compounds into the packaged poultry, cooked and cured meats, ready meals and dried foods.
contents or into the headspace of the package.
Effective MAP requires the right composition of gas mixtures.
Some of the most widely used active packaging technologies are The chemical and physical nature of the product must also be
oxygen scavengers, moisture scavengers, odour absorbers and considered. Two technologies are used for MAP packing: gas
self-venting films. Other active packaging technologies are ethanol flushing and compensated vacuum. One of the main benefits
emitters, carbon dioxide scavengers or emitters, preservative of MAP is shelf life extension. Depending on the product, MAP
releasers, antimicrobial and antibacterial films and temperature- extends the time an item can remain on display anywhere from
controlled gas permeability. 50% to 500%.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging Modified atmosphere Intelligent Packaging Intelligent packaging refers to a system
packaging (MAP) describes the practice of modifying the that can carrying out functions such as sensing, detecting, tracing,
composition of the internal atmosphere of fresh or processed recording and communicating to facilitate decision-making. The
packaged foods in order to extend shelf life. value proposition for intelligent packaging is extended shelf life,
improved quality, enhanced safety and incorporation of additional
In Europe, MAP mainly involves the use of three gases—carbon information on the package and warnings about possible problems.
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)—although other gases A package can be intelligent if it has the ability to track the
are used where the law allows. Products are packed in a single gas product, sense the environment inside or outside the package, and
or a combination of these three gases, depending on the physical communicate this information to humans.
and chemical properties of the food.
Intelligent packaging can contain external or internal indicators for
MAP has benefited from growing consumer demand for active product quality and history. It differs from active packaging
convenience food products as a result of changing demographics in that it consists of technologies that measure and integrate but
and changing work patterns and lifestyles. The development of do not respond and control. Unlike active packaging systems,
Executive Summary
intelligent packaging has no effect on or within the product; it is ceramic coatings. But because all of these barrier solutions have
instead designed to convey information about the condition of the certain drawbacks such as cost, humidity sensitivity, opacity, or
product to the consumer. The term smart packaging is generally environmental restrictions, selecting the correct barrier packaging
applied to packaging that possesses the capabilities of both material is often rather difficult.
intelligent and active packaging.
Because there are several technology alternatives available, the
The primary technology driving intelligent packaging is indicators or packaging designer must understand not only the properties of
sensors. These indicators are called smart or interactive because they the barrier material but also the conditions that the package will
interact with compounds in the package and produce a signal that be subjected to in service. Using an expensive barrier coating in
can be read and communicated. Examples of external and internal a liquid packaging application may not be cost effective if the
indicators and their working principles are offered in Table 2.1. permeation rises rapidly with humidity, if permeation will be
lost due to handling of the package, or if there are performance
Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional inconsistencies from lot to lot.
Additive Technology Developments
Barrier coatings are used in a wide range of plastic packaging
Barrier Coatings Barrier properties are important to any products from carbonated beverage containers and boil-in-the-bag
packaging product that contains perishable contents. The food pouches to pharmaceutical drug blister packs. Barrier coatings
permeation of gases such as oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are one of several barrier technologies that are designed to keep
and vapours (e.g., H2O, aromas, and flavours) through polymers is oxygen, moisture, carbon dioxide, and other infiltrating species out
a major challenge for packaging developers. There are, however, of the package to preserve the flavour, colour and freshness of its
several coating technologies that the producers of plastics can use content.
to solve this barrier problem.
Barrier coatings are continuing to evolve and complement
Several other barrier options have been proposed and utilised, emerging resins and manufacturing processes. An advantage of
including new polymers and composite materials for construction coatings over the other barrier technologies is the small amount
of the package itself. But also of importance are new constructions of material that is used. This reduces cost and improves recycling.
of packaging materials such as multilayer film, foil laminates, The disadvantage to coatings is that they need a separate step in
polyvinylidene chloride or ethylene vinyl alcohol coatings, the packaging material manufacturing process that often requires
evaporated aluminium film, and, more recently, vapour-deposited significant capital. By virtue of their thin gauge, coatings are also
Executive Summary
susceptible to abrasion and other mechanical stress that is common Functional Additives
to packaging materials both during their manufacturing and use. A functional additive modifies the properties of the packaging to
impart certain desirable or beneficial functions. The functional
Barrier coatings include inorganic coatings such as aluminium oxide, additives used for their shelf life extending properties include anti-
silicone oxide, and amorphous carbon and organic coating such as fogging agents and antimicrobial agents, both discussed in section
polyvinylidene chloride, ethylene vinyl alcohol, and epoxy. There are 2—active packaging technologies.
many processes available for applying these coatings, ranging from
simple curtain, spray, or dip coating to fairly exotic vapour-deposition When water or moist air is trapped in a closed system,
processes. The performance and cost of the ultimate barrier coating condensation droplets form on the inner surface of the packaging
is dependent on these processing methods as well as the raw film when the temperature falls below the dew point. For this
materials used in the coating. Nanotechnology is also providing reason, the development of plastic films with improved anti-fogging
materials and processes that are adaptable to barrier coatings. qualities is of growing importance for fresh food packaging.
The factors that drive barrier packaging are primarily shelf life, End-Use Sector Developments
cost, and consumer requirements. For instance, consumers using This section analyses extended shelf-life technology developments
products away from home often prefer smaller packs and more for key food, drink and nonfood packaging sectors: Food sectors
robust packaging. Other driving factors include growing demand covered are fresh and processed meat, fresh fish and shellfish, fresh
for more environmentally friendly products, such as powder and fruit and vegetables, ready meals, dairy products, bakery products,
radiation-curable coatings. snack foods and dried food, soup, sauces, frozen food, pet food and
baby foods. Beverages covered are beer, wines and spirits, juice
Barrier Films Some plastic films possess barrier protection drinks, hot beverages, ready-to-drink beverages and dairy drinks.
properties in their own right. These films include polyamide (nylon) Nonfood sectors are pharmaceuticals, health care, cosmetics and
and polyester films; they may form the primary barrier or be co- personal-care packaging
extruded or coated with higher barrier polymers such as EVOH and
PVdC. Other barrier films covered in this report include liquid crystal Outlook to 2014 – Future Trends
polymers, polyethylene naphthalate, cyclic olefin copolymers and and Technology Developments
polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE). While the global economic recession has had a restraining impact
on shelf-life-extending technologies as manufacturers focus on cost-
reduction measures, there are undoubtedly opportunities for further
Executive Summary
growth over the coming years.
This section presents some of the key trends for individual shelf-
life-extending technologies over the next five years, including an
analysis of emerging trends in active and intelligent packaging
technologies. Active packaging technologies were initially
considered to offer huge market potential and benefits for
producers and consumers. And there has been good growth in
various active packaging technologies over the past five years, but
it has been constrained by several factors, including its relatively
high cost, consumer resistance and food safety legislation,
particularly in the EU. For example, in Europe it is not permissible
to use some aroma absorber systems.
Barrier films and coating systems developments are also examined.

Emerging technologies covered are nanopackaging, ormocers,
hyperbranched polymers, atmospheric pressure plasma processes
and sustainable barrier coatings.
One of the most promising developments in the packaging industry

could be the integration of active packaging and intelligent
packaging. The package of the future may measure humidity,
oxygen and a number of other substances and then dispense
antimicrobial additives, desirable aromas, or antioxidants into the
contents from a single package surface.

1
Introduction and Methodology
Introduction and Industry Overview that promotes longer shelf life. In addition, the increase in
eating away from home and “on the go” consumption implies An increasingly
Key Drivers The key drivers for shelf-life extenders in the a reduction in demand for retail consumer packaging for urban society has
packaging industry include changing consumer lifestyles and domestic consumption and greater portability for packaged
demographics, growth of plastic packaging, advances in barrier products.
become populated
PET bottles, the growing presence of large retail chains and rising with busy, time-
demand for organic food. Growing Participation of Women in the Workforce constrained
Across the world, both in developed and developing countries, consumers
Consumer Lifestyle and Demographic Changes The women are increasingly joining the workforce; this accounts for requiring
demand for increasingly sophisticated packaging is being a spike in household disposable income and greater spending
convenience and
driven by changes in consumer lifestyles and demographic power. This also means that females have less time to cook
trends. meals at home, leading to growth in demand for convenience portability in the
foods such as ready meals and frozen foods. products they buy.
rowing Awareness of Health and Wellness Consumers
G
are genuinely more concerned about health and wellness Growing Numbers of Asset-Rich/ Time-Poor Consumers
issues because of greater media attention to health matters While real consumer incomes have increased over the last
and wider information from the Internet. These concerns have decade or so in most developed and developing nations, a
been manifest in the growth of natural, organic and additive- combination of longer working hours, higher participation
free products in recent years. Consumers are increasingly aware rates in the labour force and longer commutes to and from
of what ingredients and additives go into the products they the workplace has compressed the schedule of the average
consume; for this reason, product labelling will become ever consumer. This means that many consumers have far less time
more important. at their disposal to buy and prepare fresh food, and are choosing
either to eat out or to purchase ready-prepared meals.
Rising Urbanisation and Busy Lifestyles An increasingly
urban society has become populated with busy, time- Rise in Number of Single-Person and Single-Parent
constrained consumers requiring convenience and portability Households There has been a rise in the number of single-
in the products they buy. This translates into demand for person and single-parent households in Western Europe and
microwavable packaging, single-serve packs, carry-away North America due to people delaying marriage, higher divorce
packs, resealable packaging, easy-open packs and packing rates and greater social and geographic mobility. The growth
in the number of these households means growing demand is, however, growing at a much higher rate than PET bottles as a
for smaller size or single portion food packaging and growing whole, in the region of 8.0-9.0% per annum. Growing interest in
demand for convenience and time-saving products like ready sustainability and reductions in packaging-related CO2 emissions
meals and frozen foods. are key drivers.
Growth in Plastic Packaging The demand for packaging For 2009, European consumption of barrier PET bottles is estimated
materials to better protect their contents is increasing at over 3.9 billion units. Beer accounted for the largest part of
rapidly, especially in the food, beverage and pharmaceuticals barrier PET bottle demand, with a market share of 58%. Juices and
industries. As plastics have become more common in these juice drinks accounted for 34% of the market, while mineral water
packaging applications, concerns have arisen about their and other soft drinks accounted for just 8% of the total.
ability to allow the exchange of gases and vapours that can
compromise the quality and safety of the packaged products. In Europe, PET blend solutions account for around half of barrier
PET solutions with multi-layer technologies representing close to
To meet this demand, a variety of barrier technologies have one third in terms of bottle units. Barrier coatings represent around
been developed and commercialised. These technologies not one fifth of the barrier technologies used for PET bottles. Barrier
only optimise product shelf life, they also reduce the need coatings are widely predicted to grow their share of the barrier
for preservatives, provide transparency and gloss, and serve PET bottle market over the next five-year period as a result of
as a printing substrate. In essence they preserve, protect and developing technologies and more competitive costs.
promote.
The beer market is unusual in that PET penetration is quite high in
Without barrier packaging, perishable goods such as food, the lesser-developed countries of Central and Eastern Europe and
beverages, and pharmaceuticals would be susceptible to a Asia, but minimal in Western Europe and North America. Russia,
wide range of deterioration processes. Romania and Ukraine together account for close to 80% of all beer
packaged in PET worldwide, measured by volume. Germany—the
PET Bottles with Gas-Barrier Protection PET bottles with largest PET beer market in Western Europe––accounts for only 3%.
enhanced gas-barrier protection are a key demand driver for PET There are likely to be further advances for PET beer bottles in
packaging. Barrier PET bottles currently represent a small part of countries of Central and Eastern Europe and Asia through 2015.
the total PET bottle market, accounting for only 2.5% of total PET The Western European and North America markets for PET beer
bottle units sold in Europe in 2009. Barrier PET bottle demand bottles are likely to grow at a slower rate. PET beer bottles will
10
remain very much a niche product in these markets, largely local and independent artisan stores, largely offering unpacked
restricted to outdoor events such as sports matches and concerts, food. During the last five years, however, domestic supermarkets/
where the safety advantages of PET versus glass are important. hypermarkets have opened in many of the major cities in
Western consumers still prefer the premium appeal of beer in a developing countries and are now taking a growing share of food
glass bottle, and the traditionally conservative nature of major and drink consumption.
brewers will hinder further significant penetration for PET bottles
in Western European beer markets. Furthermore, the challenge for Supermarkets/hypermarkets are becoming especially favoured
PET is that many of characteristics that have driven growth in other by consumers for their wide product ranges and diverse choice of
market sectors—resealability, light weight and impact resistance— premium brands, usually unavailable in other outlets. There has
are not drivers for beer consumers, who view plastic as a cheap also been growth in the number of discount stores and private-
alternative to glass. label products, which enable lower-income consumers to purchase
packaged food and drinks at more affordable prices.
Other growth areas for barrier PET containers include mineral water International retail chains are expanding their presence in
(due to growth in demand for vitamin-enriched and enhanced developing markets, which will further develop the packaged-food
waters), fruit juice and dairy drinks. The wine sector has also shown sector in these countries, bringing more consumers into contact
growing interest in barrier PET bottles over the past two years, with Western shopping patterns.
with increasing market opportunities for smaller size bottles, which
require better barrier protection. Organic Food There is growing demand for organic foods in
Europe and the U.S., and this requires longer distribution chains
Plastic bottle demand in the hot and humid climates of Asia is and longer shelf lives. Conventional shelf-life extenders, such as
also growing. artificial preservatives, colours or flavour enhancers, do not meet
organic food regulations, so organic food manufacturers need to
Growing Presence of Large Retail Chains National and find new ways to extend product shelf life. Three new ways are
international chains have dominated many of the retail markets sorbents, MAP and modified interactive packaging (MIP).
in advanced countries for many years. These large retail outlets Some examples are described below:
have expanded the market for packaged food with their focus on
cost reduction and shelf-life extension. Food and drink retailing The French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) has
in the developing countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia developed MIP that quadruples the shelf life of mushrooms and
and South America, has traditionally been dominated by small, other vegetables. It can change the gas composition in the package
11
during the shelf life of the product. FreshPax S from Multisorb and literature searches as well as primary research of companies
controls moisture and oxygen in baked goods. along the packaging supply chain.
In the U.S., Wal-Mart is expanding its organic product offerings and Definitions
suppliers, and is working with Kellogg’s and Kraft Foods to create
organic versions of their products. (These organic versions will likely Active packaging: Packaging that changes the condition of the
require organic-friendly shelf-life extenders.) packaged product to extend its shelf life or to improve its safety
whilst maintaining quality. It includes oxygen scavengers, carbon
Tesco of the U.K. introduced MIP for organic grapes in 2007. Its dioxide scavengers and emitters, ethylene scavengers, antibacterial
supplier, Organic Farm Foods, tested Smartbagplus from Long Life films, ethanol emitters, moisture scavengers, flavour or odour
Solutions. MIP eliminates dehydration and enables Tesco to remove absorbers and antioxidants.
sulphur dioxide pads commonly used when transporting grapes.
Barrier coating: A coating that will prevent another material
Scope from penetrating or permeating it. Barriers are employed for such
This report examines the technologies available to the packaging materials as water, water vapour, oxygen or other gases, aroma,
industry to extend the shelf life of products. It also includes a oil, grease and other materials. Barrier properties are crucial to
summary of the main end-use applications for extended shelf the shelf life for any packaging product that contains perishable
life, the leading suppliers and the expected future trends and contents.
developments. While there is some crossover between the types of
packaging technology that affects shelf life, this report classifies Functional additive: A functional additive modifies the properties
the technology available as follows: of the packaging to impart certain desirable or beneficial functions.
•Active packaging There are many types of functional additives used for packaging,
•Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) including silicone release liners, antimicrobial agents, antistatic
•Barrier coatings, films and functional additives agents and anti-fogging agents.
•Intelligent packaging
Intelligent packaging: This is a packaging system that is capable
Methodology of carrying out intelligent functions such as sensing, detecting,
Information in this e-book was developed from multiple sources tracing, recording and communicating to facilitate decision-making.
such as trade journals, company information, published reports, Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP): MAP is packaging used
12
to prolong the shelf life of processed or fresh food by changing

the composition of the atmosphere surrounding the food in the
package. MAP is used for different products, so the atmosphere in
the package depends on the product type, the temperature and the
packaging materials. MAP differs from active packaging in that it is
passive, whereas active packaging utilises a proactive approach to
accomplish its function.
Vacuum packaging: A packaging technology that removes

oxygen from the package at the time of closure.
13
2
Packaging Technology Developments
Active Packaging Oxygen Scavengers and Emitters Oxygen scavengers help

Active packaging interacts with its contents to extend their shelf extend product life and improve product appearance by absorbing Some of the
life and improve quality, product safety or usability. Active systems oxygen that is in the packaged product. most widely used
are available in many forms, including sachets, labels and films,
and can be incorporated into flexible or rigid packaging designs. Chemicals, biological molecules or metallic compounds are inserted
active packaging
Absorber systems remove unwanted oxygen and compounds into small sachets, packs, pouches and self-adhesive labels, which technologies are
from a package to help extend shelf life, whereas emitters release are attached to or incorporated into the packaging material. oxygen scavengers,
compounds into the packaged contents or into the headspace of moisture scavengers,
the package. More recently, the oxygen-scavenging components have been odour absorbers and
impregnated into laminates, films, bottles, plastic lids and closures. self-venting films.
Some of the most widely used active packaging technologies are Oxygen scavengers are able to reduce the oxygen level to 0.01%,
oxygen scavengers, moisture scavengers, odour absorbers and and maintain it. Oxygen-scavenging processes can be self-reacting
self-venting films. Other active packaging technologies are ethanol or may be activated in the presence of moisture, ultraviolet light or
emitters, carbon dioxide scavengers or emitters, preservative by catalysts. The following are some substances currently used as
releasers, antimicrobial films and temperature-controlled gas oxygen scavengers:
permeability.
Iron powder is the most popular technology for sachets,
Sachet-based oxygen-scavenging systems have been the most but it depends on water and may trigger metal detectors.
successful type of active packaging. Over the past five years, new
technologies have emerged that incorporate oxygen scavengers, Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is used in lids, crowns, lid
antimicrobial emitters or odour absorbers in the body of the film or liners, and particularly in Japan, in sachets with other
package with interconnected solid pathways throughout the plastic. active components, such as active carbon or moisture
This allows the controlled movement of gases and water vapour scavengers.
in and out of the plastic. This technology can be used to control
odours, release aromas and nutrients, and transmit materials by Photosensitive dye is used in scavenging films.
modifying the transport properties of the plastic.
Enzymes are used in sachets or fixed to the inner wall of
PE/PP packs.
14
The incorporation of oxygen scavengers into a packaged product whereby the oxygen absorption starts only in a hot,
prevents: moist environment. The product is used for foods such
• The formation of off-flavours, such as rancidity following as baked products, processed meats and sausages,
lipid oxidation cooked rice, baked potatoes and seasoned fish. The
• Changes in the colour of products such as meat regular-acting iron type is used for foods with low
• Nutrient losses, such as the oxidation of vitamins or medium water content such as doughnuts, cakes,
• Microbial growth of aerobic bacteria salami, coffee, tea, nuts and dried vegetables. The
• High respiration rate in foods such as fruits and main components of the noniron types are organic, so
vegetables they will not affect a metal detector. The self-reacting,
• Depletion of carbon dioxide in soft drinks and alcoholic oxygen-absorbing type is used for ham, sausages and
drinks in PET bottles. chicken nuggets. The multifunction type generates
carbon dioxide at the same time as it absorbs oxygen,
Oxygen emitters and oxygen scavengers are incorporated into so it prevents food containers from shrinking when
packaging using very similar methods. Oxygen emitters are oxygen is absorbed. It is used for rice cakes, nuts, dried
predominantly used for food and drink packaging and are most fish, etc.
often used with high-barrier materials to ensure a controlled
atmosphere in the packaging by releasing oxygen to keep it at the • Toppan Printing Co. of Japan is the second-largest
right level. supplier of oxygen-scavenging sachets, cards and
labels in Japan. Some of its brands are Sendo Hojizai,
These emitters and scavengers can be an alternative to perforated Freshness Keeper and Freshilizer.
or breathable film, which helps to keep a high oxygen atmosphere
in equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP). • Emco/Atco supplies the only European-manufactured
oxygen absorbers. They are made by Atco in France
The supply of oxygen-scavenging sachets, labels and cards is dominated and are marketed as a complement or an alternative
by Japanese manufacturers, several of which also offer films. to MAP. The Atco oxygen absorber comes in the form
of a sachet, self-adhesive label or rigid thermoformed
• Ageless® from Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (MCG) of Oxycap. Emco offers a large label for MAP ready meals
Japan is supplied as iron types and labels and noniron and dishes.
types. Iron types comprise water-dependent sachets,
15
• Multisorb Technologies of the U.S. is the largest supplier confectionery, cheeses and dairy products, and fresh
of oxygen scavengers in North America. It offers a and precooked pasta and noodles.
wide range of oxygen-scavenging systems, as well as
moisture and odour absorbers. Multisorb’s FreshPax • StabilOx specialty oxygen absorbers are used for
oxygen absorber sachets are used for a wide range of pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, botanical
foods, pharmaceuticals, cheese, case-ready meat and extracts and diagnostic test products. They are available
other products. A scavenger sachet is usually attached for HDPE bottles, trays, blister packs and other formats.
to the lidding material, which can be adjusted to suit Multisorb says that StabilOx eliminates oxygen and
the desired packaging materials and sizes. Multisorb maintains the equilibrium relative humidity in the
says that FreshPax oxygen absorbers increase the shelf package. It prevents moisture-mediated degradation
life of products such as cheese from 8 days to 45 days. and ensures the integrity of drug compositions by
FreshPax B is designed to work with moist products. preventing the cracking and leaching associated
Multisorb says that FreshPax B scavengers start to with overdrying.
work a few hours after the package is sealed and allow
for longer handling times in the packaging process. • BASF’s Shelfplus O2 is an active oxygen scavenger
Multisorb’s FreshPax D blends carry moisture and are designed to work with a passive barrier for improved
used with drier food products. product protection. Shelfplus O2 is incorporated
in a polyolefin layer within a multilayer packaging
• FreshCard oxygen-absorbing cards are designed to structure during coextrusion or lamination to form a
fit larger product packaging. Multisorb says that self-contained, oxygen-absorbing packaging system.
FreshCard can replace backer cards in packaging and Shelfplus O2 can be incorporated into a wide
can be printed like a label or coupon, virtually invisible range of plastic packaging structures for chilled or
to the consumer. FreshMax is an oxygen-absorbing microwaveable foods, retort or nonretort, with or
patch designed for adhesion within packaging of without MAP structures, including containers, bottles,
high-value foods where the required oxygen absorption films and cap liners.
is below 50 cm. They have an adhesive backing, and
their ultra-thin, low-profile design makes them almost Moisture Scavengers and Desiccants Whereas most foods
invisible. Some typical high-value food applications are require some moisture to be present, some nonfood applications
processed, smoked and cured meats, baked products, for moisture scavengers require the total elimination of moisture
16
(sometimes moisture is required to activate oxygen scavengers natural and synthetic fibres. It has a leading position in the
and other active packaging components). The principal food U.S. for meat packaging pads based on web-laid technology.
applications for moisture scavengers to extend shelf life are those
where moisture can cause product deterioration or make the pack Sirane of the U.K. has a strong position in the supply of
less attractive. Moisture scavengers for food applications can be absorbent pads for food applications in Europe. Among
broadly grouped into moisture pads, desiccants and humectants. its products are Dri-Fresh Inflex absorbent pads for meat
trays and Dri-Fresh Resolve biodegradable absorbent meat
oisture Pads Moisture pads based on cellulose
M pads. Sirane also offers absorbent pads for baked goods
and nonwovens—often with superabsorbent fibres and vegetables such as beetroot.
or granules—are by far the most widely used form of
moisture scavenger for food applications in Europe and Huhtamaki is a major European producer of EPS and PP
the U.S. They are mainly used to absorb surplus juices in trays for meat and poultry tray packaging. Its ProMeat
fresh meat and poultry packs. trays are available in a wide range of sizes and colours,
with or without an absorbent pad. They are good for
Cryovac Sealed Air supplies moisture-absorbent pads MAP and gas flushing. Top Tray Plus and Top Tray Ultra
for meat trays and has a dominant pads position in the absorbent EPS trays eliminate the need for a separate
U.S. Cryovac offers Dri-Loc pads (meat, fish and poultry), absorbent pad. Their open-cell technology directly absorbs
Premier Dri-Loc, HOT-Loc, Pad-Loc superabsorbent pads, excess moisture and meat juices inside the tray.
and Cellu Liner meat and dairy case liners.
Linpac is a leading European supplier of EPS trays
McAirlaids of Germany offers SuperCore absorbent pads for meat and poultry; it has a growing presence in
for meat packaging. SuperCore was the first commercial rigid PP and PET trays for meat and poultry. Linpac
absorbent pad without latex or synthetic bonding fibres. supplies absorbent open-cell trays and barrier trays that
It uses a patented thermo mechanical bonding process incorporate a moisture scavenger.
that incorporates granules such as superabsorbent
polymers, odour snappers and powders. Desiccants Desiccants may be used to manage the
climate in packaging by absorbing moisture from the
Ahlstrom Corporation of the U.S. is the leading global environment and reducing the relative humidity. They
manufacturer of specialty papers and nonwovens using make up two thirds of the world market for moisture
17
scavengers and have a wide range of nonfood as well chemical stability for a cough medicine, and to give
as food applications. Some 15% to 20% of packaging physical protection of the thin, edible film strips used
desiccants are used for food packaging applications in Japan, for a breath-freshening product. The two-shot, injection-
but their share in Europe and the U.S. is well under 5%. moulded Power-Pak container has a moulded inner
liner and incorporates CSP’s controlled interactive
Formats for desiccants include sachets, pads and pouches; packaging technology.
more recent developments include labels and closures.
•O
-Buster, from Desiccare Inc., is an iron-based
There are two main classes of desiccant: those based scavenger that uses water and salt to accelerate the
on silicon oxides such as silica gel, and those based on scavenging reaction.
bentonite. Desiccant manufacturers provide a range of
desiccants to protect items that are highly sensitive to • PharmaKeep is an organic oxygen-absorbing system
moisture and oxygen, such as electronic goods, medical from Süd-Chemie and Mitsubishi Gas Chemical
devices, pharmaceuticals and vitamin products. Company Inc. It works without moisture and is often
used in high gas-barrier packaging. Süd-Chemie is
Some of the leading desiccant suppliers and their products also developing an oxygen-absorbing blister film. U.S.
include: company Tekni-Plex Inc. has introduced the Tekniflex
modified atmosphere blister (MAB) for moisture control
• The SimulSorb programme, from U.S. company in blister packages. It incorporates one or more of CSP’s
Multisorb Technologies Inc., defines the sorbent Activ-Strip poly desiccant strips into the rib design of
characteristics of a drug product and simulates the the blister.
effect of packaging with varying amounts and types
of desiccant. Multisorb can tell the customer what the • Arizona Nutritional Supplements (ANS) is a leading
relative humidity is inside the bottle and the moisture contract manufacturer and packager of custom
content of the tablets. Multisorb’s Fresh Pax D products nutritional and dietary supplements. Its new packaging
control oxygen inside packaging when there is little line for the vitamin supplement industry has an
moisture to initiate oxidation. APA-1000 desiccant inserter made by Multisorb
Technologies. ANS decided to use desiccant packets as
CSP Technologies devised a desiccant to provide they were a more cost-effective way to keep products
18
dry. The 0.5 g StripPax of desiccant has a flat contour whereas volatile antimicrobial components do not. Volatile
that distinguishes it from packaged pills. preservatives are advantageous for some foods. Antimicrobial
food packaging agents include enzymes, chitosan, bacteriocins,
Humectants Humectants are used for shelf-life extension antibiotics, organic acids, spices, citrus extracts, isothiocyanates,
in some food applications so that moisture can be emitted metals, fungicides and oxidisers. They may be added to polymer
and scavenged within closely defined parameters. Two master batches in concentrations of 1% to 5%, or they are dissolved
nonfood applications for humectants are diagnostics or dispersed in plasticiser, liquid colourant or liquid monomer.
and cigars.
Antimicrobial packaging systems can generally be classified into
Humidipak in the U.S. offers a disposable two-way surface active and not surface active. In general, the efficacy
humidity controller designed to maintain a constant, of antimicrobial treatments for solid products is related to
predetermined level of relative humidity inside containers. controlled diffusion to the surface. Antimicrobial additives can be
Usually manufactured in pouch form, the controller biochemical, such as antibiotics or enzymes, or natural compounds
is used for premium cigar packaging, perishable food such as sulphur compounds and flavour constituents and may be
products and many other nonfood applications. released continuously or by reaction with UV light.
Antimicrobial Agents Antimicrobial materials can prevent Imazalil has been incorporated into LLDPE, benzoic anhydride into
and eliminate microbial growth, thus enhancing the shelf life of LDPE, lysozyme into cellulose esters, and nisin into nonpolar films.
products. Examples of antimicrobial use include: Antimicrobial peptides occur widely in nature. Synthetic
• sachets��
or pads containing volatile antimicrobial agents antimicrobial peptides have low haemolytic activity and strong
• incorporation
��
of antimicrobial agents directly into antimicrobial activity. However, improved immobilisation methods
polymers are required, and there are regulatory issues.
• coating��
or absorbing antimicrobials onto polymer
surfaces Some antibacterial substances are already permitted for use as
• immobilisation
��
of antimicrobials onto polymers by ion food additives, including nisin for cheese and frankfurter casings.
or covalent linkages Natural essential oils such as rosemary and oregano are also
• polymers
��
that are inherently antimicrobial being tested. Bioswitching, where antimicrobial release is triggered
by microbe presence, is undergoing trials at the Netherlands
Nonvolatile antimicrobial components require contact packaging, Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO). Silver-
19
substituted zeolite from Agion of the U.S. was approved by the EU zeolite. Zeomic film has strong heat resistance, a wide
in 2005. antimicrobial spectrum, a long shelf life, and FDA
approval for use in food-contact applications.
Production challenges are some of the main problems for
commercial implementation of antimicrobials in food packaging. • Agion Technologies of the U.S. makes Agion
Antimicrobials that can be incorporated into the polymer during antimicrobial compound. It is a silver-active ingredient
extrusion are the most likely to achieve success, but there are in a zeolite carrier. The carrier releases silver ions in a
still concerns about the release from these polymers and possible controlled way, and the silver ions kill microbes.
modifications to the antimicrobial. Although it is possible to use
technologies that require soaking, coating, sachets or labels, these • BASF offers Irgaguard B silver antimicrobials in zeolite
additional production stages add cost. or glass carriers to prevent growth of bacteria, mould
and yeast on plastic surfaces. It is especially suitable for
Addition of antimicrobial agents to packaging materials may alter high-temperature processing.
some polymer characteristics. Some antibacterial substances are
already permitted for use as food additives. Natural essential oils • Avery Dennison makes antimicrobial labels that use
are undergoing testing, as is bioswitching (antimicrobial release is mustard oil to inhibit mould growth in a range of
triggered by microbe presence). Regulatory approval, though, is a products such as bread, cheese and fresh meat. The
serious issue. labels are currently used in Japan to prolong shelf life
for some strong-tasting products, but have not yet been
Some antimicrobials are approved for direct food application, but approved for food contact in the U.S. and Europe.
this does not necessarily mean they can be used in food packaging.
People have expressed concern about the speed at which CO2 Scavengers and Emitters Carbon dioxide scavengers scout
antimicrobial agents are released into the food contents, and many carbon dioxide; this helps stop the growth of anaerobic bacteria
antimicrobial agents are not permitted for food applications. and reduces the risk of carbon dioxide buildup that could burst
flexible packs of products such as coffee, fruit and vegetables.
The major suppliers of antimicrobial agents are summarised below. Carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters operate in a similar way
to oxygen scavengers, and they come in similar formats. They are
• Sinanen Zeomic Company of Japan develops usually sold as sachets and bags for attachment to the inside of the
antibacterial technologies based on silver-substituted packaging, but films and laminates are also appearing in Japan.
20
One of the most common carbon dioxide scavengers is calcium • Ethylene Control, U.S.: Ethylene Control Power Pellet
hydroxide. In the presence of moisture, this reacts with carbon sachets
dioxide to turn it into calcium carbonate. The desiccant calcium • Evert-Fresh, U.S.: green bags
oxide reacts with water to produce calcium hydroxide. Carbon • PeakFresh Products, Australia: PeakFresh preserving bags
dioxide helps to stop the growth of aerobic bacteria. • Rengo, Japan: Green Pack
• Sekisui Jushi, Japan: Neopack
The major suppliers of CO2 scavengers are summarised below
Ethanol Emitters Ethanol emitters are primarily used in Japan
• Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (MCG) offers Ageless E, a and elsewhere in Asia to combat microbes and moulds in packaged
combination carbon dioxide scavenger and oxygen foods. Moisture from the pack contents drips into a sachet of
scavenger, and Ageless G, a combination oxygen ethanol-absorbed silicon dioxide powder, causing the release of
scavenger and carbon dioxide emitter. ethanol vapour. A medium- to high-barrier packaging material is
• Multisorb Technologies offers FreshPax M, a combination needed to prevent the ethanol from escaping.
oxygen scavenger and carbon dioxide emitter.
• Toppan Printing Co. of Japan produces Freshilizer C, Below, some major suppliers and their products:
also a combination oxygen scavenger and carbon • Freund Industrial Company, Japan: Ethicap, AKA
dioxide emitter. antimould, Negamould ethanol emitters
• MGC, Japan: Ageless SE, a combination oxygen
Ethylene Scavengers and Emitters Ethylene scavengers are used to scavenger and ethanol emitter
slow the ageing process of fresh produce right from the point of initial • OhE Chemicals Inc., Japan: Oyteck L ethanol emitter
harvesting. Potassium permanganate is the most widely used active
agent for ethylene scavenging. Ethylene scavengers are marketed in Antioxidants Antioxidants are added to polymer films for food
sachets, bags and films and have been developed under several trade packages to prevent oxidation, discoloration, loss of transparency,
names, but commercial applications have thus far been limited. changes in mechanical properties and the development of by-
Japanese companies dominate the supply of oxygen scavengers products that could cause off-flavours. Packaging films can contain
and carbon dioxide scavengers. They make ethylene scavengers as a primary antioxidant that gives long-term protection to the film
well, but there are also major suppliers in the U.S. and Australia: and a secondary antioxidant that protects the polymer during
•C ycletrol Industries Inc., U.S.: ethylene gas-control products package manufacture.
• Desiccare Inc., U.S.: Ethylene EliminatorPak
21
The most common antioxidants are phenolic compounds, secondary flavours and fragrances have been added to packaging material at
aryl amines, organophosphines and thioesters of synthetic origin, the time of manufacture.
approved for plastics in contact with food.
Flavours or fragrances can be added to plastic closures, metal
BASF is the leading supplier of antioxidants for packaging films. vacuum closures, crown cork closures, cans, films, blow-moulded or
The Irganox E product is based on natural vitamin E and has injection-moulded packaging, microwave trays and thermoformed
wide consumer acceptance; it is suitable for food and medical or injection-moulded pots and cups.
packaging. BASF’s Uvinul 2000 AO dl-alpha-tocopherol inhibits the
thermo-oxidation of polymers at high processing temperatures to The following are some food and drink applications for flavour
produce food packaging with favourable organoleptic properties. emitters:
• Bottle caps: weight-loss drinks, baby food,
Flavour or Odour Absorbers and Emitters Flavour or odour tamper-evident closures
absorbers are designed to combat off-odours and off-flavours, thus • Crown closures: beer, flavoured malt beverages and
extending shelf life. A variety of products are available for food flavoured distilled beverages such as rum, vodka, gin
applications. and wine
• Desiccants made from activated carbon have flavour • Food packaging: a wide range of flavours can be
absorption properties, and account for a large proportion incorporated directly into plastic formed by blow
of sales in flavour or odour absorption. A variety of other moulding, injection moulding and extrusion.
agents are also available to suit the specific application Some food applications for encapsulated
• Films impregnated with composites are used in rigid and aroma-release technology are breakfast cereals
semi-rigid multilayer packaging and flexible packaging. • Baked goods, confectionery and microwaveable
• Sometimes the flavour absorption agent is incorporated into ready meals
the inner liners of closures, such as acetaldehyde absorbers • Films for army food rations
in the closures of PET water bottles. • Bottle sleeves
Flavour or odour emitters have been developed to release a flavour Companies that make flavour or odour emitters say that locking
or odour on the outside of a pack, including scratch-and-sniff labels flavours into the polymer matrix helps products stay stable
and sleeves, and scented inks, but they have been used primarily significantly longer than when they are added directly to the contents;
in nonfood applications. More recently, FDA-approved food-grade this could also compensate for loss of taste in low-sodium foods.
22
its OnCap product reduces acetaldehyde-related taste and odour

Packaging materials can be designed to deliver aroma on the issues in PET food packaging by up to 82%.
outside, the inside or both; standard barrier layers keep the
encapsulated flavours and aromas sealed in the package until it is ScentSational Technologies, of the U.S., is a world leader
opened. This technology increases the upfront cost, but the increase in olfaction packaging technologies for food, beverages,
should be weighed against savings made to replace ingredients or pharmaceuticals and other consumer products. Its CompelAroma
for shelf-life extension. technology uses its patented Encapsulated Aroma Release
technology to incorporate FDA-approved food-grade flavours
Some of the leading producers of flavour and odour absorbers and directly into food and beverage packaging components, and
emitters are discussed below. fragrances into consumer product packaging. It can be applied
to all existing manufacturing methods, including blow moulding,
Multisorb produces Minisorb sachets containing blends of odour injection moulding, thermoforming, extrusion and in gaskets and
and moisture-absorbing compounds, mixtures of clay or silica gel liners. ScentSational Technologies is in discussions with several
with activated carbon in a ratio of 50:50 or 60:40. They provide European food manufacturers that are considering flavour emitters
desiccating and odour-absorbing properties in a single sachet. as a way to reduce salt in their products.
DuPont has developed zeolite and other absorbers that remove Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
sulphides, amines and aldehydes from the headspace of MAP for
meat, fish and poultry. Its mould-, yeast- and bacteria-inhibiting MAP Explained Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
agents are incorporated into films for milk, cheese and bread describes the practice of modifying the composition of the internal
packaging. atmosphere of fresh or processed packaged foods in order to extend
shelf life. In Europe, MAP mainly involves the use of three gases—
Ampacet, a U.S. masterbatch supplier, has developed an additive carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)—although
that can remove odour molecules from food packaging, particularly other gases are used where the law allows. Products are packed in a
for ready meals because they may contain extra seasoning and may single gas or a combination of these three gases, depending on the
have a higher fat content. physical and chemical properties of the food.
ColorMatrix Europe offers TripleA acetaldehyde scavengers made The use of gases in the preservation of food products dates back
from anthranilamide dispersed in a liquid carrier. PolyOne says to before the Second World War. Much of the original work was
23
carried out in the early 1930s with the shipment of beef and lamb various products:
carcasses from Australia and New Zealand to the U.K. under carbon • Fresh red meat is usually packed in 20% to 40%
dioxide storage. During the 1940s and 1950s, sealed, controlled carbon dioxide and 60% to 80% oxygen
atmosphere storage warehouses were constructed to lengthen the • Poultry needs to be packed in 20% carbon dioxide to
shelf life of fresh apples under refrigeration. Hence, the commercial lengthen its shelf life significantly
applications of gas preservation were largely confined to the • The recommended gas mixture for white fish and
controlled atmosphere storage and transport of bulk commodities shellfish is 35% to 45% carbon dioxide, 25% to 35%
such as meat and fruit. oxygen and 25% to 35% nitrogen
• The recommended gas mixture for oily fish is 35% to
In the 1970s, MAP reached the retail sector when bacon and 45% carbon dioxide and 55% to 65% nitrogen
fish were first sold in retail packs in the U.K. Since then, the •C old cuts require oxygen quantities to be lower than 0.5%
development of MAP has soared because of its benefits for • A gas mixture of 10% to 30% carbon is recommended
suppliers, retailers and consumers. for aged cold cuts and 50% carbon dioxide is
recommended for cooked cold cuts. The rest of the gas
MAP has also benefited from growing consumer demand for mixture is nitrogen
convenience food products as a result of changing demographics • Fresh pasta requires low concentrations of oxygen;
and changing work patterns and lifestyles. The development of 10% to 30% carbon dioxide stops the growth of
national and international food retail groups has also led to a microorganisms and mould
highly competitive trading environment, with greater emphasis • Gas mixtures for baked products generally have residual
on operational efficiency and competitive pricing. MAP is used to oxygen concentrations lower than 2% and carbon
package meat, seafood, minimally processed fruit and vegetables, dioxide, and nitrogen ratios of 60:40 to 80:20
pasta, cheese, bakery goods, poultry, cooked and cured meats, • In general, the oxygen concentration for cheese should
ready meals and dried foods. The three major commodity types are be lower than 1%, except for cheese with herbs. The
fruit and vegetables, meat and meat products, and seafood. carbon dioxide concentration should not exceed 20% to
30% in fresh cheeses but can be higher for aged cheeses
Effective MAP requires the right composition of gas mixtures.
The chemical and physical nature of the product must also be Oxygen is essential when packaging fresh fruit and vegetables
considered. The following are examples of the gas composition as they continue to respire after harvesting. The absence of
necessary for effective MAP and therefore extended shelf life, for oxygen can lead to anaerobic respiration in the package, which
24
accelerates ageing and spoilage. Oxygen levels that are too high characteristics. Gas mixtures with high oxygen content are used to
do not significantly retard respiration; the respiration rate starts to package some fruit, vegetables and fish products. A 100% nitrogen
decrease when the oxygen level is about 12%. The optimal oxygen atmosphere is completely inert and is used to prevent packaging
level for fruit and vegetable MAP is about 3% to 5%. Carbon from collapsing onto the product. This type of atmosphere can be
dioxide is not a major factor for fruit and vegetables. Nitrogen is used in low-humidity food packaging and where there is no risk of
used as a filler gas because it has little effect on bacterial growth. microbial growth during preservation.
Two technologies are used for MAP packing: gas flushing and Selection of the right gas mixture requires an understanding of the
compensated vacuum. Gas flushing is cheap, so it is used more widely. interactions between food and gas, the behaviour of microflora in
In gas flushing, the package is flushed with a desired gas mixture. the selected atmosphere, the gas permeability of the packaging
In compensated vacuum, all the air is removed and the desired materials, the airtightness of the packaging, the deterioration of food
gas mixture inserted. A product labelled “packaged in a protective in contact with air and the effectiveness of the packing operation.
atmosphere” will have been packed using one of these technologies.
Gas permeability is the key parameter when selecting the packaging
One of the main benefits of MAP is shelf-life extension. Depending materials. Other important considerations are water vapour
on the product, MAP extends the time an item can remain on transmission rate, mechanical properties, transparency, package
display by 50% to 500%. This leads to waste minimisation, which, type and seal reliability. Materials such as PET, PA, PVdC and EVOH
of course, is beneficial for both retailers and consumers as products often make good gas barriers but poor water vapour barriers.
stay fresher for longer. MAP also means that some packaged
products gain shelf life without the use of artificial preservatives—a Packaging Formats for MAP
distinct advantage in a world where consumers are increasingly Bags and Pouches Bags and pouches are usually MAP-
dubious about artificial additives. packed using vacuum chamber machines. The product
is put into a film bag or pouch and placed in a vacuum
When considering MAP for shelf-life extension, careful chamber where the pouch is filled with the MAP gas
experimentation is needed to select the most suitable atmosphere mixture and then sealed.
for the product and to make best use of the antimicrobial effect of
carbon dioxide. Horizontal Form-Fill-Seal Horizontal form-fill-seal
(HFFS), or flow-pack, machines can make flexible pillow-
An atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide can change some product pack pouches from one reel of film. They can also
25
overwrap a prefilled tray. The air from the package is trays. The top web of lidding film covers the filled pockets
removed by a pulse of gas or continuous gas flushing. The or trays. The air is evacuated from the sealing die, and
gas mixtures must contain less than 21% oxygen levels as protective gas is added. The pack is sealed using heat
the machines use heated sealing jaws. and pressure.
For very porous products, such as some bakery goods, gas Intelligent Packaging
flushing the package cannot produce low enough levels Intelligent packaging is capable of functions such as sensing,
of residual oxygen. Sometimes a gas injection station can detecting, tracing, recording and communicating to facilitate
be placed at the infeed so the product is purged with gas decision-making.
immediately before packaging.
The value proposition for intelligent packaging is extended
ertical Form-Fill-Seal A vertical form-fill-seal (VFFS)
V shelf life, improved quality, enhanced safety and incorporation
machine forms a tube, and then fills it with product, of additional information on the package and warnings about
usually dropped from an overhead multiweighing possible problems.
machine. The package is then purged with the desired gas
mixture and sealed. At the same time, film is transported A package can be intelligent if it has the ability to track the
vertically downward. VFFS machines are predominantly product, sense the environment inside or outside the package, and
used for packaging foods in powdered, granular, shredded communicate this information to humans.
and dried form.
CLICK TO VIEW
FIGURE 2.1 Intelligent packaging diagram
T ray Lidding In tray lidding, the top web of lidding film
covers the filled pockets or trays. The air is evacuated from Intelligent packaging can contain external or internal indicators
the sealing die, and protective gas is added. The pack is for active product quality and history. Intelligent packaging differs
sealed using heat and pressure. Tray lidding machines go from active packaging in that it consists of technologies that
from manual tabletop machines for the small producer to measure and integrate but do not respond and control. Unlike
fully automatic in-line machines for larger processors. active packaging systems, intelligent packaging has no effect on or
Thermoform-Fill-Seal In thermoform-fill-seal (TFFS), within the product, but it is designed to convey information about
thermoformable film for the base web is unwound from a the condition of the product to the consumer. It thereby brings
reel, heated in the forming die and formed into pockets or additional useful and valuable benefits to the consumer.
26
The term smart packaging is generally applied to packaging that FIGURE 2.2 A typical time-temperature indicator
combines the capabilities of intelligent and active packaging.
Oxygen Indicators Oxygen indicators are used to indicate leaks
The primary technology that is driving intelligent packaging in MAP packaging (Figure 2.3). A typical oxygen indicator consists
CLICK TO VIEW
is indicators or sensors. These indicators are called smart or of a redox dye (e.g. methylene blue), an alkaline compound (e.g.
interactive because they interact with compounds in the package sodium hydroxide) and a reducing compound (e.g. a reducing
and produce a signal that can be read and communicated. sugar). They also have a solvent (water or an alcohol) and a bulking
Examples of external and internal indicators and their working agent (e.g. silica gel, polymers, cellulose material, zeolites). The
principles are offered in Table 2.1. indicator can be formulated as a label, a printed layer, a tablet or
even a laminated in a polymer film.
TABLE 2.1 Examples of indicators and their working principles
FIGURE 2.3 Ageless-Eye oxygen indicator
Time-temperature Indicators Time-temperature indicators
(TTIs) are small, self-adhesive tags attached to consumer packages Freshness Indicators Freshness indicators react with metabolites
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE or shipping containers. They produce visual temperature records produced by micro-organisms; some use enzymes to produce a
CLICK TO VIEW
during storage and distribution, crucial for chilled and frozen foods. colour change.
They are used as freshness indicators on perishable products.
Commercial TTIs use diffusion, polymerisation or enzyme reactions. Leak Indicators Leak indicators are important in packaging
The three basic types are partial history indicators, full history because a leak could allow protective gases to escape from a
indicators and critical temperature indicators. Advanced TTI package or atmospheric gases to enter a package. When a package
systems use wireless networks and handheld scanners to control contains the wrong atmosphere, it may allow microorganisms to
and track perishable food products. Battery-powered TTI/RFID grow and spoil the contents.
tags have thin film batteries printed on a flexible substrate, and a
microchip that calculates shelf life from temperature history. OnVu’s Intelligent Sensors Most intelligent sensors have a receptor
TTIs use nanopigments that change colour based on temperature that responds to chemical or physical energy, and a transducer
history (Figure 2.2). It is a quick way to check on the proper that turns this response into a useful signal. Exacting industry
transport and storage of perishable products for optimum shelf life. specifications, high production costs and safety considerations have
limited the commercial use of intelligent sensors, but they could
show growth in the future.
27
Biosensors The two primary components of a biosensor are a

bioreceptor and a transducer. The bioreceptor is a biological or
organic material such as an antigen, enzyme, hormone, microbe or
nucleic acid that recognises a target to be analysed. The transducer
converts biochemical signals into a quantifiable electrical response.
Some important characteristics of biosensors are sensitivity,
specificity, portability, reliability and simplicity.
Several prototypes have been developed, but there are few commercial
biosensors. Food Sentinel System is a barcode label that contains a
special ink. If the package has been tampered with or the contents
have spoiled, the ink turns the barcode bright red so it cannot be
scanned. Toxin Guard is a plastic packaging film with antibodies
that detect pathogens. It gives a clear visual indication of gross
contamination but does not indicate pathogens at very low levels.
FIGURE 2.4 Food Sentinel System
Gas Indicators The most common gas indicators are oxygen

indicators for food packaging. Many use colour changes. They
CLICK TO VIEW indicate tampering, package leaks, improper sealing, and
deterioration of MAP. CO2 indicators are made from a CO2 absorber
and a chemical dye in a polymer film. They are used to measure
product fermentation during distribution and storage.

28
3
Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional
Introduction a specific property of the material and a measure for the ability of
The concept of a barrier applies to the protection against external gases to permeate or diffuse throughout the material. Achieving a
agents that attack and deteriorate the contents of the package or good moisture
the escape of constituents from a package into the environment. The permeation of species through a polymer is generally
These intruding or exuding agents are mainly gases (oxygen, considered to be a combination of two processes: solution and
barrier is relatively
water vapour, carbon dioxide) but could also include water, fats, diffusion. The permeate gas is first dissolved (solution) into straightforward for
chemicals, flavours, aromas, and other migrating constituents. the upstream surface of the polymer film, and then undergoes plastics; a barrier
The main two external agents most commonly considered are molecular diffusion to the downstream face of the film where it to gases is more
moisture and gases. Achieving a good moisture barrier is relatively evaporates in an external phase again. difficult.
straightforward for plastics; a barrier to gases is more difficult.
While the diffusion of gases within other gases is very well
The measure of performance of a barrier material is generally its understood, and can easily be expressed in mathematical terms,
transmission rate or permeability to gases such as O2 (oxygen the diffusion of gases in solids is still an active field of research.
transmission rate, OTR) and water vapour (water vapour Diffusion of gases in solids is influenced by many factors related
transmission rate, WVTR). The OTR is generally measured by to the solid. The main structural factors determining the inherent
procedures defined in ASTM D3985 and given in units of volume barrier properties for polymers is fundamentally the chemistry, but
of gas passing through a given area of membrane per day (cm3/ there are also other relevant factors including polymer morphology
m2/d). WVTR is measured by ASTM F1249 and given in units (crystallinity, thermal history, molecular orientation, etc.), polymer
of gms/m3/d. Often the units are presented in terms of 100 in2 molecular architecture (branches, molecular weight, functional
rather than m2 of membrane area. It is important to define the groups), molecular “free volume,” and so forth. For example, it
temperature, relative humidity and thickness of the barrier coating has long been recognised that the crystalline regions of polymer
at the time of measurement. With high barrier coatings, generally molecules are relatively impermeable and that low-molecular-
the coating’s barrier properties are so dominant that the thickness weight substances can readily permeate the amorphous phase.
of the substrate becomes unimportant.
Most data regarding barrier properties are acquired empirically.
Barrier properties of polymers are associated with the exchange of It is also relevant to emphasise here that the mass-transport
low molecular weight substances through a mass transport process mechanisms are dependent on the partial pressures of the gas
such as permeation. Permeation is the actual amount of gas phase, testing temperature, and other environmental factors such
passing though a specific thickness of material. The permeability is as relative humidity.
29

Many environmental factors can contribute to the barrier Low barrier materials are required for frozen foods, biscuits, and
effectiveness of polymers. The two most significant are temperature sugar; medium barrier materials are required for chilled foods,
and relative humidity. The partial pressures of gases inside and and high barrier materials are necessary for dry-roasted peanuts,
outside the package will also contribute to barrier performance. ground coffee, and bag-in-box wine. Very high barrier materials are
For example, in a modified atmospheric package where the oxygen required for carbonated beverages such as soda and beer. Nonfood
concentration is reduced, the low residual oxygen inside the package applications such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, photographic
will attempt to equilibrate with the 21% oxygen outside the items, electronic goods, and building materials generally fall in the
packaging in the natural atmosphere. The size of the package will high barrier category.
also be a factor: Large packages will have a greater surface area/
content ratio and will provide longer shelf life than smaller packages. Barriers can also be classified according to their resistance
by media other than gas (moisture, microbes, and light). The
Table 3.1 outlines some of the barrier packaging technologies degradation effects of light, for example, can be devastating to
that are currently being used or have potential for use in plastic certain products such as photographic film. Certain materials
packaging. Many of these materials are in commercial production will degrade by a UV-initiated oxidation reaction where the light
and have been used in several major applications. accelerates the oxidation reaction mechanism. These light-sensitive
materials include cheese (discoloration) and vitamins (loss of
TABLE 3.1 Barrier packaging technologies, properties and applications nutrients).
Barriers are most commonly classified by their water vapour and Aluminium foil is widely regarded as the standard of the barrier
oxygen transmission rate but they can also be classified as to the industry. It is nearly impervious to water vapour, various gases, and
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE permeation rate of any other gas or migrating species. ultraviolet light. At thickness greater than 17 μm, aluminium foil
is considered to be pinhole free and provides an infinite barrier to
TABLE 3.2 Barrier classification moisture and gas. Within a laminated structure, foil thicknesses are
Classification OTR (cm3/m2/d) WVTR (gms/m2/d) typically 7-12 μm and even lower. There is a general trend to go
Low >100 >100
to thinner and lighter-weight foils to reduce costs and to meet the
Medium 6-100 6-100
High 1-5 1-5
market demands for lighter packaging. Aluminium foil is relatively
Very high <1 <1 fragile and often must be coated or laminated within other polymeric
Source: Pira International Ltd
films for protection. Examples of multilayer packaging materials are
PET/aluminium foil/PA/PE and PET/aluminium foil/PET/PE.
30

The major disadvantages of aluminium foil are that it is not TABLE 3.3 Typical properties for polymer barriers
clear, it has limited formability, and aluminium cannot be used in Material OTR @ 23°C and WVTR @38°C and
dry (cm3/m2/d) 90% RH (gms/m2/d)
packaging requiring metal detection. Aluminium foil laminated
EVOH 0.16-1.6 24-120
plastics can also not be utilized in many recycling processes. PVdC (emulsion) 0.8-3.4 0.3-1.0
The polymeric resins that can be classified as barrier polymers are PVdC (extrusion) 1.2-9.2 0.8-3.2
shown below. Of these, PVdC and EVOH are the most established. Aromatic nylon (MXD6) 2.4 25
Polymers identified with an * are generally available as thin films Acrylonitrile copolymer 12 80
or coatings. Amorphous nylon 40 20
PET 50-100 20-30
• Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)*
Nylon 6 80 200
• Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)* PETG 100 60
• Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)
Source: Pira International Ltd
• Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs)
• Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
There are five primary plastics that are considered to be high
• Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)*
barrier resins:
• Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE)
1. ��
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) copolymers—the highest
• Cyclic olefin copolymers (COCs)
oxygen barrier resin, commercially produced for
• Nylon (PA)
food packaging
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
2. Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE)—the highest moisture or
water vapour barrier resin, mostly used for pharmaceuticals
Typical barrier properties of several polymer-based barrier materials
blister packaging for moisture sensitive drugs
are provided in Table 3.3. Other polymers provide lesser barrier
3. Polyamide (PA) or nylon (primarily oriented nylon
properties, which may be suitable for particular packaging
6)—mostly used for food packaging but also used in
applications. All flexible packaging materials have some level of
chemical, health-care, and other packaging
permeability to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour. It is
4. Thermoplastic polyester (primarily polyethylene
rarely economical to use a solid single film as a barrier because of
terephthalate, PET)—high carbon dioxide barrier for
the large wall thickness that would be required.
beverage bottles
5. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)—the oldest oxygen
barrier resin, used in food packaging
31

Several major developments have recently occurred which provide • Nylon-based biaxially oriented film with improved
an order of magnitude improvement in barrier properties and oxygen barrier properties and strength is available
expansion of these materials into broader markets. These emerging from Mitsubishi Plastics Inc. under the trade names of
technologies include aliphatic polyketones, which have barrier Santonyl and Supernyl.
properties comparable to EVOH but reduced humidity sensitivity
and polymers derived from biological sources such as polylactic The most important (technically and economically) of
acids and polyhydroxyalkanoates. these developments, however, may be the development of
nanocomposites, which are mixtures of polymers and low
Below, other emerging barrier products: loadings of clay or other synthetic materials. The first commercial
• Tredegar Film Products, Richmond, Virginia, has nanocomposites consist of mixtures of nylon or other barrier resin
developed a compression rolled orientation (CRO) with nanoscale (10-9 meters) silicate clay particles. The clay particles
process used to make moisture barrier HDPE films. are in the form of very fine platelets of 1 nanometre thickness.
CRO can be placed in line with extrusion. The process They are chemically treated to make them organophilic so that the
imparts monodirectional orientation and reduces the polymer will enter the spaces between the platelets. The clay then
water vapour transmission rate up to 65% as well as swells, and the plates spread apart. The result is a nanocomposite
boosting the machine direction modulus and puncture that provides a tortuous path for gases to permeate.
strength.
• Suprex Polymers, Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, is Plastic packaging materials may consist of a monolayer formed
developing a barrier alloy consisting of PET with liquid from a single plastic, but most barrier packaging materials are
crystal polyesters (LCPs). Alloys containing only 10% multilayer structures formed from several layers of different plastic.
LCP are claimed to have double the oxygen barrier and Using coextrusion, lamination, or coating technologies, it is possible
2.0 to 5.5 times higher mechanical properties than PET to combine different types of plastics to form films, sheets, or rigid
alone. packs. Barrier materials for multilayer structures generally include
• A vinyl alcohol based film (Bovlon) is a biaxially PVdC, EVOH, PAN, PVC, PET, and PA.
oriented PVA made by Nippon Synthetic Chemical
Industry Co., Ltd., and is claimed not only to have the TABLE 3.4 Examples of coextruded, laminated and coated films
highest level of oxygen barrier property among various
plastic films but also high barrier properties against CO2 By carefully selecting each component material, it is possible to
and N2. design an overall material with the key properties required by
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
32

the product/package system. Barrier properties are insured with Laminated packaging films are generally produced by extrusion
multilayer construction to compensate for possible defects in each lamination or adhesives lamination. In extrusion lamination, two
individual layer. webs are incorporated by an adhesive action of the extrudate
thermoplastic material. In adhesive lamination, a solution or
Multilayer package structures have delivered oxygen protection emulsion of a low-molecular-weight polymer adhesive is coated
for more than 30 years. For example, EVOH coextruded with onto the surface of one web, before joining of the second web. If
polypropylene was a main source of ketchup bottles in the 1970s. the adhesive layer is dried before the joining of the second web,
The quest for bottle transparency for condiments led to co-injection this is called dry lamination. If the webs are joined while the
blow-moulding of polyester with EVOH during the 1990s. adhesive is still wet, it is called wet lamination. For wet lamination,
one of the substrates needs to be porous to allow evaporation
Coextruded films consist of the simultaneous extrusion of two or of the carrier in the adhesive (solvent or water) or a completely
more layers of different polymers. Coextruded films have three main solventless, reactive adhesive is required.
advantages over monolithic films or laminates.
1. They have very high barrier properties, similar to Lamination permits an almost unlimited range of multilayer
laminates but produced at lower cost structures with almost complete freedom regarding thickness.
2. They are thinner than laminates Laminates are of interest to packagers because they often offer gas
3. The layers do not separate as easily as some barriers better than coextrusion. More important, lamination is the
laminated films only process than can be used with nonplastic materials such as
aluminium foil and paper.
Coextrusion is of interest for producing large quantities of
packaging materials. For large volumes, coextrusion is considered Lamination remains strong in Europe despite advances in
to be a low-cost process. As a result, coextrusion is more coextrusion. This may be due to the greater volume of sophisticated
commonly used for commodity plastics such as polyethylene and printing and graphics utilized in Europe. These technologies are
polypropylene. PVdC film is often used in coextrusion where today, supposedly better achieved with laminated materials. Adhesive
extruders combine three, five, and even seven extrusion layers to lamination is used in many packaging applications, including
cost effectively meet product protection and packaging-machinery ground coffee, meat, cheese, snacks, ready meals, photographic
needs. items, cosmetics, and bag-in-the-box wine.
33

Barrier coatings and biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) films

are the most widely used base polymer for vacuum metallised
Metallised Films Metallisation can be considered a specialised films. Metallised BOPP and BOPET films offer extended shelf life
type of coating. Since the 1960s, metallised films have found a for products such as snack foods, dried foods, coffee and bakery
range of applications in food packaging. Initially, they were used products.
in purely a decorative role, but since the mid-1970s they have been
used as barrier materials as well as susceptors that can be heated TABLE 3.6 Typical applications for metallised polyester laminates
via microwaves. Type Specification Applications
Two-ply Metal PET/PE Salted peanuts
Cost, performance, and ecological concerns are drivers for Two-ply Metal PET/cast PP Lidding
Two-ply OPP/metal PET/ pattern cold Chocolate confectionery
metallised films replacing laminated metal foil even though seal
metallised barrier coatings are more permeable than aluminium Three-ply PE/metal PET/PE Bag-in-box wine
foil. Another driver for metallised films is their aesthetics and Three-ply Coextruded OPP/metal PET/PE Ground coffee
their ability to produce acceptable levels of barrier for a variety of Source: Pira International Ltd
consumer products. Metallised film has a significantly improved
oxygen and flavour/aroma barrier over plain film structures. The high-barrier, cold-sealable metallised BOPP film technology
usually consists of a biaxially oriented polypropylene or polyester
Metallised film usually has an aluminium layer applied by vacuum film vacuum deposited with aluminium on an ultra-high barrier
metallisation. Metallisation also gives the additional advantage layer and treated on the other side for laminations and cold-seal
of a strong increase in the water vapour barrier of the film, and it applications. Such films are designed largely for use as an inner
provides a barrier to light as well as a good graphics substrate. web of a lamination with converter applied cold seal, or as the
middle ply of a multilayer lamination, to provide good oxygen
TABLE 3.5 Permeability of metallised films and moisture barrier properties and suitable for gas-flushed
applications.
Aluminium is the most common material used for metallisation
because of its cost effectiveness. However, gold, silver, tin, copper, CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
TABLE 3.7 Applications and characteristics of metallised films,
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE other than PET
nickel, and zinc have also been employed for specific applications.
Many films are metallised, including PP, PE, unplasticized PVC,
PS, PET, and PA. Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) film
34

There have been several developments over the past few years Coatings can be used for functions other than providing a barrier.
to improve metallised barrier packages. The most effective—as They can be used to provide improved resistance to abrasion, to
well as the most commercially viable method of achieving higher reduce friction so that packages are easier to move around and can
barrier properties for metallised coatings—is the incremental barrier also be used to provide a medium for printing or decoration.
approach. This process involves combining metallisation with other
coatings such as polypropylene/butene copolymer co-extruded Organic barrier coatings can be applied to films, laminates
as a metallising layer on BOPP film. Other development projects and pouches as well as rigid plastic packaging such as bottles.
are focusing on alternatives to aluminium, metal adhesion and Polymeric coatings can be classified by how they are applied and
barrier property improvement by making the film surface smoother dried; there are basically four types of polymer coatings.
and a moisture barrier enhancement of the base sheet using 1. Coatings that are applied as diluted, room temperature
nanocomposite technology. liquids (solvent or water based)
2. Coatings that are applied as undiluted, solventless,
The number of metallised film producers has grown over the last room-temperature liquids
five years, and suppliers are getting bigger. In 2005, for example, 3. Coatings that are applied as low-viscosity molten
there were only nine manufacturers worldwide with BOPP film materials (extrusion coating or hot-melt coatings)
capacity exceeding 100,000 tonnes a year; there are now more 4. Coatings that are applied from vapour in a vacuum or
than twenty. Initially, primarily Italian and Turkish companies were plasma process
building new capacities, but Chinese, Indian, Russian and South
American producers are now expanding as well. With environmental concerns being an important factor, water-
based coatings systems, solventless reactive coatings, and hot-melt
Organic Liquid Coatings Liquid barrier coatings for plastic coatings have been developed to reduce VOCs (volatile organic
packaging consist mainly of PVdC, EVOH, PVOH, and epoxy-based constituents). With these technologies, only a moderate barrier
systems, although there are many other polymeric materials that improvement is to be expected, but the added cost should also be
can supply some degree of barrier improvement. These coating small so that the cost/performance ratio is competitive with other
systems are primarily used because of their low cost, ease of barrier technologies.
application, and good environmental characteristics. With the
exception of the epoxy coatings, these barrier coatings are primarily Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVdC) Polyvinylidene
water-based systems whose technologies historically are grounded chloride (PVdC) resins consist of copolymers of greater
in the adhesives and protective coatings industry. than 50% vinylidene chloride and other monomers
35

such as vinyl chloride and methyl methacrylate. PVdC packaging converter. Often, a two- or three-step coating
offers exceptional barrier resistance to oxygen and process is required to assure coverage and also because
carbon dioxide. The permeability of PVdC decreases with a combination of coatings is sometimes used. Common
increasing mole fraction of vinylidene chloride, due to combinations on OPP films are PVdC/acrylic and PVdC/
increasing crystallinity. Conversely, its toughness, flexibility PVdC; these materials have found wide application as
at low temperatures, and heat-sealing properties improve lidding films.
with decreasing vinylidene chloride. Unlike nylon, EVOH,
and PVOH, PVdC’s oxygen- barrier characteristics are The overall acceptance of PVdC is due to its good barrier
unaffected by moisture or high humidity conditions. properties as well as the fact that it is relatively inert
This resistance to moisture and the good oxygen barrier in contact with food. It can be economically applied as
properties make PVdC a good candidate for retortable, a thin coating on a variety of film substrates such as
nonfoil packaging applications. PVdC barrier coatings also OPP, PET, PVC, and cellulose. It can be applied to both
provide good protection against aromas and odours and flexible film and rigid containers such as PET bottles.
have good fat and chemical resistance. Approximately 50% of the coated polypropylene (PP)
food-packaging market uses clear PVdC.
TABLE 3.8 Oxygen and moisture vapour characteristics of PVdC
coatings for various film structures
The largest end-use sectors for PVdC coatings in plastic
Material OTR (cm3/100 in2/d) MVTR (gms/100
in2/d)
packaging are dried foods, followed by confectionery and
PVdC coated PET 0.5 0.5 snack foods; other sectors include pharmaceuticals and
PVdC coated OPP 1.3 0.3 beverages.
PVdC coated nylon 6 0.7 0.65
PVOH coated PET 0.2 4 PVdC is also available as a barrier film for its resistance
PVOH-acrylic coated PET 0.02 0.37
to moisture and its oxygen barrier properties. The
Source: Dodrill, D., “Development of Clear High Barrier Packaging,” main applications for PVdC films include primal and
Flexible Packaging Conference, 2004, March 24-26, 2004. subprimal meat and poultry packaging because of their
transparency; high level of shrinkage to fully collapse
PVdC coatings are available as solvent solutions and around irregularly shaped cuts of meat; softness and
aqueous emulsions; they are easily applied to plastic elasticity; as well as excellent oxygen, moisture, odour, and
packaging material by either the film manufacturer or the grease barrier characteristics. A typical PVdC content for a
36

shrink bag is around 10% by volume, with the remaining coating both plastic and paper packaging substrates.
90% usually polyethylene film. Other food-packaging The Diofan and Ixan PVdC products are manufactured
applications for PVdC film include cheese, snack foods by SolVin in Europe and by Solvay Advanced Polymers in
such as potato crisps and tortilla chips, confectionery and North America. SolVin brought a new 10,000 tonnes a
processed meat. year production line to manufacture PVdC latex in Tavaux,
France, on stream in 2009, to meet growing demand.
The use of polymers containing chlorine (PVC and PVdC)
has been scrutinized by environmental regulators in recent Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH) Ethylene vinyl alcohol
years. There are concerns about how these materials are (EVOH) copolymers are hydrolyzed copolymers of vinyl
manufactured, used, and disposed. Specialised equipment acetate and ethylene. They are semi-crystalline, and their
is generally required to apply the coating and to protect properties are dependent on the relative concentration
workers from potentially harmful vapours. Environmental of the comonomers. The vinyl alcohol component has
regulations may also prohibit the incineration of PVdC exceptionally high gas-barrier properties while the
since chlorine products are released. Substitution of PVdC ethylene offers good moisture resistance, mechanical and
by EVOH coatings and film extrusions is taking place, thermal properties and processability.
although PVdC is still a significant barrier coating in
almost all regions of the world. EVOH film and coatings have better barrier properties
than PVdC. In fact, EVOH offers some of the highest
The pharmaceuticals industry is one of the drivers of barrier properties for oxygen and gases of any plastic.
demand for PVdC coatings, where increased globalisation However, the barrier properties, especially WVTR, fall off
generates a need for packaging that can be implemented significantly when exposed to humidity environments
worldwide. The outstanding barrier properties of PVdC greater than 70% RH. EVOH’s moisture resistance is
allow it to preserve the integrity of medicines in all relatively poor, so it is more widely applied in a combined
climates and all conditions of ambient humidity. format with other films or coatings (e.g., acrylic, PE, or
PP) where it is encapsulated within at least two layers of
Dow Chemical Company is the leading global producer moisture protective film. A multilayer composite can be
of PVdC (Saran) resins and films. These materials are made by coating, laminating, or coextrusion.
generally suitable for coextrusion and coating. Solvay
is another leading supplier of PVdC latex products for EVOH is most often combined with other thermoplastic
37

resins in coextrusion, blow moulding, thermoforming and company’s Kuraray facility outputs 10,000 tonnes a year.
film lamination processes as a barrier film rather than
as a barrier coating. It is typically used as the inner layer In 2004, Japanese chemicals producer Nippon Gohsei
in multilayered plastic packaging structures for plastic opened a new 15,000 tonnes a year plant for its “Soarnol”
films, bottles, trays and cups. Approximately half of EVOH EVOH copolymer in the U.K. Soarnol is also manufactured
applications involve its use in food packaging. in Japan and the U.S.
Chilled foods and other human foods such as soups, Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH) Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) is
baby foods and mayonnaise, ketchup, cooking oil and available as totally or partially hydrolyzed product, and it
sauce bottles are the most important end-use sectors for can be chemically modified to provide specific properties.
EVOH barrier films; other sectors include fresh foods, dairy PVOH emulsions offer an excellent gas barrier (though its
products and cosmetics packaging. barrier properties are somewhat less than PVdC). PVOH
also offers excellent mechanical properties, variable water
Specialty grades have been developed specifically for more solubility, resistance to organic solvents and oils, and it
demanding film applications such as flex-crack resistance forms film quite well.
grades for bag-in-box use, and retortable grades designed
to reduce whitening and delamination phenomena PVOH is being seen increasingly as an alternative barrier
for boil-and-retort applications. EVOH is also used for coating to PVdC due to environmental concerns regarding
cosmetic bottles for barrier tube applications such as chlorine-based compounds, despite having slightly lower
toothpaste. In these applications, EVOH serves as a barrier gas-barrier properties than PVdC. Other barrier materials
not only to oxygen but also to flavours and fragrances. such as PVdC and EVOH are typically more cost effective
and robust; therefore PVOH is more likely to be chosen for
There are two global producers of EVOH resin, both environmental reasons rather than barrier ones.
Japanese owned: Eval and Nippon Gohsei. Eval, a
subsidiary of Japan’s Kuraray Chemicals, operates a PVOH is similar to EVOH in that it is sensitive to moisture,
24,000 tonnes a year EVOH plant at Antwerp, Belgium, losing barrier properties if the relative humidity rises
and also has plants in Japan and the U.S. The U.S. plant above 65%. Packaging films with PVOH, therefore, are
has capacity to produce 35,000 tonnes a year, with the likely to be encapsulated as part of a multilayer laminate.
ability to increase to 47,000 tonnes a year; in Japan, the BOPP with PVOH barrier coating can be used on the
38

outside surface of a packaging material, provided it is for other, less permeable, barrier coatings.
overcoated with a protective varnish.
The emulsion-based acrylic coatings are somewhat
Plastic packaging films are a very small market for PVOH, sensitive to moisture and generally must be protected
accounting for less than 2.5% of total PVOH consumption from the environment. Solvent-based acrylic coatings are
in 2009. The use of thermally extruded PVOH cast and much less sensitive to moisture than their water-based
blown films for packaging are very limited to specialised counterparts. A combination on base OPP film such
applications, such as hospital laundry bags, textile bags, as PVdC/acrylic/OPP is common. Acrylic coatings on
release films and water-soluble labels. The principal BOPP film safeguard the package contents’ aroma and
application for PVOH plastic coatings is as a pre-coat for protect the package from entry of environmental odours.
other materials. This combination is one of the most widely used barrier
materials for chocolate confectionery, which is extremely
There are two major global PVOH producers: Kuraray of sensitive to odour.
Japan has plants in Japan, Germany, and Singapore for
manufacture of the Poval resin. Celanese has plants in the Chocolate confectionery is by far the largest end-use
U.S. and has purchased Air Products’ PVOH business and sector for acrylic-coated plastic packaging.
Erkol in Spain. Other PVOH suppliers include DuPont and
Wacker Chemie. Mitsubishi Polyester Film LLC has recently DSM NeoResins is leading global supplier of acrylic and
launched a PVOH barrier coating for PET that includes other copolymers for the coatings, adhesives, and printing
both polyvinyl alcohol and a cold-water-soluble starch. industries. DSM NeoResins offers a range of water-based
acrylic barrier coating resins known to the trade as
Acrylics Acrylic coatings can be applied to plastics NeoCryl. The applications are primarily barrier coatings for
either as water emulsions or solvent solutions. Due to paper and board. DSM is targeting markets that require
their good adhesion characteristics, acrylics are often medium to low moisture vapour transmission rates, good
applied to materials with low surface energy such as fat and grease resistance, and high flexibility.
OPP. Unfortunately, the barrier properties are less than
many other barrier resins such as EVOH. Because of their Epoxy PPG Industries (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
adhesion and physical surface characteristics, they are developed barrier coatings based on two-component
mainly used as a protective coating or functional primer epoxy-amine chemistry in the 1990s. These materials,
39

named Bairocade, were developed as an external gas Sipa, the Italian blow-moulding machine manufacturers,
barrier for PET bottles, first as a barrier on single-serve have developed Smart Coat, a Bairocade coating unit for
juice bottles, then to increase the shelf life of smaller soft integration into PET bottle-blowing lines. Sipa’s decision
drink bottles in hotter climates, and then for carbonated to use PPG’s process when designing their Smart Coat
beer bottles. Bairocade has also been successfully applied barrier coating line was influenced by considerations of
to polyolefin bottles and plastic closures. its efficacy as a barrier to CO2 and oxygen, food contact
approval, recyclability, the current commercial status of
The resulting coating provides an excellent barrier to the process, and cost.
migration of CO2 and O2, and is unaffected by humidity.
The performance improvement that Bairocade coatings Inorganic and Organic Vapour Coatings Oxide coated films
offer for PET beer containers is significant, around 19 have been commonly used in food packaging in Japan for several
times better than uncoated PET. This translates into a years. Microwaveable stand-up pouches have been the leading
retail shelf life of at least nine months. applications. These glass-coated films are finding increasing
applications in health care and on lidding for modified atmospheric
Bairocade is an invisible epoxy-amine coating applied by packaging refrigerated products such as meat.
electrostatic spray to the outside of the PET bottle. The
coated bottles are then passed through an infrared oven The main inorganic vapour coatings that are used in barrier
for curing. In addition to improving the bottle’s barrier backing are aluminium, silicon oxides and carbon. One of the first
properties, the coating also imparts a glossy, scuff-resistant applications for oxide barrier coatings in packaging has been on
finish. The coating can be applied clear or in a spectrum carbonated beverage bottles. Commercial plasma coatings for these
of colours to create distinctive aesthetics or simulate products have been classified as bottle interior coatings.
traditional looks, such as the amber of glass beer bottles. Inorganic oxide coatings are generally applied by four vacuum
deposition processes: thermal evaporation, plasma vapour
The Bairocade epoxy-amine coating is fully compatible deposition (PVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition
with existing recycling technology. Conventional recycling (PECVD), and electron beam (EB) evaporation. The properties of the
technology separates the coating from the PET for barrier coating and the costs of the final coating vary significantly,
disposal as a nonhazardous waste, allowing the bottles to depending on the process chosen. Although all processes are
be recycled back to fibre, strapping, sheet, or for bottle-to- being used, the PECVD process is generally favoured because of
bottle recycling. its efficiency. This cold plasma technique is also useful for coating
40

heat-sensitive materials such as PE or PS. TABLE 3.10 Barrier properties of SiOx coated barrier films
and rigid packaging
Base Material OTR (cm3/m2/d) WVTR
TABLE 3.9 Comparison of oxygen and water vapour barrier performance
(gms/m2/d)
PET (12 μm) 0.3 0.2-5
Although there is still great promise with inorganic deposited PP (20 μm) 1-20 0.1-1
barrier coating, they are ultra-thin, brittle, and easily damaged PA (20 μm) 1 0.5
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
during printing, lamination or slitting. Consequently, greater care PET (TetraPak) 0.04-0.08 --
must be taken to keep the web rollers clean and to maintain the PET (Krones) 0.4 --
PET (Toppan) 0.1 --
correct value of web tension. It is often found to be a very difficult
task to maintain the excellent barrier properties of these materials Source: Lange, J. and Wyser, Y., “Recent Innovations in Barrier Technologies for
Plastic Packaging – a Review,” Packaging Technology and Science, vol. 16, 2003,
through conversion, packing, and distribution of the product.
pp. 149-158.
The major market sectors where aluminium oxide (AlOx) and SiOx is the only food-packaging-approved oxide suitable
silicon oxide (SiOx) coated films will justify their cost premiums are for thermal evaporation. Other oxides have an evaporation
likely to be mainly for beverages and other nonfood packaging temperature that is too high for plastic packaging
applications. Commercial products are aggressively vying for materials, and they are not sufficiently stable. However,
nonfood applications where aluminium foil laminates have SiOx is very expensive, and the coating that is obtained
traditionally dominated. These include medical and health care has a distinctly yellow tint. Productivity is low because of
(e.g., fluids, disposables), cosmetics and barrier susceptors for the long heat-up and cool-down periods required before
microwave food packaging. and after evaporation.
Silicon Oxide Coatings Silicon oxide (SiOx) has recently SiOx coatings are commercially processed by both
been introduced as a coating with excellent barrier PVD and PECVD techniques. The PECVD process has
properties. It is also transparent, retortable, and recyclable. superior technical performance characteristics, especially
The silicon oxide bonds to the plastic substrate, creating a mechanical flexibility. Bottles coated in this way have
coating that blocks the passage of gases such as oxygen, been used by several leading breweries in Europe. SiOx
CO2, water vapour and flavours. The silica coating may coated PET film is also widely used for retort pouch
not, however, adhere well or uniformly to all surfaces and laminates in Japan. Beverage bottles account for around
could cause cracking and brittleness. 80% of SiOx-coated plastic packaging, with chilled and
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frozen food making up the remainder of the market. packaging films; other sectors include lidding for fresh
food, ready meals, confectionery, and medical packaging.
The Plasmax impulse coating vapour deposition
technology was originally developed in 2002 by AlOx coatings have their highest market presence in
SIG Corpoplast (now trading as KHS Corpoplast) in Japan. Suppliers include Toyo Metallizing (Toray), Dai
partnership with glass manufacturer Schott. Plasmax Nippon Printing and Toppan Printing. Toray Films’
coats the insides of PET beverage bottles with a barrier Barrialox is PET film coated with AlOx to provide
composed of a transparent layer of silicon oxide. KHS a transparent high barrier. Toppan applies what is
expects Plasmax to register substantial expansion in believed to be a ceramic overcoat to give improved
installed capacity over the next two years. According to barrier properties and some mechanical protection,
KHS, it is the environmental credentials that set Plasmax but this increases cost. Since the launch of its GL film
apart from other barrier solutions for PET, as Plasmax is range in 1989, Toppan has consistently made technical
considered 100% suitable for bottle-to-bottle recycling. improvement and has recently added new vacuum
deposition technology in Japan.
Aluminium Oxide Coatings Aluminium oxide (AlOx)
can be applied to a plastic packaging surface via reactive Amcor Flexibles produces AlOx coated transparent films
evaporation or reactive electron beam (EB) evaporation. under the name of CamClear. PET is the base substrate
As with the SiOx materials, the method chosen will have a for these films. Major applications of CamClear include
profound effect on the properties of the film, including its laminates (PET-AlOx/PE as a replacement for PET/PVdC)
barrier characteristics. Reactive evaporation of aluminium offering higher clarity, no chlorine, and lower OTR at a
offers high productivity and potentially lower cost than comparable cost.
SiOx; however, the process yields poorer barrier properties
compared with SiOx coating and the coatings are very The Fraunhofer Institute for Electron Beam and Plasma
sensitive to tensile stresses. As a result, AlOx barrier Technology, in Germany, has developed an aluminium
coatings do not have the commercial volumes experienced oxide technology for coating polymer films with an extra-
by SiOx coatings. thin transparent barrier layer to extend the shelf life of
products. The innovation has been brought about through
Snack foods and confectionery are the largest end-use plasma-assisted technology, which enables the creation
applications for AlOx coatings for flexible laminated of a clear coating that, at 10 nanometres, is 100 times
42

thinner than conventional coatings and can be applied to under stress. Stresses could occur due to bottle expansion
a broader range of materials. The aluminium oxide layer and creep when filled, during thermal cycling when
possesses identical barrier properties to existing films and refrigerated, and on impact if dropped.
is ideal for preserving a crunchy texture in items such as
cereals or potato crisps. Fraunhofer claims the system Like some of the SiOx coatings, carbon-based coatings
offers one of the most effective moisture barriers yet for also have a yellow-brown tint. While this is not an issue for
transparent foils used in packaging. It is also an efficient the typical amber-coloured beer bottle, it can detract from
and cost-effective solution. The technology was developed the appearance of clear PET bottles.
through an alliance with Vacuum Technology Dresden
ISA and Applied Materials Inc. The film has been piloted Sidel Actis and Kirin DLC (diamond like carbon) provide
commercially in Mexico by South American company, carbon coatings for the inside of PET beer bottles,
Biofilm. providing a good barrier against oxygen gas and carbon
dioxide. The Actis coating is deposited by PECVD on the
Carbon Sidel’s Actis (Amorphous Carbon Treatment on inside of each bottle after blow moulding. The coating
Internal Surface) and Kirin DLC coating technologies reduces the oxygen permeability by a factor of up to 10.
produce a thin layer of amorphous carbon, typically The Actis process has been commercially available since
100nm to 200 nm thick, on the inside surface of PET the late 1990s, and Sidel has since sold more than 30 of
beer bottles. This is deposited from high-energy plasma its Actis coating machines.
of acetylene gas within a high vacuum environment. The
coating provides an excellent barrier to both O2 and CO2, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries developed the DLC carbon
and, because it is on the inside of the bottle, prevents coatings using a plasma chemical vapour deposition
the O2 dissolve in the PET matrix from migrating into the process; Kirin Brewery Co, Japan employs this to coat the
beer during the first few weeks of storage. The barrier inside of PET beer bottles.
performance improvement provided by carbon coatings
is similar to those achieved by organic coatings, giving a Edible Coatings Edible coatings are applied directly to a wide
potential retail shelf life of nine months. range of foodstuffs. They line ice-cream cones and coat battered
frozen food. A layer of film in some frozen pizzas keeps moisture
Because these deposited layers are fundamentally brittle, from the sauce from seeping into the crust. Fresh sliced apples
they have to be extremely thin in order not to flake and other produce get coatings of ascorbic acid to keep them
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from turning brown. Indeed, many confectionery products such as for seasonings; such coatings are especially useful in low-fat
chocolate-covered almonds and raisins have edible coatings applied. applications where the added oil of frying might normally serve as
a seasoning adhesive.
Edible coatings are defined by two principles:
1. Edible implies that it must be safe to eat or that it Edible coatings can also provide a glaze to enhance the appearance
is generally recognised as safe by food regulatory of baked goods. For example, a wheat-gluten coating can replace
authorities such as U.S. Food and Drug Administration traditional egg-based coating. The wheat-gluten film avoids possible
2. They must be composed of a film-forming material, microbial problems associated with raw egg products and provides
typically a polymer some barrier properties against moisture loss.
Edible coatings offer a number of benefits. They provide shelf-life The materials that have received the greatest attention for
extension for foods, hindering mass transfer of oxygen, aroma, oil edible films use are cellulose ethers, starch, hydroxypropylated
and moisture. They add gloss or colours and improve the physical starch, corn zein, wheat gluten, soy protein and milk proteins.
integrity while offering improved biodegradability and recycling, The nutritional quality of materials used for edible films may be
and they are made from renewable resources. However, perhaps affected, negatively or positively, by the temperature, pH, and/or
the main functions of edible films and coatings are gas barrier, solvents used in film preparation. Aside from these considerations,
moisture barrier and oil barrier. no intrinsic nutritional or health problems have been identified
for edible films. In fact, edible films can be carriers of nutritional
Moisture levels in foods are critical for maintaining freshness, supplement, and protein-based films, depending on protein quality,
controlling microbial growth, and providing texture. Edible coatings can be an important nutritional enhancement of the food.
can control water activity, preventing either moisture loss or uptake.
Apart from their moisture and gas barriers, edible coatings can also Protein-based films are very strong but extremely brittle without
act as a barrier to uptake of oil. plasticisers, while polysaccharide-based films are generally more
flexible. Lipid-based films are very brittle. The physical properties
Methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose have been used to of edible coatings can be improved by adjusting the plasticiser
decrease oil absorption during the frying of French fries and onion type and amount, as well as by adding a hydrophobic compound,
rings. Methylcellulose has also been used to coat fruit to prevent adjusting processing conditions, reducing particle size and cross-
moisture loss. Edible coatings are also applied to the surface of linking. Active edible coatings for foods can be used as carriers or
snack foods and crackers to serve as a foundation or adhesive for controlled release. Edible films containing bioactive antimicrobial
44

agents protect foods from postproduction surface contamination. barrier polymers such as EVOH and PVdC.
Dairy protein-based edible films offer excellent oxygen barriers.
Water-based edible coatings can be an environmentally friendly TABLE 3.11 Properties of barrier materials and their uses
replacement for alcohol-based shellac coatings.
Biaxially Oriented Polyethylene Terephthalate
Coatings based on milk serum protein, whey protein isolate (WPI), (BOPET) BOPET film offers barrier protection against oxygen
and carbon dioxide. It is widely used as part of a multilayer film CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
and mesquite gum are used for coating fruit, and are effective for
conserving foodstuffs high in polysaturated fatty acids susceptible structure for various food and beverage packaging applications
to oxidation, such as nuts, meat and salmon. WPI films effective in because of its oxygen barrier and mechanical properties. Typically,
the protection of fatty foods have greater thickness, less plasticiser, BOPET film provides the outer layer due to its superior printing
and exposure to low relative humidity. By adding starch, WPI films qualities and excellent gloss. Various types of BOPET films are
became effective at high humidity levels. offered by film manufacturers, including coated and uncoated
materials. PVdC coated, metallised, clear oxide coated and PEN
Researchers at Oregon State University have developed new coextruded types, are all used as barrier packaging.
techniques for handling fresh blueberries—including a method of
prewashing them for market and applying an edible coating—that Leading BOPET film suppliers are Toray, DuPont Teijin Films,
may extend the shelf life of this Oregon crop and open new Mitsubishi Polyester Films; and SKC from South Korea. There are
markets for its sale. The coatings can also slow decay and water- a growing number of very active Asian companies—including
loss after the fruit is washed. The coatings used in the study were: India’s Jindal Poly Films, Flex Industries and Garware Polyester,
Semperfresh, acid-soluble chitosan, water-soluble chitosan, calcium plus a number of Chinese companies set to play an increasingly
caseinate and sodium alginate. Semperfresh is a sucrose ester; important role.
chitosan is a derivative of chitin—a natural substance often found
in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans, and alginate is a Polyamides Polyamide (PA) film has high strength, good aroma
polysaccharide commonly found in the cell walls of brown algae. and flavour barrier, good oxygen barrier and toughness and
superior heat resistance. The relatively high cost of the material, as
Barrier Films well as the need for an adhesive layer to bond with polyolefins, and
Some plastic films, such as polyamide (nylon) and polyester films, relatively moderate moisture barrier, are the main disadvantages
possess barrier protection properties in their own right and may of polyamide films. As a relatively expensive material, though, PA
form the primary barrier or be coextruded or coated with higher- is used mainly in conjunction with other polymer films in the form
45

of laminates and coextrusions for the manufacture of film and horizontal orientated nylon film to be extruded simultaneously,
pouches. a feature that not only produces films with gas-barrier properties
that are comparable to conventional nylon film coated with
There are two main types of PA film commercially available: cast polyvinylidine chloride (PVDC), but that also delivers enhanced
PA (CPA) and biaxially oriented PA (BOPA). Cast PA is the more strength, transparency and quality of print properties. The film is
widely used form for flexible packaging applications, but BOPA film particularly suitable for retort packaging applications for hot food
is stronger, stiffer and has better gas properties, and is thus better products such as soups. The new Superneel EHP Grade is being
suited for specialty packaging applications. marketed as offering the same gas-barrier properties as existing
films in the range, with the added benefit of enhanced anti-pinhole
Some examples of PA usage for barrier packaging films include characteristics.
• Coextruded PA/PE films, primarily for the vacuum
packaging of meat Liquid Crystal Polymers Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) are
• Laminated films based on PA/PE coextruded films. a family of high-performance aromatic copolyesters based on
Nylon has the ability to act as a barrier against hydroxybenzoic acid, terephthalic acid and p-dihydroxybiphenyl.
oxygen and also to retain carbon dioxide, while the These compounds react to form tightly packed, rigid polymer
polyethylene in the laminate controls moisture chains, which consist of flat, long monomeric units. LCP makes a
• Laminated films based on BOPA film, predominantly suitable alternative for most other engineering materials, including
used for cheese and coffee packaging, with a typical metals and ceramics because of its resistance to weathering,
gauge of 15μ burning, radiation and almost all chemicals and also because of its
• Laminated films based on CPA film. Cast PA film gauge outstanding strength at extreme temperatures.
is typically 40μ and is suitable for thermoforming
LCP films have excellent mechanical strength and are a good
Historically, Japan has been the largest producer of PA films, material for food packaging and medical products applications
followed by Europe (Italy and Scandinavia). The European market is because of their high-temperature stability, low permeability to
led by CFP Flexible Packaging Spa, Italy, and Biaxis, Finland. water and oxygen and low water absorption. The mechanical
Mitsubishi Plastics, Japan, has extended its range of Superneel films properties of LCP are outstanding at extreme and ambient
with a new biaxially orientated nylon film that reportedly offers temperatures. For example, at room temperature, LCP has a
improved gas-barrier characteristics. The company says that the use tensile modulus as high as 1.20x106 psi (8.4x104 kg/cm2) at
of a unique biaxial extrusion process enables both the lateral and 575°F (308°C). This exceeds the tensile modulus of most other
46

engineering thermoplastics. Its mechanical properties improve at To date, flexible and other packaging applications have been held
subzero temperatures. LCP has a compressive strength of more than back due to the high cost of PEN. The lion’s share of output goes
6,000 psi (422 kg/cm2) and tensile strengths in excess of 20,000 into thin and ultra-thin films utilised in the thermal transfer media,
psi (1,400 kg/cm2). electronics industry and digital stencil applications. It is also being
utilised for returnable beer bottles. The usage of flexible packaging
During any blown or cast film process, LCP develops a high is restricted to a few niche laminate applications that call for an
degree of orientation, providing high barrier and high machine enhanced oxygen barrier. PEN films, used either as monolayer film
direction (MD) modulus in film structure. Symmetric LCP containing or in combination with PET, is particularly useful for applications
multilayer film structures do not relax or shrink as they cool where there is high sensitivity to oxygen and/or hot-filling.
and solidify, and so they have good dimensional stability. The
dimensional stability of LCP makes printing, laminating and other Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) PCTFE is an expensive,
film-converting operations easier. semi-crystalline, melt processable thermoplastic. PCTFE offers
a unique combination of physical and mechanical properties,
It is expected that LCP will see growing use for thermoplastic, nonflammability, high optical transparency, chemical resistance,
coextruded laminate structures for high-barrier packaging in the near zero moisture absorption and excellent electrical properties.
medium and long term. The further development of blends and of Honeywell Specialty Films is the world’s leading manufacturer
low-temperature LCP, appear to open the medium-term potential in of advanced PCTFE, resins and films for health-care packaging.
flexible packaging significantly. The main factors prohibiting the Honeywell’s Aclar film is used extensively in pharmaceuticals
more rapid growth in LCP usage in these applications are the need packaging for its excellent moisture barrier and chemical
for food contact and medical approval, the continued high cost of stability. It is crystal clear, biochemically inert, chemical-resistant,
the material and the perceived processing difficulties. nonflammable, and plasticiser-free.
Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) Polyethylene naphthalate has Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC) Cyclic olefin copolymers
been commercially available since 1990. PEN is a polymer resin (COC) are an amorphous glass-clear copolymer of ethylene and
similar to PET but offering better physical and chemical properties. norbornene, made via proprietary metallocene catalysts. The
These include higher temperature resistance, high gas and moisture principal performance properties of COC polymers are low density
barrier, high water vapour impermeability and low flavour absorption. and high transparency. They also display extremely low water
PEN can be blended with PET to produce a copolymer with improved absorption and very high water vapour barrier properties, which
gas barrier, UV barrier, thermal and mechanical properties. make them ideal as a barrier resin. Their graded heat distortion
47

temperature is up to 170°C. They are also highly rigid, have good cases, water vapour must be kept out—to keep potato crisps
strength and good resistance to acids and alkalis. Their very good crunchy, cocoa lump free, and sweets from becoming sticky.
electrical insulating properties make them suitable for optical and Polyolefins are a good barrier against water vapour. PE 100,
electrical applications. COC also has very good processability and for example, can create different barrier levels depending on
flow properties. the specific density. Aluminium layers or metallised inorganic
intermediate layers within a composite tend to be used when a
Within the packaging sector, COC film is used principally for barrier against oxygen is also required.
pharmaceuticals packaging such as blister packs and for shrink
sleeves and stand-up pouches. It is primarily being used in Over the past few years, clear vapour-deposition barrier film has
combination with other polymers such as polyethylene in multilayer been used widely in the foods, beverages and daily sundries
packaging to impart improved physical properties. segments. The production of high-barrier metallised OPP films is
increasing, particularly in Europe. These are aimed at the food-
For flexible packaging, COC is mainly used as an additive with cast packaging industry in response to the need to keep food items
and blown film to provide enhanced stiffness, seal strength, hot fresh for longer periods, thus prolonging shelf life and reducing
tack and moisture barrier. For shrink sleeves, COC is used as part food waste.
of coextrusion and blends for its high shrink ratio, low shrink force,
clarity and low density. Other Barrier Films Multilayered, coextruded polyolefin shrink
films are increasingly being used to provide a two-way barrier to
Topas Advanced Polymers (formerly known as Ticona), in Germany, aroma and flavour transfer. The film contains aromas within the
is the world’s leading COC producer. package itself and inhibits migration of outside odours that may
affect product quality.
Moisture-Barrier Films Moisture may be desirable for one type
of foodstuff yet undesirable for others (neither a soft piece of Light does not have to be visible (at wavelengths above 380 nm)
crispbread nor a hard bread roll would sell very well). to damage foodstuffs. For example, saturated fatty acids can
oxidise at 295 nm. Even the dim light in a refrigerated cabinet can
In both cases, the packaging must provide a barrier against water cause unsightly changes in the colour of sausages or speed up the
vapour. If the food is to be protected against drying out (e.g. breakdown of vitamins and amino acids.
preventing refrigerated vegetable products from wilting), it must
keep moisture inside the packaging. Conversely, in the following Consumer demand for transparent packaging in this area is
48

growing as traditional solutions such as aluminium composites, Innovia Films has produced a Natureflex bioplastic-based film with
printing across the entire surface of the packaging, or sealed films what it describes as good gas- and moisture-barrier properties,
colourised using titanium oxide pigments, tend to mean that which have been difficult to achieve with biodegradable materials.
consumers are unable to see the product. UV additives can help, Applications include candy wrappers.
provided the light wavelength at which the product spoils is known.
Mitsubishi Plastics has introduced a silicone dioxide vacuum-coated
The ambient food industry now uses high-barrier transparent layer to provide a barrier to oxygen and water. OPET and OPA are
plastic packaging for a variety of products. Kraft Foods Inc, USA, used as the base films, and these are protected by an additional
has switched from using a glass bottle to using a PET bottle layer to allow for efficient printing.
for its salad dressings, which still enables shoppers to view the
contents inside. Premier Foods, U.K., which owns the Mr. Kipling Topas states that cyclic olefin copolymers are being metallised
range, used Popafilm FFX26 fast-seal coated high-barrier film from to produce barrier films with high stiffness, good hot tack and
Innovia for its Cake Bites range. The chilled meat category, despite controlled tear properties.
the challenges it poses in terms of barrier requirements, is also
choosing transparent packaging solutions. Ospelt, a manufacturer Nippon Gohsei produces gas-barrier EVOH copolymer with what it
of meat and charcuterie products, began using Amcor’s ReClose to calls “good processability” The line includes a grade for shrink film
package its sliced meat range in January 2010. in which PVdC is more commonly used, according to the company,
because of its “good barrier properties combined with high
Barrier Coatings and Film Developments Some recent shrinkability.”
developments in barrier coating and film include:
Dai Nippon Printing, in Japan, reports it has developed an ultra-
The new mid-level oxygen-barrier film from Honeywell—OxyShield barrier plastic film with a water steam permeability of below 10-7
Plus—is composed of biaxially oriented layers of EVOH copolymer gsm/24h, which it says is as effective as glass. The base raw
sandwiched by nylon. The film forms part of the company’s strategy materials are said to be ordinary, but the production technology
of offering nylon 6-based films for oxygen-barrier applications. is extremely refined, using pure polymers. The whole production
Amcor Flexibles has a new range of laminates that use PVDC process, including extrusion, is carried out in a vacuum and without
and EVOH materials with high-barrier properties to a range of metal coating or plasma treatment.
substances including oxygen, water vapour, carbon dioxide, fats
and aromas.
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Food Contact Films Food-contact films are subject to strict lowering manufacturing costs. Moreover, the good saponification
regulations and rigorous testing procedures from the EU and the resistance of this plasticiser prolongs the life of PVC, and it has
Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. Manufacturers must good heat-sealing characteristics and printability.
clearly state, and stick to, intended uses for the film, and they must
describe its specifications and limitations in detail. Different foodstuffs require different functions from a film:
• Snack products put a high priority on visual appeal,
Those that are in most demand are the films that are stiff, thin, sealability and barrier properties
visually clear, and have good moisture-vapour barrier properties • Baked goods need to preserve their freshness
and are cost effective (margins in the food business appear to be • Confectionery products need efficient cold-seal and
on a constant downward spiral). Considering the high production overlacquer processes
volumes common in the food industry, convertibility issues are • Dairy foods require robust moisture barriers and
critical in this segment too. Films that are not machine-ready tend dimensional stability over wide temperature ranges
not to fare as well. OPP films, for instance, have advantages over • Produce must maintain clarity, freshness and crispness
PET films due to their relative heat sensitivity. Much of their success and a consistent, managed oxygen transmission rate
is due to their cost effectiveness and the fact that suppliers have,
over the years, been very adept at developing new barrier and Non-PVC stretch-film food wraps, including polystyrene-based ones,
decorative versions. are increasingly used as an alternative to PVC-based films, which
are encountering ever more legal and regulatory restrictions on
In general, films that add to a product’s attractiveness and allow their use. By contrast, non-PVC versions have gained approval from
for reduced spoilage and longer shelf life, have the potential to the FDA, the Environmental Choice Program (ECP) in Canada, and
become market leaders if they are marketed successfully. The the European Commission.
approval by the FDA of the plasticiser alkylsulphonic phenyl ester
(suitable for polymers such as polyurethane, nitrile rubber and The North American market alone for these films approached $1
PVC) for use in products that come into contact with aqueous- billion in 2008. On the other hand, the lack of sufficient cost-
based foodstuffs has expanded the use of film in the food effective and ecologically appropriate raw materials means that
sector. Alkylsulphonic phenyl ester has attracted the attention many food manufacturers (particularly in the developing world) are
of food producers due to the fact that it gels faster than many sticking with PVC-based films. For this reason, nontoxic food-grade
other plasticisers and does so at lower operating temperatures— PVC films continue to be widely used for applications such as twist-
considerably reducing production and processing times and wrap packaging in the confectionery segment.
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Compared to films like cellophane, BOPP, CPP and polyester, Anti-fogging Agents When water or moist air is trapped in
the PVC films tend to be more economical to purchase and use. a closed system, condensation droplets (fog) form on the inner
Sales of the films to converters in India and China have been surface of the packaging film when the temperature falls below
rising sharply since 2006. By contrast, European converters are the dew point. For this reason, the development of plastic films
working more with polyester films due to their more favourable with improved anti-fogging qualities is a high priority for fresh food
environmental footprint—and despite their higher cost. The market packaging.
for PET shrink-sleeve films for meatpacking applications is expected
to grow further over the period to 2014. Anti-fogging agents are plastic additives that prevent or reduce
the condensation of water. Such additives function as mild wetting
Other films to watch in this segment include: agents that exude to the plastic surface and lower the surface
•W ater-based films. These are finding use in the fast-food tension of water, thereby causing it to spread into a continuous
sector because of their grease-resistant properties, and film. Anti-fogging agents are also antistatic; they fabricate a film of
they are taking market share from PE extrusion coatings. water over the polymer surface, reducing the surface resistivity.
• Replacement for aluminium foil in dried-food pouches,
with producers like Exxon Mobil and Treofan at the Anti-fogging properties can be achieved either by spraying an anti-
forefront. fogging agent onto the surface of the film, or by incorporating an
anti-fogging additive into the polymer matrix. Compared to surface
In each of these cases, cost considerations are hampering treatment, the use of additive technology is usually preferred as it
widespread application of the films, though due to the burgeoning provides longer-lasting anti-fogging performance and significantly
interest in the technologies, notably from venture capital firms, reduces the amount of anti-fogging agent that comes in contact
sales are expected to climb significantly toward the end of 2014. with the packaged food.
Functional Additives Anti-fog additives are made of two-part molecules: a hydrophilic

A functional additive modifies the properties of the packaging. The part attracted by water and a long lipophilic part adapted to
functional additives used for their shelf-life extending properties the polymer substrate. Instead of forming droplets, the water
include anti-fogging agents and antimicrobial agents, which is containing wetting agents forms a film over the polymer substrate.
discussed in the section “active packaging” technologies. The wetting agents migrate slowly to the surface at a controlled
rate to maintain long-lasting wettability. The levels of anti-fogging
agents in the polymer are 1% to 3%.
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The most popular anti-fogging agents have ester chemical

structures such as sorbitan esters of fatty acids, ethoxylated
sorbitan esters, polyoxyethylene esters of oleic acid, alkylphenol
ethoxylates, ethoxylated stearyl alcohol and glycerol esters.
Anti-fogging agents are often marketed under masterbatch pellet
form. These types of anti-fogging agents are often proposed
for polyolefins and PVC films. For other plastics, it is necessary
to experiment with different chemicals such as thioesters and
phosphites.
52
4
End-Use Sector Developments
This section analyses extended shelf-life technology developments sourcing to reduce the carbon footprint that results from the food
for key food, drink and nonfood packaging sectors: distribution chain. Packaging suppliers have already launched a Because of the
range of PP case-ready trays for fresh poultry and meat that are growth in national
Food better suited to centralised packing facilities than EPS trays. These
mono PP MAP trays are flushed with a layer of gas before sealing
supermarket chains,
Fresh and Processed Meat Microbial growth and oxidation of to extend the shelf life of the meat. Another format is rigid barrier often over 75% of
the red pigment are the main spoilage mechanisms that limit the trays laminated with a multilayer barrier sealant liner. meat products in
shelf life of raw red meats. These aerobic spoilage bacteria are developed Western
effectively inhibited by carbon dioxide. Fresh poultry packaged in PP trays are widely used for MAP poultry packaging. The trays countries such as
an atmosphere of 60% oxygen, 30% carbon dioxide and 10% feature wide, flat rims to ensure seal integrity and to provide easy the U.K., Germany
nitrogen and stored at no more than 2°C will have a shelf life of 7 denesting and runnability on automatic machines. MAP lidding
to 9 days, compared with 4 to 5 days for non-MAP packs. and the U.S., are
films mainly comprise shrink or laminate films with the necessary
barrier properties to achieve the desired shelf life. The films are now packaged in a
In the past, meat used to be packed at the back of supermarket treated with anti-fog agents to prevent condensation. central location.
stores in EPS trays that were manually wrapped or machine-
wrapped with PVC. The major supermarkets have now centralised The following are the principal types of packaging film for
packing to minimise costs and extend product shelf life. This packaging raw meat:
requires a more robust packaging format that can preserve food 1. Overwrapping of meats for retail packs, with
longer. This move away from EPS trays toward case-ready MAP or without trays
packaging is driven by retailers that recognise the economic 2. Vacuum packing for retail applications
advantages of centralised production facilities. Because of the 3. Heat-seal lidding of retail MAP packs
growth in national supermarket chains, often over 75% of meat 4. Industrial vacuum packaging of prime cuts.
products in developed Western countries such as the U.K., Germany
and the U.S., are now packaged in a central location. Meat and poultry packaging films are monolayer films or multilayer
films. Meat and poultry packaging requires film with a high oxygen
Advances in automatic tray-sealing technology and the greater barrier.
availability of equipment have spurred this trend.
PP, PVC and PP films have relatively high oxygen permeability,
At the same time, there is a competing trend toward local product whereas polyester, polyamide and cellulose films have very low
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oxygen permeability and are better suited for packaging meat packs for processed meat is 28 to 35 days, but there is a significant
and poultry products. Packaging films are very often multilayer market for a shelf life of 7 days.
films that combine PE or PP film with higher-barrier film such as
polyamide or polyester. Laminate structures have better barrier Moisture absorbers and scavengers, and oxygen scavengers are the
properties as well as better mechanical strength and heat-seal widely used forms of active packaging technologies for shelf-life
properties. extension of fresh and processed meat and poultry products.
PET is the most widely used base material for processed meat Fresh Fish and Shellfish MAP packaging for fish is growing
products. Compared to fresh meat and poultry packaging, at a faster rate than fish consumption, largely due to growth in
processed meat packaging uses a much smaller proportion of frozen fish consumption. However, clostridium botulinum is a major
barrier polyolefins. Processed meat is prone to oxidation and concern that limits fish MAP development. There is also debate
microbial attack. It requires packaging with a high oxygen barrier about the cost benefits of MAP, as only relatively small increases in
(typically 40-60 cm³/m³d at a pressure of 1 bar=100 Pa), a water safe shelf life have been reported in some applications. When fish
transmission rate of 1-1.5/gm²d and ultraviolet protection. spoils, it produces volatile compounds with low molecular weight,
so packaging technologists need to consider the odour barrier
The principal spoilage mechanisms that limit the shelf life properties of packaging films and select appropriate high-barrier
of cooked, cured and processed meat products are microbial materials for packaging strongly flavoured fresh, smoked and
growth, colour change and oxidative rancidity. For cooked meat brined fish and fish products.
products, the heating process should kill vegetative bacterial cells,
inactivate degradative enzymes and fix the colour. Consequently, Spoilage of fish and shellfish results from autolysis—destruction of
spoilage of cooked meat products is primarily due to postprocess cells or tissues by their own enzymes—by growth of microorganisms
contamination by microorganisms as a result of poor hygiene and and by oxidative reactions. MAP can be used to control growth of
handling practices. The colour of cooked meats is susceptible to microorganisms and oxidative reactions but has no direct effect
oxidation, and it is important to have only low levels of residual on autolysis. Several microorganisms are particularly important
oxygen in packs. when dealing with MAP fish products, including Cl. botulinum. One
of the concerns about MAP packaging of fish is that removal of
MAP using CO2/N2 mixtures plus a recommended gas/product oxygen and its replacement by N2 or N2/CO2 results in anaerobic
ratio will maximise shelf life and inhibit the development of conditions that are conducive to the growth of protease-negative
oxidative off-flavours and rancidity. The typical shelf life of MAP strains of Cl. botulinum.
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Because these bacteria can grow at temperatures as low as 3°C potential shelf life of packed produce is inversely proportional to
and do not significantly alter the sensory properties of the fish, respiration rate. Respiration rate increases by a factor of 3 to 4
there is the potential for food poisoning. Use of carbon dioxide for every 10°C increase in temperature, and so the goal of MAP
can effectively inhibit the growth of some of these species. During for fruit and vegetables is to reduce respiration to extend shelf life
storage, the aerobic spoilage organisms tend to be replaced by while maintaining quality. Respiration can be reduced by lowering
slower-growing and less odour-producing bacteria, particularly the temperature, lowering the oxygen concentration, increasing
lactic acid bacteria such as lactobacilli. Fish and shellfish contain the carbon dioxide concentration and by a combination of oxygen
much lower concentrations of myoglobin, which oxidises to give red depletion and carbon dioxide enhancement of pack atmospheres.
meat its colour, so oxidation of myoglobin is less important in fish
and shellfish. Because of the high moisture content and the lipid If the oxygen concentration is reduced beyond a critical
content of some species, nitrogen is used to prevent pack collapse. concentration, anaerobic respiration will begin. Anaerobic
respiration is usually associated with undesirable odours and
Moisture scavengers are the most used active packaging technology flavours and a marked deterioration in product quality. Increasing
for fresh fish packaging, and most use is in Japan. Ethanol emitters the carbon dioxide concentration will also inhibit respiration,
and, to a slightly lesser extent, flavour and odour absorbers for but high concentrations may cause damage in some species and
fresh fish packaging are also found mostly in Japan. cultivars. The use of low concentrations of oxygen and elevated
levels of carbon dioxide can have a synergistic effect that slows
Fresh Fruit and Vegetables respiration—and hastens ripening.
MAP can extend the safe shelf life of many fruits and vegetables.
But there are many challenges in packaging fresh and unprocessed In Western Europe, approximately 40% of the prepacked fresh
fruit and vegetables. Unlike other chilled perishable foods, fresh fruit and vegetables are packed in a MAP format. The rest is
produce continues to respire after harvesting. The products of mainly packed in PE or PP flow-wrap plus some thermoformed
aerobic respiration include carbon dioxide and water vapour. In punnets for fresh fruit and mushrooms. Vacuum packs are used for
addition, respiring fruits and vegetables produce ethylene, which a variety of fresh vegetables such as potatoes and carrots. There
promotes ripening and softening of tissues. If ethylene production are three principal methods of MAP packaging for fresh produce:
is not controlled, it will limit the shelf life of the produce. flow-wrapping in perforated or nonperforated BOPP film, flow-
wrapping in BOPP film then gas flushing and flow-wrapping in
Respiration is affected by the intrinsic properties of fresh produce microperforated films without gas flushing (EMAP).
as well as extrinsic factors such as ambient temperature. The
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A potential threat to the further development of MAP and active the consumer with their original flavour. This has led to rapidly
packaging for fresh fruit and vegetables is the emergence of the increasing demand for films with better barrier functions against
so-called green bag. The green bag helps to extend the shelf life of oxygen and moisture vapour than available in the standard
fresh fruit and vegetables by absorbing and removing ethylene and products.
other damaging gases such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. Also,
the green colour of the bag helps to reduce light, which minimises Developing new BOPP breathable films, which can extend the shelf
vitamin loss. The bags maintain an appropriate level of humidity life of fresh produce by allowing the migration of gases through the
and have an anti-fog surface that reduces moisture and helps to packaging, is a priority in the industry. They need to be permeable,
prevent moisture droplets from forming. This inhibits bacterial nonperforated films that work by controlling the rate at which
growth as well as fungus, mould and decay. The bags are made gases—specifically oxygen and carbon dioxide—migrate in and out
from plastic and incorporate a special form of clay particles. They of a pack through the film. The aim is to extend the shelf life of
remain a niche packaging product and are much more expensive fresh prepared and unprepared foods by several days.
than conventional fruit and vegetable bags.
Achieving even a two- or three-day extension of freshness is
Ethylene scavengers are the principal active packaging technology significant, not only for producers, retailers and consumers, but for
for fresh fruit and vegetables. They are predominantly used in Japan the environment as well, as it implies less food waste and more
and other Asia-Pacific countries. The U.S. and Europe are currently intense use of packaging materials.
much smaller markets but show strong growth in consumption.
In the U.K., for instance, it is estimated that 5.2 million tonnes of
The need for clarity, freshness and crispness is critical in this food-related packaging waste and 6.7 million tonnes of food waste
category. Thin films are widely used, especially those that can offer are disposed of each year (source: Waste and Resources Action
consistent, managed oxygen transmission. Controlled slip properties Programme [WRAP]).
in films used for fresh-cut produce provide the ideal packaging-
machine performance in a manufacturing environment that can Specifically, oxygen permeability of over 3,000cm/m/24 hours and
have demanding speed and quality requirements. carbon dioxide permeability of over 12,000cm3/m2/24 hours are
being sought by research and development houses. To be effective,
In the food-packaging industry around the world, the diversification the ratio must be maintained whilst increasing the volume gas
of the food culture has led to an increasing need to keep food exchange. This way, the packaged product is kept fresh and its
products fresh for long periods as well as to deliver them to organoleptic properties are stabilised.
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Ready Meals Ready meals are often packed in lidded dual- rigid barrier retort plastic packaging. This new packaging offers
ovenable CPET trays or microwaveable PP trays. In Western Europe, a long shelf life at ambient temperatures, is fully microwaveable
approximately 30% of chilled ready meals are gas-flushed in MAP and allows food to be consumed straight from the pot. It is
packs. Most chilled ready meals are retorted, so seal integrity manufactured from seven co-extruded layers, and the materials
is important. Many chilled foods create challenges for packers used include ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and MX Nylon
because they have high protein content or because they are partly barriers, which help to keep oxygen levels low, alongside a
cooked. The required shelf life for most chilled foods is generally desiccant adhesive and oxygen scavengers incorporated within the
9 to 24 days. Lidded form-fill-seal trays are the main form of nanocomposite materials to extend the shelf life of the pack.
packaging for fresh pasta, and stand-up trays are gaining ground.
They use BOPP/PE, PET/PE and PA/PE laminate structures with or Dairy Products MAP can increase the shelf life of fat-filled milk
without barrier layers. Premium product ranges are gaining market powders, cheeses and fat spreads. Powders generally spoil through
share, so lidded trays are becoming more important. the development of oxidative rancidity and cheeses generally
spoil through the growth of microorganisms, particularly yeasts
The following are recent developments in extended shelf-life and moulds. Whole milk powder is particularly susceptible to the
packaging for ready meals: development of off-flavours due to fat oxidation. The air is removed
under vacuum and replaced with N2 or N2/CO2 mixtures, and the
Heinz, Australia, has begun to use a new microwaveable packaging powder is hermetically sealed in metal cans.
technology—a robust plastic container, thermoformed by RPC Bebo
Nederland—to increase the shelf life of its new Greenseas lunch bite Due to the spray-drying process, air tends to be absorbed inside the
product range. The pot, which consists of a layered construction, powder particles and will diffuse into the container over a period
is manufactured from a combination of polypropylene (PP) and of about 10 days. This will raise the residual oxygen content to
ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) polymers. The design features an typically 1% to 5% or higher. Some markets require product with
oxygen scavenger, which traps the gas within the barrier layer residual oxygen of less than 1%, so some manufacturers repack
of the sealed container, effectively protecting the contents. This the cans after 10 days in storage. Oxygen scavenging may also be
feature helps to keep the food fresh longer, particularly protecting it useful. English territorial cheeses such as Cheddar have traditionally
from colour and flavour deterioration. been vacuum packed, but MAP is increasingly used with high CO2
concentration and N2/CO2 gas mixtures. This has the advantage
Rexam Food Containers, which manufactures high-barrier rigid of obtaining a low residual oxygen content and a tight pack due to
plastic trays and bowls for retorted foods, has introduced a semi- the carbon dioxide going into solution. It is important to balance
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this process by using a gas mixture with the correct nitrogen level Other films used in the dairy sector include:
to avoid excessive pressure on the pack seal. •M etallised and coated BOPET, both for preservation
purposes and as tear-tape for the easy opening of
N2/CO2 atmospheres have significant potential to extend the shelf packages
life of cottage cheese, a high-moisture, low-fat product susceptible to • F ive-layer barrier film with an EVOH skin, increasingly
several spoilage organisms. Gas mixtures containing carbon dioxide used to wrap cheese because it generally keeps oxygen
balanced with nitrogen can increase its shelf life significantly. and moisture out and flavour and quality in (it is also
used to protect vitamin content, such as in baby milk
Antimicrobial films and ethanol emitters are important active- packaging)
packaging technologies for extending the shelf life of dairy •N ylon-based films, which help to delay spoiling and
products. They are mostly found in Japan, their use is negligible in discolouration of the packaged material, act as a barrier
Europe and the U.S. MAP is the main type of protective atmosphere to aroma molecules, and are largely puncture resistant
packaging for cheese and continues to show higher growth rates
than vacuum packaging. The milk sector, one of the most conservative of foodstuffs as
far as packaging goes, is also seeing innovation around the
Sealing range, clarity, moisture barriers and dimensional stability use of specialty films. Aseptic, shelf-stable milk does not require
across wide temperature variations are the principal demands refrigeration and can be placed in the same section as fizzy
placed on films within the dairy segment. OPP and OPA films are drinks, juices and water as well as in refrigerators. The market for
some of the most widely used, notably in the milk and cheese single-serve bottles, especially in the flavoured-milk and milkshake
sectors. Cheese packaging has been developing quickly. Many segments aimed at young adults, is growing rapidly, notably in
varieties continue to ripen in their film, creating carbon dioxide and large developing economies such as Brazil and China.
propionic acid, which must be able to escape so that the packaging
doesn’t swell. At the same time, oxygen needs to be prevented from Bakery Products There is increased pressure from retailers to
entering the packaging as it helps to sustain mould. OPA film is extend shelf life for bakery products, a key trend that favours MAP.
increasingly being used by cheese producers. At a load resistance Within the packed baked products sector, bags, pouches and films
strength of, say, 15 fym, a widely used measure, OPA can provide are the most widely used pack type. Flexible films are principally
an optimum balance between carbon dioxide permeability and used for prepacked MAP products with the higher added value.
oxygen-barrier properties. In some markets, anti-fog thermoformed Some of the most common barrier film structures used for baked
rigid trays are used to prevent condensation that damages cheese. products are BOPP/PVdC/PE/EVOH laminate, PA/PE coextrusion
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films with or without EVOH, and PP/PA/EVOH top webs. especially flow-wrap and over wrap formats. Increasingly, films are
based on renewable resources (such as wood pulp from managed
Barrier packaging film helps extend the shelf life of fresh baked plantations) and use novel heat-seal resins on each side. The most
foods, as it addresses the primary packaging challenges that successful films in this segment are those that offer good gas-
baked goods present: Baked goods dry out quickly when exposed barrier properties and where the coatings can be tailored to provide
to oxygen; in addition, oxygen reacts with fats in high-fat pastries, varying degrees of moisture barrier, depending on the product
which changes their flavour. Moisture can also cause condensation being wrapped.
and fogging inside the package; this promotes microbial growth,
which impairs freshness and quality. Metallised bread bags are now commonplace in some countries.
The increasing barrier properties that they offer—particularly for
Baked goods are a significant market for folding cartons and plastic PET-based films due to their smooth surface—are increasingly sought
trays; the major markets are cakes, biscuits and morning goods. after. Furthermore, the metallised appearance reinforces consumers’
Stand-up pouches offer the highest growth potential, but from a perception that they are buying a high-value, fresh product.
small base. Bags and pouches will benefit from the increased share
of packaged bread, particularly in southern, central and eastern Baked goods represent a significant market for plastic films.
Europe. Bread and rolls have close to a 70% share in the category, which
also includes sweet goods, pastries, pies, doughnuts and cakes.
Oxygen scavengers are by far the most widely used form of active With shelf life counted in days, packaging is designed mainly to
packaging to prolong shelf life for baked products; second are control moisture content and maintain cleanliness and product
antimicrobial films. presentation. Bread and roll packaging is mostly made up of LDPE
bags, which are made off-line by converters on pouch machines
The bakery sector represents a particular challenge for the and sold to bakers for filling and mechanical closure. Specialty
choice of film. Certain bakery products will benefit from a semi- breads with lower moisture content are double wrapped for better
permeable wrap, maximising shelf life by avoiding the mould moisture control. The inner wrap is waxed paper, cellophane or OPP,
growth associated with a high moisture level inside the pack. Other while the outer wrap is LDPE with a mechanical closure.
products will remain fresher by purposely maintaining a higher
moisture level inside the pack. Materials need to have a wide heat- Cakes and doughnuts, meanwhile, tend to be packaged in OPP
seal range, freedom from static and excellent optical properties rather than LDPE, mainly because it is more attractive. Smaller
that allow their easy use on a variety of different machines, cakes generally use acrylic-coated OPP or a coextrusion with a PP/
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EVA structure. BOPP film, once perceived purely as a replacement Oxygen scavengers are the widely used form of active packaging to
for cellulose film for crisp, snack, confectionery and cigarette prolong the shelf life of snack foods.
wraps, is being used often in other segments, too, including bakery
wrap. Global demand for BOPP film is expected to rise rapidly White, opaque, metallised films, designed specifically for cold-
between 2010 and 2014, particularly in the bakery, biscuits and seal adhesion, are widely used in the snacks and confectionery
confectionery areas. markets—some as single webs, others for the inside web of a
lamination. Heat-sealable polyester films, designed to be used
Snack Foods Bags and pouches (predominantly form-fill-seal in metallised, print and lamination applications, are being
packs) dominate the savoury snacks market. Folding cartons are the increasingly used in snack and confectionery applications.
second most widely used pack type, mainly for premium products.
Snack foods lend themselves to pouch packaging. Pillow pouches Dried Foods and Soups Dried foods cover a wide variety of
dominate the potato crisp sector, and flat pouches dominate for products, such as dried fruit and nuts, pot snacks, cube and packet
nuts and other savoury snacks. soups, dehydrated cooking sauces, instant soups, rice, pasta,
breakfast cereals and cake mixes.
Some commonly used film structures for snack food packaging are
metallised BOPP, pearlised BOPP for non-MAP crisp packs, PET/ In general, drying remains a very efficient and widely used way
adhesive/PE/EVOH/PE, PVdC-coated PET/adhesive/PE, BOPP/ to extend the useful life of foodstuffs. Once safely protected from
adhesive/PVdC-coated PET/PE, PVdC-coated BOPP/adhesive/PE. light and gases, the food retains its nutritional value and texture
until rehydrated. Removing the water eliminates any support for
About one third of savoury snacks consumed in Western Europe are bacteria and other contamination. It also removes a high proportion
packed in MAP, equivalent to about 3.3 million 150 g packs. From of the product weight and volume, which saves on storage and
2004 to 2009, the market for MAP savoury snacks had a growth transport costs.
rate of over 10%. Metallised PP laminates will benefit from growth
in savoury snack foods as crisp packets impart a premium image. Bags and pouches dominate the dried-food packaging market,
Most MAP packs use metallised PP laminates. Printed opaque followed by films and metal cans. Dried food is typically packed in
structures that mimic paper are growing in popularity for premium a flexible PE film or a flexible film bag, often inside a cardboard
savoury snacks. There are opportunities for clear barrier materials to box. Dehydrated cooking sauces have traditionally been packed in
enter the market, likely stealing market share from metallised films. foil laminate sachets. Bags and pouches are losing share to films
and folding cartons, and there are growth opportunities in niche
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sectors for plastic trays, bottles and tubs. Stand-up pouches are need a barrier to prevent CO2 from escaping if they are to maintain
forecast to show the highest growth in dried-food packaging; they their freshness over a long shelf life. The limited barrier protection
have already become popular with dried fruit and nut producers offered by plastics such as PET has led to the development of a
in Europe. Uncle Ben’s has become the best-selling precooked rice number of different barrier solutions for plastic bottles. Where a
brand in the U.K. since its introduction in a stand-up pouch. barrier is needed, brand owners essentially have three options
1. Monolayer plastic bottles that incorporate an oxygen
Packet and canned soups have about two thirds of the total soup scavenger
market, but pouches are increasing in popularity for liquid soups. 2. Monolayer bottles to which a thin external or internal
Dried packet soups use mainly paper, foil and plastic laminate surface coating is applied
structures. 3. Multilayer bottles that sandwich a plastic barrier resin
between layers of PET. These most commonly have
Chilled soups, a fast-growing segment, are mainly sold in three layers of PET-nylon-PET, but sometimes five layers
thermoformed plastic containers. Retorted stand-up pouches are comprising PET-nylon-EVOH-nylon-PET may be used
snatching share from cans and are predominantly made from
aluminium foil (e.g. PET/aluminium foil/CPP). Stand-up pouches Each solution has advantages and disadvantages:
are using more transparent barrier films (particularly coated with 1. B ottles incorporating oxygen scavengers, meanwhile, are
SiO) for microwave applications. usually recyclable, but are expensive and often suffer from
a haze, which reduces the visual appeal of the product.
Antioxidants and moisture scavengers and absorbers are the main 2. Coated monolayer bottles are cheaper to manufacture
types of active packaging used to extend shelf life for dried foods. in the long run, though they require a high initial
Japan dominates not only the market in moisture scavengers and investment in machinery. Barrier coated monolayer
absorbers for dried foods but also the market for antioxidants for plastic bottles do not often provide the same degree of
dried foods (although some applications are being developed in the barrier protection as multi-layer containers.
U.S. and Europe). 3. Sophisticated multilayer bottles are good on
performance, but the raw material cost is high, and the
Drinks use of different polymers make recycling difficult. Such
Plastic bottles by themselves do not provide a good barrier against multilayer bottles generally have the disadvantage of
oxygen and carbon dioxide for certain sensitive beverages such as being less transparent than monolayer bottles.
beer, juice and dairy drinks, and other small-size carbonated drinks
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Oxygen Scavengers PET blends incorporating an oxygen Invista has more recently developed a high-performance oxygen
scavenger are currently the most frequently used barrier PET bottle barrier PET that it will market for monolayer applications, such as
technology, and often in combination with a passive barrier such packaging for products such as juice, wine, beer and condiments
as EVOH. Oxygen scavengers are a form of active barrier system (like ketchup) that require very high levels of clarity. The OxyClear
as they chemically react with the gas instead of or in addition to barrier resin uses a new, highly active scavenger chemistry that
physically slowing the rate of permeation across the container contains no polyamide or nitrogen, which can give rise to haze in
sidewalls. Oxygen scavengers are either incorporated in a multilayer conventional barrier-resin formulations. Invista says that the new
construction or blended into a monolayer material, which require resin provides five times the scavenging capacity of its current best
special multilayer injection machines to be produced. Today, options. It claims that even at loadings of 2%, more than required
barrier resin blends with built-in oxygen-scavenging capability for most applications, OxyClear shows no additional haze over
enable the production of monolayer bottles with excellent oxygen standard PET. In August 2010, Invista received regulatory approval
barrier on standard injection machines. Blends of PET with for its OxyClear material in Europe and the U.S. for use in food and
polymers such as PEN, Nylon6, Nylon MXD6 or EVOH may also beverage packaging.
be used for monolayer bottles, but such blends generally have the
disadvantage of being opaque. Other commercially available oxygen scavengers for PET packaging
are discussed below.
PolyShield resin, a modified PET resin from Invista, is one such
monolayer option. The resins, which are designed to be blended Amosorb is an inorganic and transparent oxygen-scavenging additive
with nylon-MXD6 from Mitsubishi Gas Chemical at the preform for polyolefin and PET from ColorMatrix. The material is activated
injection machine, provide containers with active oxygen by contact with water, and bonds chemically with any oxygen that
scavenging and passive gas barrier. According to Invista, the permeates the packaging walls. It was developed for PET beer, fruit
primary advantage of PolyShield resins is that a scavenging enabler juices and ready-to-drink tea bottles. ColorMatrix has also introduced
and a compatibiliser are already built into the PET base resin. As a the SolO2 barrier system, which combines oxygen scavenger and
result, tinted containers made with blends of PolyShield resin and CO2 barrier performance and is intended for long-life PET packaging
nylon-MXD6 are virtually haze-free and provide an excellent oxygen applications. Suitable for use with mono- and multilayer bottles, the
and good carbonation barrier. The barrier technology has been additive is claimed to delay CO2 loss by up to 30 days and to protect
used for PET beer bottles worldwide and for extending the shelf life against O2 penetration for up to four months.
of oxygen-sensitive fruit juices.
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HyGuard is another oxygen-scavenging technology from ColorMatrix, developed OxBar oxygen-scavenger technology revolving that
which functions at lower additions, triggers at point of filling and revolves around oxidation of an MXD 6 nylon-based system. OxBar
provides levels of clarity to match standard PET. The HyGuard additive is blended into the bottle wall by means of a cobalt catalyst, which
is highly resistant to yellowing and is suitable for recycling. is held in a clear polymer base at the bottom of the bottle.
PET manufacturer NovaPet is currently developing Xtralife The problem with OxBar and similar multilayer barrier solutions is
monolayer PET solution for beer and carbonated drinks that it requires beverage makers to invest in multilayer injection
applications. The polyamide (PA) and nanocomposite solution equipment. In addition, multilayered solutions can separate or
provides very low haze levels due to its use of a new aromatic delaminate under temperature or pressure stress, leaving a quite
PA that can be incorporated during PET polymerisation. The unattractive container.
Xtralife system will initially focus on CO2 barrier applications and
is expected to be capable of meeting the barrier requirements of Constar extended its range of oxygen-scavenging technologies with
small-size carbonated soft drinks. the introduction of MonOxbar and MonOxbar+ for mono-layer PET
bottles. The company claims that the monolayer structure has the
Clariant has introduced two new CESA masterbatch products to product protection benefits of multilayer Oxbar with less investment,
improve the oxygen and carbon dioxide barrier performance of PET greater production flexibility and greater design flexibility. MonOxbar
bottles. CESA-absorb OCA0050134-ZN is an all-in-one masterbatch costs less than Constar’s multi-layer Oxbar system but MonOxbar PET
containing a polyamide additive that forms a passive barrier to bottles have a slight pearlescence and haze.
CO2; combined with active additive ingredients, it initiates an
oxidation reaction in the PA to absorb oxygen. It is typically added Constar has also developed DiamondClear, an oxygen-scavenging
at levels of 4% to 5%. CESA-absorb NTA0050139-ZN contains no blending material for mono-layer PET bottles. As the DiamondClear
PA, allowing processors to control the loading themselves. material is blended at the preform injection stage, the technology
works equally well with one-step and two-step injection stretch
The masterbatch, added at a rate of 1% to 1.5%, functions in blow-moulding operations, eliminating the high-cost co-injection
the same way as the all-in-one product. Both new additions can equipment necessary for multilayer barrier systems. Unlike currently
be supplied as a combi-batch formulation complete with UV available monolayer scavenger systems, DiamondClear produces
stabilisers, acetaldehyde scavengers and colorants, which can have a bottle with clarity equal to plain PET and with higher gloss.
considerable impact on functionality of the other additives. DiamondClear is now commercially available, having gained
Constar International, a leading PET bottle manufacturer, initially regulatory approvals in both the U.S. and Europe.
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Amcor PET Packaging’s Bind-Ox is an MXD 6 nylon-based oxygen- that set Plasmax apart from other barrier solutions for PET, as
scavenging material offering a guaranteed minimum twelve- Plasmax is considered a 100% suitable for bottle-to-bottle recycling.
month shelf life for beer. Amcor’s AmGuard is a passive oxygen
and carbon dioxide barrier, while AmGuard with Bind-Ox is an Sidel’s Actis (Amorphous Carbon Treatment on Internal Surface)
active oxygen barrier and passive carbon dioxide barrier. Amcor is and Kirin DLC coating technologies produce a thin layer of
making inroads into the beer and fruit juice packaging market by amorphous carbon, typically 100nm to 200 nm thick, on the inside
replacing glass packaging with PET bottles that contain Bind-Ox surface of PET beer bottles. This is deposited from high-energy
oxygen-scavenging technology for multilayer applications. Bind-Ox plasma of acetylene gas within a high vacuum environment. The
has been used by manufacturers such as Perrier, Tropicana, and six coating provides an excellent barrier to both O2 and CO2, and,
European breweries, including Holsten Pilsner, Carlsberg and Brau because it is on the inside of the bottle, it prevents the O2 dissolve
Union. Amcor PET Packaging’s MonoBLOx system is a monolayer in the PET matrix from migrating into the beer during the first few
barrier technology platform, offering an active oxygen barrier and weeks of storage. The barrier performance improvement provided
passive carbon dioxide barrier. by carbon coatings is similar to those achieved by organic coatings,
giving a potential retail shelf life of nine months. Beer is a key
Barrier Coatings Coating technology is another solution for target market for Actis coatings; Sidel says that 1.5 billion beer
barrier PET bottles. Leading suppliers of barrier-coating technologies bottles were produced using its Actis internal coating technology in
include KHS Corporation, which has developed the silicon oxide 2009. The company sees light-weighting as the key driver for beer
Plasmax coatings technology, Sidel’s Actis treatment, which involves in PET, which they say is the biggest advantage PET has over glass.
depositing a fine layer of hydrogenated amorphous carbon on the
inside of a PET bottle, and Bairocade epoxy-amine coating systems, PPG Industries developed barrier-coatings solutions based on two-
developed by PPG Industries. component epoxy-amine chemistry in the 1990s. These materials,
trade named Bairocade, were developed as an external gas barrier
The Plasmax impulse coating vapour-deposition technology for PET bottles, first as a barrier on single-serve juice bottles, then to
was developed in 2002 by SIG Corpoplast (now trading as KHS increase the shelf life of smaller soft-drink bottles in hotter climates,
Corpoplast), in partnership with glass manufacturer Schott. Plasmax and then for carbonated beer bottles. Bairocade has also been
coats the insides of PET beverage bottles with a barrier composed successfully applied to polyolefin bottles and plastic closures.
of a transparent layer of silicon oxide. KHS expects Plasmax to
register substantial expansion in installed capacity over the next The resulting coating provides an excellent barrier to migration
two years. According to KHS, it is the environmental credentials of CO2 and O2, and is unaffected by humidity. The performance
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improvement that Bairocade coatings offer for PET beer containers such as oxides, are applied via complicated technologies that
is significant, around 19 times better than uncoated PET. This use high vacuum and high temperatures, because they’re hard,
translates into a retail shelf life of at least nine months. inorganic materials. Freshure deposits soft, organic materials; these
coatings can be deposited without expensive cooling or vacuum
Bairocade is an invisible epoxy-amine coating applied by electrostatic systems with relatively low energy consumption. Under moderate
spray to the outside of the PET bottle. The coated bottles are then vacuum conditions and above its low sublimation temperature of
passed through an infrared oven for curing. In addition to improving 200˚C, melamine can cover large surface areas in a fraction of a
the bottle’s barrier properties, the coating also imparts a glossy, scuff- second, creating a thin layer of transparent crystalline coating with
resistant finish. The coating can be applied clear or in a spectrum of very high gas-barrier properties. In comparison to inorganic coatings,
colours to create distinctive aesthetics or simulate traditional looks, which are brittle and therefore fail when exposed to high pressure
such as the amber of glass beer bottles. or temperatures, Freshure is less brittle, which means the oxygen
barrier can be maintained at high temperature and high humidity.
The Bairocade epoxy-amine coating is fully compatible with existing
recycling technology. Conventional recycling technology separates Other commercially available barrier technologies for PET bottles
the coating from the PET for disposal as a nonhazardous waste, are discussed below.
allowing the bottles to be recycled back to fibre, strapping or sheet,
or for bottle-to-bottle recycling. Kuredux is the new polyglycolic acid (PGA) barrier material from
Kureha Corp., which came to market when the company’s first
DSM subsidiary Knowfort Technologies BV has developed Freshure commercial plant went on-stream in July 2010. PGA is compatible with
coating technology, a transparent, high-gas barrier coating that is recycling and enhances oxygen barriers; it is soluble in wash solutions
created through the vapour deposition of organic compounds such because it is easily hydrolysed in alkaline washes and will dissolve out,
as melamine. While Freshure may not yet be in a position to meet ensuring separation from PET. Tests indicate that Kuredux PGA offers a
the demands of barrier PET bottles, the company is confident that 2½ to 3 times improvement in carbon retention and a fourfold oxygen-
it can be developed as a cost-effective transparent barrier coating barrier advantage over monolayer PET barriers. The company also says
in the near future. At the moment, the technology is being used its barrier resin has two times the toughness of PET and permits a 20%
commercially in flexible packaging applications. reduction in the amount of PET needed to make a soft-drink bottle.
There is been much early interest from brand owners in using PGA for
There are a number of reasons that Knowfort thinks Freshure could smaller-size, single-serve bottles for carbonated soft drinks, juice and
work well for this PET bottle market. Currently, thin-layer coatings, teas. It is reported to be a high priority for Coca-Cola Co.
65
In terms of the different barrier enhancement technologies used, in barrier PET in Europe. PET bottles have made major inroads
80% of the barrier bottles produced in Europe employ multilayer into Central and Eastern European markets, particularly Russia.
or monolayer blend technologies (30% and 50%, respectively). Russia, Romania and Ukraine together account for 80% of all beer
Coating technologies account for the remaining 20% of units. packaged in PET worldwide, measured by volume. Germany—the
However, this balance is likely to shift with monolayer coatings largest PET beer market in Western Europe—accounts for only 3%.
overtaking multilayer coatings by 2015.
The technical barriers to increased penetration for beer bottles have
Beer Those beer producers that are willing to adopt PET bottles largely been overcome with the wide range of barrier solutions
to package their products face a number of challenges, including now available. These include internal and external coatings and
how to convince consumers that plastic is not inferior to glass. The multilayer preforms. Current developments in barrier materials and
recycling potential of PET should make it an attractive option given injection moulding technology suggest that barrier preforms may
the growing consumer concern with packaging waste. Sustainability be the preferred option for the future, but the leading brewers are
is even more of an issue for retailers; yet despite the fact that PET still concerned about possible adverse consumer reaction to the
bottles are convenient, practical, lightweight, unbreakable and introduction of PET for major brands.
better for the environment, brand owners and retailers remain
reluctant to use PET packaging for beer. The ongoing perception There are, however, new barrier resins hitting the marketplace that
that plastic bottles taint the flavour of beer needs to be eradicated. could create new market opportunities for barrier PET beer bottles,
In addition, PET weighs less than glass and offers several benefits as well as other sensitive drinks such as teas, juices and energy
for the entire supply chain, with an empty 25cl multilayer PET drinks. Kuredux, for example, is a new polyglycolic acid (PGA)
bottle weighing eight times less than its glass counterpart. barrier material from Kureha Corp. Kuredux hit the market when
the company’s first commercial plant, an £8 million plant in Belle,
The beer market is unusual in that PET penetration is quite high West Virginia, went live in July 2010. PGA offers good potential
in the lesser-developed countries of Central and Eastern Europe for barrier PET bottles because it is compatible with recycling,
and Asia, but minimal in Western Europe and North America. and it enhances oxygen barriers. PGA is soluble in wash solutions
Commercial use for PET beer bottles in these developed regions because it is easily hydrolyzed in alkaline washes and will dissolve
remains primarily confined to the niche outdoor market, despite the out, ensuring separation from PET. Kureha claims that tests indicate
advent of new barrier technologies. that Kuredux PGA offers a 2½ to 3 times improvement in carbon
retention and a fourfold oxygen barrier advantage over monolayer
In 2009, approximately 2 billion bottles of beer were packed PET barriers. The company also claims its barrier resin has two times
66
the toughness of PET and permits a 20% reduction in the amount points to the longer shelf life and wider consumer acceptance of
of PET needed to make a soft drink bottle. cans as a packaging format among beer consumers.
Over the period 2010-2015, it is likely there will be further advances The challenge for PET is that many of the characteristics that have
for PET beer bottles for Central and Eastern Europe and Asia, but driven growth in other market sectors––they can be resealed, are
that for Western Europe and North America, PET beer bottles are lightweight and impact resistant––are not really drivers for beer
likely to remain very much a niche product, largely restricted to consumers, who simply see plastic as a cheap alternative to glass.
sports and other public events where the safety advantages of
PET over glass are important. Western consumers still prefer the What is needed is innovation on the part of brewers. A prime
premium appeal of beer in a glass bottle, and the traditionally example of product innovation for beer in PET is the launch of the
conservative nature of major brewers is likely to hold back any Future brand, by Cruzcampo in Spain; the company used PET to
further significant penetration for PET bottles in Western European create a novel design with heavily detailed embossing and unusual
beer markets. neck labelling. What they did was very different—creating a pack
size that didn’t exist before and that also remarkably looks like glass.
The future of the PET beer bottle in Germany––Western Europe’s
biggest market for PET beer bottles—is at risk following the decision Some of the other key developments for PET beer bottles are
by German discount retail chain Penny Markt’s to replace PET summarised below.
bottles with aluminium cans across ten of its beverage lines. Netto,
the third-largest discounter in Germany after Aldi and Lidl, has also Sidel, Italy, has collaborated with Grolsch Netherlands to develop
said it is moving its own brand, Schloss-Pils beer, back to cans. It a PET solution to allow consumers to enjoy the beer-on-tap
says it will be extending this to other beer brands and soft drinks. experience at home with Cheersch beer, which is drafted from a
2-litre bottle with a reusable tap kit. The PET bottle—blow-moulded
Penny-Markt says its decision to move away from PET was made on Sidel equipment and patented by Grolsch—can be resealed and
due to improved can designs that have cut weight by 30%. Can- kept inside the home refrigerator for two weeks after opening.
recycling rates have also increased, and it is now possible to return
cans to stores in the same containers as PET bottles so customers U.S. brewer Gordon Biersch has announced one of the highest-
can get their deposit back at the cash desk. Penny-Markt also cites profile applications for barrier PET beer bottles to date with the
the handling advantages of cans over PET bottles and the higher launch of a new 16-ounce bottle for airline operator Virgin America.
stability and stacking capability as factors in its decision. It also The PET bottle was designed and manufactured by Ball Corporation
67
in the U.S.; it is internally coated using the Plasmax SiOx barrier and Canada, where the wine industry is more tightly regulated
technology from KHS subsidiary. through supply monopolies. In the U.K., retailers are interested
in PET for wine because of the reduction in packaging weight,
Belgian brewer and pioneer of PET packaged beer Brouwerij Martens— but they are concerned about consumer reaction. A number of
which launched its first beers in barrier PET bottles in 2003—has now North American wine bottlers, such as Vancouver, Canada-based
introduced its barrier PET beer bottles to the Chinese market. Martens Painted Turtle, already have barrier PET packaged products on
is using bottles coated internally with Sidel’s Actis barrier and closed the market. French wine négociant Paul Sapin, based in Mâcon,
with a DoubleSeal SuperShorty Crown O2 scavenger closure from is one of the pioneers in Europe for wine in PET bottles, having
Bericap. The bottles are produced and filled with Martens’ premium supplied single-serve products to the airline industry for close to two
1758 beer at its joint-venture brewery at Suzhou, China—which decades. Austrian wine producer Wolf Blass Wines has introduced
Martens set up with Taiwanese partner Far Eastern Group in 2008. a 750ml PET bottle, supplied by VIP Packaging, which features
DiamondClear active oxygen-scavenging material, available through
Wine and Spirits Wine packaging could present converters with an exclusive licensing agreement with Constar International.
considerable opportunities in the coming years. Barrier PET Bottles
are starting to make headway in the wine industry, given that Artenius PET Packaging Europe (APPE) has developed a new PET
they are lighter weight than glass, and offer reductions in CO2 bottle design for wine that can accept synthetic or traditional cork
attributable to PET bottle production as well as the potential for closures. The new “Project Santiago” multilayer bottle uses APPE’s
recycling and reduced transport weight. proprietary BindOx active barrier technology and weighs just 50g,
compared to 600g or more for a traditional glass design. The
While wine is predominantly packed in glass bottles, there are niche new cork closure design weighs the same as the screw version but
market opportunities for growth in alternative pack formats such features a redesigned neck and shoulder to withstand the top-load
as bag-in-box, liquid cartons and PET bottles. For PET bottles, the during the corking process.
principal opportunity is in small bottles for airline and outdoor use,
but PET is also used for larger containers, particularly in Spain. The Juice Drinks Compared to liquid cartons, PET bottles currently
demand for small bottles for travel applications is growing very hold a low market share for fresh fruit juice packaging, but they
rapidly, but the mainstream wine market has proved extremely have been taking share from glass and HDPE bottles over the
resistant to alternatives to their traditional glass bottle. past five years. Bottling fruit juice in PET presents similar technical
challenges to beer. Progress in hot filling and aseptic filling,
PET wine bottle adoption has been faster in areas such as Sweden oxygen barriers and UV barriers will help this market to develop.
68
However, the oxygen-barrier requirement is much less stringent, and consumption of carbon dioxide scavengers is used in Japan to reduce
conservatism and concern about consumer resistance are much less the level of carbon dioxide in coffee packs. Japan is also the principal
important for fruit juices than for beer. world market for carbon dioxide scavengers for hot beverages.
PET fruit juice and fruit drink bottles are the largest market for Ready-to-Drink Beverages Ready-to-drink (RTD) teas are
oxygen scavengers in the U.S., and is also a major application in increasing their share of the soft-drinks market in most European
Europe. It is estimated that in Europe, 1.1 billion barrier PET bottles countries, though the market in Asia is much larger. Hot-fill tea
were consumed for fruit drinks in 2009; this is forecast to rise to products, in particular, have become very popular in Japan, China
just over 1.5 billion units in 2014. and Hong Kong; with many thousands of small- and medium-sized
tea manufacturers using plastic bottles for their products.
Hot Beverages A wide range of pack types are used for Oxygen scavengers are used for RTD drinks, mostly for RTD teas in
packaging hot beverages. Flexible packaging (bags, pouches and Japan and other Asia-Pacific countries.
films), often incorporating aluminium/plastic or aluminium/paper
multilayer structures, is the most widely used format. Flexible Dairy Drinks While overall milk consumption is showing only
packaging is used mostly for packaging tea bags and coffee. limited growth in the developed markets of North America and
MAP and vacuum packs for coffee currently use aluminium foil or Western Europe, barrier PET milk and dairy-drink bottles is a growth
metallised films as they protect against ultraviolet light. Laminates market, particularly in premium sectors. In Western Europe, just 2%
of inorganic barrier-coated films with paper permit the use of metal of the 32-billion-litre whole milk production is packed in PET, and
detectors. that is largely comprised of value-added short-shelf-life products
such as flavoured milks.
Folding cartons are the next most important pack type for
packaging hot beverages, and tea bags are the largest applications One of the challenges for PET is to provide UV protection. The
for folding cartons. Glass jars are used predominantly for packaging vitamins in milk––especially vitamin B2 and B12––are highly
instant coffee. Hot drinks are packaged in many other pack types, sensitive to UV light, and milk proteins can quickly break down to
including metal tins, composite cartons or tubes, plastic jars and sulphurous compounds that create strong off-flavours.
aluminium/plastic pouches. ColorMatrix has introduced a new light blocker for PET bottle
applications in the dairy industry with its latest SolO2 barrier
Carbon dioxide scavengers are the only active packaging technology system. The white liquid Lactra additive is said to provide UV
used to extend shelf life for hot beverages. Most of the world and visible light protection with addition levels of typically 6%
69
to 8%, compared with the typical 20% additions of alternative Indeed, the clarity of PET is a mixed blessing in the milk market,
technologies. The additive is based on ColorMatrix’s CoolRun because of the requirement for a UV barrier, but the gloss effect of
carrier system, which is said to achieve dispersions and particle-size PET is perceived as attractive for some premium products, and there
distributions that maximise light reflection. are also some practical advantages:
The latest development in multilayer dairy PET container production • P ET offers better protection than HDPE against
is the Prelactia preform overmoulding system—developed by bacterial contamination, because the bottle and cap
injection-machine maker Netstal and Spanish mouldmaker are free from pinholes
Molmasa, and in operation at PDG Plastiques in France. Since • T he greater strength of the PET container makes it
November 2007, it has produced containers for French dairy possible to stack five high instead of four high in
cooperative Laiterie de Saint Denis de Hotel (LSDH). distribution
LSDH initially bottled pasteurised milk in high-density polyethylene PET milk bottles are being used mostly for flavoured milk drinks
(HDPE) and then sterilised milk in glass and later in HDPE before in Western Europe. The markets for flavoured milks and drinking
finally converting to paperboard with Tetra Pak lines. The company yoghurts are growing rapidly, assisted by the trend toward healthy
worked on an opaque dye to produce a preform that would protect eating. In addition, modern aseptic bottling has now achieved
the milk from light, microbes and air, and then developed a new the required levels of microbiological safety for pH-neutral dairy
process with PDG Plastiques and the Netstal Company, consisting products in transparent PET, and the focus has now moved to the
of moulding a black PET preform and then overmoulding it with a stability of the final product under various storage conditions.
white PET preform. LSDH is now launching a lightweight PET bottle Danone, France, has switched from using HDPE to PET bottles and
without a sealing lid for ultra-heat-treated (UHT) milk. has integrated its bottle-manufacturing facilities to achieve cost
savings on production and raw materials. The company has invested
In countries with sophisticated cold chain distribution channels like in a new bottling line at its plant in Chekhov, Russia, which features
those in the U.K., Italy and the Nordic countries, aseptic filling of the world’s first Sidel Combi Predis line for dairy products. The new
fresh milk, often combined with oxygen barrier and UV protection, line has been operational since the summer of 2008.
can provide extended shelf life for premium products. Opportunities
are more limited in countries such as France, where long-life milk in Artenius PET Packaging Europe (APPE) gained an exclusive 10-year
cartons dominates the market. contract with Spanish dairy Leche Pascual which is launching a PET
milk bottle. In January, La Seda will take over production of 500
70
million PET preforms for milk, water and juices at the dairy group’s actually used. Not only must the packaged product be protected from
Trescasas (Segovia) plant. To solve the problem of UV penetration, aging, but the package itself must not show physical degradation,
the chemical producer has developed a new coating that it says will colour fading, or other change as it ages.
increase the plastic’s competitiveness with glass.
At the moment, plastic packaging accounts for around two thirds of
Nonfood all cosmetics packaging sales, with paper accounting for a further
15% of the market, and the remainder split between metal and
Pharmaceuticals and Health Care The pharmaceuticals and glass containers. Although rigid and flexible plastics have by far the
health-care packaging sector has somewhat different technical greatest share of this market, glass packaging has been enjoying
requirements than food or beverage packaging. Although materials the best growth of all packaging types.
with high-barrier properties and long shelf life are important, there
is a unique set of requirements that comes from the needs of rapidly Clear packaging, once difficult to deliver in many manufacturing
growing segments of the population. The aged, disabled, sick and processes, is prevalent in most personal-care packaging forms
generally incapacitated are major consumers of this specific type of today. The only drawback to clear packaging is that there is more
packaging. As a result, tamper resistance, easy opening, easy-to-use exposure to UV from sunlight and the powerful fluorescent lights
instructions and other innovations are large drivers. at the cosmetics counter, which affects the shelf life of the product.
Package developers can combat this problem by incorporating
Cosmetics and Personal Care The top cosmetics manufacturers sunscreens, which offer the package some UV protection, directly
say that today’s cosmetics packaging must have a combination into the plastic during the package moulding and manufacturing
of attributes that includes portability, price and performance. process. This not only improves the shelf life of the product but
Packaging is one of the most important aspects of product design provides colour stability to the package materials.
and marketing, as it is the packaging that is frequently the
consumer’s first contact with the product. Rigid plastic packaging is the packaging type most used on a
volume basis for personal-care products, with plastic bottles being
Compared with food, beverage and even pharmaceuticals packaging, dominant. For example, hair-care products tend to be packed
personal-care packaging must have a longer shelf life. This is due to predominantly in HDPE and other plastic bottles. The small PET
the perishable nature of the packaged product, as it is for those other market is also growing strongly, notably in shampoo because of
industries; but in the personal-care industry, the product often sits for the container’s attractiveness and transparency. PET bottles are
a very long time (either in the store or once purchased) before it is expected to continue to perform well in this packaging sector.
71
5
Outlook to 2015
While the global economic recession has had a restraining impact molecules are encapsulated in an HDPE for coextrusion
on shelf-life-extending technologies as manufacturers focus on cost- blow-moulding of multilayer bottles. While the
reduction measures, there are undoubtedly opportunities for further • The
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Flow-Limiter from Süd-Chemie Performance global economic
growth in the coming years. Packaging uses Advanced Desiccant Polymer for
moisture control in bottle packaging and is secured in
recession has
The following sections present some of the key trends for individual the cap below the induction seal, allowing the seal to had a restraining
shelf-life-extending technologies over the next five years: be retained. impact on shelf-
life-extending
Oxygen Scavengers Demand for oxygen scavengers will Antimicrobial Agents Antimicrobial technologies have been technologies as
be fuelled by robust growth for gas scavengers that will come limited to niche markets, mainly due to difficulties in securing food- manufacturers focus
from changes in the food product mix and increased cost- contact approvals, but these challenges could be overcome by a
on cost-reduction
competitiveness. Market prospects will benefit from an increase new breakthrough such as surface treatment of plastic film and film
in pharmaceuticals shipments and the use of more costly, higher- based on naturally occurring materials. measures, there
performing products. are undoubtedly
Some possible developments are the use of permitted preservatives opportunities for
Moisture Scavengers and Desiccants Some examples of new with a release mechanism and the use of free acids. Research is further growth in
desiccant systems for plastic bottles include: underway to find better ways to release antimicrobial additives the coming years.
• Alcan ��
Global Pharmaceutical Packaging of Canada from the packaging, with an eye toward adapting ideas used in
(acquired by Amcor in 2009) introduced the the pharmaceuticals industry. More research is required into how
StabilitySolutions line of plastic bottles that have antimicrobial agents affect the sensory aspects and acceptability
sorbent materials in the bottle layers. The coextruded of foods.
blow-moulded bottles maintain dry or oxygen-free
headspace, so there is no need for a drop-in desiccant or It should be possible to control antimicrobial diffusion using a
other scavengers. lacquer made from inorganic/organic hybrid polymers. This type
• TricorBraun
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of the U.S. has completed regulatory of packaging could be ideal for solid and semi-solid foods such as
approval and increased sample production of bottles fresh meat, dairy products, pasta, dough, fruit and vegetables but
incorporating the DryKeep desiccant polymer would not be suitable for liquid foods. There has been increased
compound, which employs a natural salt desiccant research into the use of biopolymers to produce antimicrobial food
manufactured by Sasaki Chemical of Japan. DryKeep packaging. Antimicrobial multilayer active films typically have four
72
Outlook to 2015
layers. The antimicrobial substance is embedded in the matrix layer Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) There are several
and its release to the food surface is controlled by the control layer, emerging trends that have been identified that could hinder the
adjacent to the matrix layer. growth of MAP. These include:
CO2 Scavengers and Emitters Carbon dioxide absorbers and Safety Concerns Carbon monoxide use in MAP for red
emitters are increasingly used to balance the effects of oxygen meat preserves the colour but has caused considerable
scavengers and emitters. For example, the oxygen scavenger controversy in the U.S. after a petition by Kalsec, which
ascorbic acid emits carbon dioxide when used with sodium makes herb and vegetable extracts for colouring food and
hydrogen carbonate, so a carbon dioxide scavenger is added to beverages. In 2006 Kalsec urged the U.S. Food and Drug
the mix. Some carbon dioxide emitters are marketed as aids to Administration (FDA) to ban the practice because it can
maintaining the carbon dioxide level in MAP. Combination lines mask the colour changes that indicate food spoilage.
account for about three quarters of total demand.
ppearance of MAP Packaging Wal-Mart in the U.S.
A
Antioxidants Research is focusing on the development of switched back to an overwrap meat tray because it was
alternative polymer formulas with antioxidants that are considered losing business to competitors who still used old-style
food additives. Natural oxidants are also being studied for use overwrap foam trays. Its case-ready packaging had looked
in active systems to control food oxidation by reactive oxygen too industrial and did not have the back-of-the-shop look
species. Many reports have shown that polyphenolic flavonoids of overwrap trays; it was prone to freezer burn as well.
can scavenge different reactive oxygen radicals and that most Wal-Mart’s new overwrap trays have a shelf life of only 2
flavonoids have long-term activity. Flavonoids containing the to 3 days, shorter than the shelf life of 10 to 16 days for
catechol group can reduce degradation of polyolefins. the case-ready packaging. Other retailers might well follow
Wal-Mart if consumers react favourably to this packaging
Active films to protect aqueous food products have been achieved reversal.
by the addition of natural antioxidants into hydrophilic EVOH
copolymers. The films released the active agents as a function of lternatives to MAP Appearing on the Market
A
various factors, including antioxidant concentration and the type The permeability of Cryovac’s Permeable Darfresh film
of food simulant to which the film is exposed. Alpha-tocopherol has been adapted for the gases produced by specific
added to PE produced active films that reduced the oxidation of cheeses. It limits oxygen entry but allows carbon dioxide
fatty food simulants. to escape, which subsequently allows the cheese to cure
73
Outlook to 2015
after packaging. This offers cheesemakers an alternative to • The

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Ecobac tray from Nossamile of France is
traditional MAP, flow-pack and thermoformed packaging. 100% recyclable
Most important, it extends the shelf life of packaged • T rykko of Denmark makes sealable and peelable trays
cheese, and Cryovac says that the new film produces clearer from PE and PET. The PE tray is suitable for fresh products,
packaging and prevents bubbles from forming in cheese, so and the PET tray has a total plastic content of just 7%,
it looks better, and the packaging is easy to open. with the remainder made from biodegradable polymers.
There are a number of products that pose challenges for Modified Interactive Packaging (MIP) The French National
MAP. For example, poultry was MAP-free until about three Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) has developed MIP that
years ago, and ready meals remain MAP-free because quadruples the shelf life of mushrooms and other vegetables. It
it is virtually impossible to get the gas mixture right for can change the gas composition in the package during the shelf
the complicated mixture of ingredients used in ready life of the product. LLS of the U.K. has developed MIP that keeps
meals. Other difficult items for MAP technology are meat produce fresh using the gases from its respiration. LLS says the
and fish products that contain residual liquid, which packaging can extend the shelf life of strawberries up to 27 days.
tends to look unattractive sliding around in a tray. Some The packaging does, however, have a slight cloudiness. MIP is only
equipment manufacturers are trying to overcome these suitable for fresh produce and cannot be used with meat or fish.
issues, and Multivac’s skin packaging technology is one
way to hold the product in place. Barrier films Barrier film developments are detailed below.
Sustainability is an issue in packaging, and several MAP Oxygen and Other Gas-Barrier Films Barriers that
solutions use environmentally friendly materials from offer a biodegradable, sustainable alternative to existing
renewable sources. The following are some examples: packaging materials are currently the recipients of the
• ANL
��
Plastics makes biofilm that is 100% biodegradable majority of research and development funds in the oxygen
and compostable and gas segment. There is widespread agreement in the
• Veriplast
��
International makes biodegradable PLA trays industry that consumers and recycling regulations will soon
for packing whole and sliced vegetables, fruit and salads demand that all packaging meets environmental standards.
• Moonen
��
Packaging of China and Roots Biopack of Moisture-Barrier Films With foodstuffs now travelling
Belgium use sugar-cane fibres to make packaging that great distances, often from one side of the world to
meets standard EN 13432 on industrial composting another before ending up on supermarket shelves,
74
Outlook to 2015
moisture-barrier films need to become much more Meanwhile, technological advances in water-based
sophisticated if they are to withstand the rigours of polyethylene terephthalate (PETP) films, aimed at the
demanding production environments and punishing fresh-food category, have been making headlines, with the
travel conditions. Traditional film products are unlikely to Exxon Mobil Chemical Co., among others, seeking to gain
be up to the task; therefore, some producers are working market share.
on metallising technology to create the ultimate film-
combination material. Nanopackaging A key trend in the barrier packaging market is
toward harnessing the power of nanotechnology, as developers’
A joint project between Karlstad University of Sweden claim the use of nanomaterials will make it possible to reduce
and Britain’s Sheffield Hallam University has developed the amount of total packaging material needed. Polymer
Cailar, an eco-friendly starch and clay packaging coating, nanocomposites are a developing class of packaging materials that
to replace oil-based plastic films as a moisture-barrier offers added value for end-users. For packaging, nanocomposites
coating for paper and cardboard packaging. Cailar will offer enhanced properties such as greater barrier protection, added
first be developed for low-water-content foods like cheese strength, increased shelf life, recycling potential and lighter-weight
or biscuits. Raw material is readily available for the materials. Polymer nanocomposites have been commercially
manufacture of Cailar and large-scale production can available for a number of years in various applications. In recent
easily be achieved. The group is looking for commercial times, there has been growing interest in their use for mainstream
partners, as it finalised its commercial strategy in summer barrier-packaging applications.
2010. Regulatory approval has yet to be obtained, but
a patent has been submitted to protect the intellectual Polymer nanocomposites are polymers bonded with nanoparticles
property rights. to produce materials with enhanced properties. (Nano materials
can be measured in nanometres. A nanometre is one billionth of
Food-Contact Films Water-based adhesive films, used, a metre). They are constructed by dispersing a filler material into
for example, for packaging for cheese, meat and coffee nanoparticles that form flat platelets. The most common filler is a
where high moisture content is an issue, are attracting nanoclay material called montmorillonite (a layered, smectite clay).
increasing interest. Research is also active around These platelets are then distributed into a polymer matrix, creating
water-based films for use in packing fat, vinegar, oils and multiple, parallel layers that force gases to flow through the
fruit juices. In the case of fruit juices, resistance to high polymer, forming complex barriers to gases and water vapour.
temperatures is critical during the pasteurisation process.
75
Outlook to 2015
Key benefits of polymer nanocomposites include: The immediate development of nanotechnology for food packaging
• Allow
��
for much lower loading levels than traditional may be hindered by a decision of the European Parliament’s
fillers to achieve a given performance level. Usually, environment committee. The committee is calling for tighter
additional levels of nanofillers are less than 5%, which controls on nanotechnology, including the application of the “no
leads to significant weight reduction of nanocomposite data, no market” principle contained in the REACH Directive. They
films. This dispersion process results in a high aspect are calling for products containing nanotechnology that are already
ratio and surface area, creating higher-performance on the market to be withdrawn until safety assessments can be
plastics than with conventional fillers made. The committee’s decision comes in the wake of a vote on the
• Ease
��
the transition between current packaging with novel food regulations when MEPs voted for definition, labelling
metal layers and glass containers to flexible pouches or and specific risk assessments for nano-containing foods.
rigid plastic structures
• Permit
��
greater recycling of postconsumer waste Over time, however, there is likely to be growing use of
packaging. Many current packaging structures require nanopackaging as the move towards globalisation of the food
multiple layers, which often renders the packaging supply boosts demand for shelf-life-enhancing packing. A recent
nonrecyclable. The added barrier protection provided market report by iRAP (Innovative Research and Products Inc.) for
by nanocomposites would mean less use of multilayer example, forecast the global nano-enabled food and beverage
packaging packaging market would climb from $4.13bn in 2008 to $7.3bn
by 2014—with an average growth rate of 11.6% per annum. Active
Nanotechnology for mainstream food packaging is currently in technology represents the largest share of the market, with roughly
its infancy. The further application of nanopackaging for food two thirds of the market, followed by intelligent packaging with one
products has the potential to provide great advantages for fourth, and controlled release packaging with just under one tenth.
food packaging, but only if the cost of the technology falls to a
more competitive level than at present. Companies are waiting A number of prominent companies are currently investigating the
for others to make a breakthrough and bring down the cost of use of nanopackaging for food and beverage products.
nanopackaging. There has been a lot of work at a research level Kraft and Kodak, for example, have carried out studies to
but the link to industry remains unestablished. Safety is an issue investigate the use of nanoparticles to develop food-packaging
as well, and a third concern is whether there is the supply chain in applications that offer enhanced properties. Bayer has used
place and whether component parts could be produced in sufficient nanotechnology to develop an antimicrobial film, called Durethan.
quantity and consistent quality. It is difficult to determine, however, how successful these
76
Outlook to 2015
developments have been, since many companies are reluctant to organically modified ceramics. By applying Ormocer coatings in
use nanotechnology for food-related applications. layer thickness of less than 5μm to standard substrates used in
packaging, composite structures with a super barrier effect for
Perkalite, a nanopackaging material developed by Akzo Nobel water vapour, oxygen, and flavour are created.
Chemicals, the Netherlands, offers lower permeability for food-
packaging applications such as foils, prepacked meat and bottles. Ormocers are produced through sol-gel chemistry. The sol-gel process
A number of companies are currently looking to integrate this is a focus of significant development because it offers the possibility
material, which complies with European Union (EU) regulations of applying oxide coatings at low ambient temperatures on many
governing food-contact materials, into their products. substrates of various shapes through the use of liquid solutions.
A further development is InMat’s Nanolok PT ADV-7 coating Organoalkoxysilanes, colloidal silica and other organic molecules
applied in thicknesses in the range of 0.5-0.8μ; the company states are used as the starting materials. Typically these materials
that this provides a better oxygen barrier than 10-20μ of EVOH. can be prepared so that the coating will cure by UV irradiation.
Potential users are evaluating this new technology as part of Alternatively, the coatings can be cured thermally by heat
their attempts to develop barriers using thinner films that use less treatment at temperature below 150°C. Ormocer coatings can be
material but still meet performance criteria. processed with all the conventional coating processes, including dip
and spray, curtain, spin-on, roller, ink-jet, and screen coating.
Table 5.1 describes various commercial products containing
nanoclays that can be used in packaging applications. Currently, many types of Ormocers are known. Physical properties
can vary from brittle and hard to soft and rubbery, depending on
TABLE 5.1 Entry nanoclay products in the packaging industry the ratio of the organic to inorganic constituents. The properties are
also controlled by how the inorganic polycondensation reaction is
Ormocers Ormocers, (organically modified ceramics) is an conducted and by controlling the linking reactions that lead to the
emerging form of nanotechnology. Ormocers can be deposited construction of the organic network.
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
on plastics as coatings or as laminate adhesive layers with good
barrier properties and abrasion resistance. These inorganic/organic For application as barrier layers in plastic packaging, Ormocers
polymers were developed by the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft zur have to be applied to polymers such as PET, OPP, and BOPP.
Forderung der agnewndten Forschung e.V. Munchen (Germany) Although glass-like thin films have been considered the state-of-
and trade-named Ormocer to indicate that they are essentially the-art in barrier coatings for plastics, their adhesion to polymer
77
Outlook to 2015
films and the mechanical properties are generally not sufficient have the water sensitivity or environmental concerns of the more
to be used as a single top-coat barrier layer. For example, SiOx conventional polymeric coatings.
coated polymer films have to be laminated in order to protect
the SiOx layer. Ormocer coatings can be used independently to HBP coatings can be applied by standard roll or spray coating
obtain moderate barrier improvements or in combination with SiOx operation, which opens the way for introducing the barrier layer
coatings for a superior barrier material. as part of a standard printing or coating operation during the
manufacture of the package. These materials are being developed
Unfortunately, Ormocers have yet to be developed sufficiently by the Nestle Research Centre in Switzerland and the Department
enough to deliver enhanced performance at a cost that is of Polymer Technology, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
competitive with other coating materials. However, the ease Sweden. Currently there are no commercial barrier coatings based
in processing and the continued development hints at a very on HBP materials.
competitive packaging product in the future.
Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Atmospheric plasma treating
Hyperbranched Polymers A new type of polymeric material, processes do not require a vacuum process and therefore can
hyperbranched polymers (HBP), is being investigated as a thin be applied to inline production processes. Atmospheric pressure
barrier coating for plastic packaging. HBPs are highly branched plasma modifies the surface of inorganic and organic materials to
molecular structures based on ABx-monomers, which introduces add functional groups that can provide new physical or chemical
potential branching points on every repeating unit as well as characteristics, such as enhanced surface roughness, which
numerous end-groups. The large numbers of end-groups and contributes to enhanced bonding of coatings.
branching points provide unique properties compared to those
of more linear polymers. The HBPs most widely investigated have The applications of plasma-barrier coatings to plastics have been
been modified hydroxy-functional polyester resins end-capped with restricted by their inadequate liquid- and gas-barrier properties, due to
acrylate or methacrylate units. permeation caused by the drop in partial pressure between the interior
and exterior surfaces. Permeation problems have been overcome by
When applied to PET or PP substrates and cross-linked by UV light, increasing container-wall thickness or applying barrier coatings.
these coatings provide excellent barriers against oxygen and water
vapour. These materials are said to provide a higher barrier to the Three dimensional cross-linked plasma polymerised layers offer
passage of gases, yet they do not exhibit the brittleness and cost of chemical and thermal resistance as well as mechanical stability. A
vacuum- or plasma-deposited inorganic coatings, and they do not 0.1μ thick layer reduces diffusion substantially. Plasma polymerised
78
Outlook to 2015
layers also adhere well to nonpolar surfaces such as polyethylene. Combining intelligent and active packaging offers many intriguing
Plasma coating has economic and ecological advantages, using possibilities. For example, a packaging system might consist of
small amounts of harmless process gases. a time-temperature indicator (TTI) and a biosensor to assess the
environment, and when necessary, release an antimicrobial and/or
Sustainable Barrier Coatings The trend toward biodegradable an antioxidant to extend the shelf life of food. The development of
packaging is also encouraging the development of barrier coatings decision-support systems based on food science will be extremely
based on sustainable resources. The Swedish STFI-PackForsk is important to the progress and acceptance of such advanced
developing biopolymer barrier coatings based on chitin obtained packaging systems.
from seafood wastes. Other commercial biofilm applications include
Amcor’s silicon-oxide-coated Ceramis and Innovia Films’ NatureFlex It is expected that the market sectors most heavily affected by new
films. The Swedish Xylophane AB’s Xylan, obtained from plant and sensor technology will be food and health-care packaging, although
wood waste, is a bio-alternative for aluminium foil and ethylene it is likely to penetrate all consumer packaging sectors.
vinyl alcohol (EVOH) barrier layers in liquid cartons. There are
also inks and laminating adhesives being developed that do not Regulations and Legislation Food packaging innovation
jeopardise the biodegradability of biofilm substrates and also meet will be largely driven by changes in regulations. The competitive
the DIN EN 19432 standard. pressure in particular product or market segments will certainly
lead to new developments, primarily instigated by consumer goods
Intelligent Packaging and Active Packaging One of the manufacturers. Cambridge Consultants, for example, expects the
most promising developments in the packaging industry could following trends for food-packaging innovation as a result of the
be the integration of active packaging and intelligent packaging. enforcement of new EU regulations:
The package of the future may measure humidity, oxygen and • Increased shelf life of food products using modified
a number of other substances and then dispense antimicrobial atmosphere and active packaging
additives, desirable aromas, or antioxidants into the contents from • Wider use of intelligent diagnostic packaging
a single package surface. (e.g. time-temperature indicators, and spoilage
and pathogen indicators)
• Widespread use of tracking devices for ensuring food
TABLE 5.2 Active and intelligent packaging provide value in three of the
four primary functions served by packaging chain supply traceability (e.g. RFID tagging, and high
density of information on barcodes)
CLICK TO VIEW TABLE
79
Outlook to 2015
European Union Legislation The EU has developed Active and intelligent packaging systems should comply
food-contact materials legislation to protect human health with Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 for all food-contact
and promote free trade between EU countries. Food- materials. It defines active and intelligent packaging
contact materials cover everything that can be expected as packaging intended to extend the shelf life or
to come into contact with food, including packaging maintain or improve the condition of packaged food.
(plastic, metal, coated film, etc.); consumer items such as The main requirements of this regulation are that active
kitchenware; and machinery, conveyer belts and filters. materials may bring about changes in the composition
Until 2004, the general framework of legislation for food- or organoleptic characteristics of food as long as they
contact materials was laid out in Directive 89/109/EEC. comply with the EU provisions applicable to food.
Substances are allowed to be released as long as the food
Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 was introduced to meet is in accordance with the Food Law. In addition, active
the rapid development of food-contact materials and an materials and intelligent packaging must not mislead the
increased move towards traceability in the food industry. consumer, and adequate labelling is required.
It incorporates the principle of inertness in Article 3:
Compliance should be tested by following the protocols in
ny material or article intended to come into contact
A 82/711/EEC and 85/572/EEC. However, dedicated tests
directly or indirectly with food must be sufficiently inert should be applied for semi-solid food as the test protocols
to preclude substances from being transferred to food in may exaggerate the migration. A specific regulation is
quantities large enough to endanger human health or to in preparation for active and intelligent packaging, and
bring about an unacceptable change in the composition of one of the major issues is that the active and intelligent
the food or a deterioration in its organoleptic properties. components require individual authorisation. Authorisation
for the component will only be given to the petitioner.
Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 applies to all materials and
articles in contact with or intended to be brought into Directives 2004/1/EC, 2004/19/EC and 2005/79/
contact with food (Article 1). It provides for the adoption EC update the list of permitted food additives and the
of specific measures for specific types of materials, such as restrictions that apply to any of the additives on the list.
plastics, rubber, paper, and active and intelligent materials In addition, given that the list of additives will be closed
(Article 5). Member states may maintain or adopt national in the future, it starts the process of creating a positive
provisions in the absence of specific measures (Article 6). list. The amended rules outline how to list an additive not
80
Outlook to 2015
currently on that master list in time to allow it to continue per kilogram of food applies specifically in the case
being used. Additives not on the list but meeting the of containers or similar receptacles with a capacity
general requirements of Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 can between 0.5 and 10 litres, or which have a contact area
continue to be used until the European Commission is that cannot be determined; and for sealing devices such
able to propose a positive list. as caps, gaskets and stoppers
• Positive lists of monomers, chemical compounds
Permitted food additives may be used in the manufacture that can link together to form longer molecules with
of food-contact plastics, but their use will not be allowed repeating structures (polymers), and starting substances
to have a technological function on the foodstuff; permitted for use in the manufacture of food-contact
to exceed the limits set in food law for their use as plastics
authorised additives or flavourings; or to exceed limits • Any time limits on their use
of foodstuffs prescribed in the directive where their use • Any specific migration limits
is not authorised as a food additive or flavouring. Before • An incomplete list of additives approved by the
being placed on the market, a written declaration must European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for use in food-
accompany the material or article where the material or contact plastics
article is to be used in contact with foodstuffs containing
a food additive. Future EU food-contact legislation will extend to
multilayer packaging and unintentionally added
Directive 2002/72/EC covers all plastics, coatings substances. There will be specific regulations on active
and adhesives that come into contact with food. It and intelligent materials and articles, recycling of plastics,
incorporates a complete positive list for all monomers, but and restrictions.
an incomplete positive list for additives. It states a number
of requirements that must be met for food packaging: U.S. Legislation Unlike the EU, the U.S. Food and Drug
• Its composition must comply with Article 3 of Administration (FDA) does not operate a single regulation
Regulation (EC) 1935/2004 and a complete positive for food-contact materials. Regulations are listed in
list at national level the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), food-contact
• An overall migration limit is set for all food-contact notifications (FCN) or through exemptions. Exemptions
plastics. In general, this limit is 10 mg per 1 dm2 include prior sanctions, generally recognised as safe
of plastic surface area. However, a limit of 60 mg (GRAS) and the base resin doctrine.
81
Outlook to 2015
For plastics, the FDA offers a complete positive list for

monomers, additives and colourants. If a material or
additive developed for use in food packaging is generally
recognised as safe by the developer (self-determination)
or affirmed as GRAS by the FDA, it may be used in food
packaging. If a material or additive developed for use
in food packaging is not GRAS, it may be used only if
a food additive petition and environmental assessment
are approved. The FDA does not guarantee compliance
with EU legislation and there are differences between the
systems. EU regulations are classified by function, whereas
FDA regulations are classified by final product. The EU
focuses on the potential level of migration of monomers
and additives to food, whereas the FDA focuses on
potential dietary exposures.
82
FIGURE 2.1 Intelligent packaging diagram FIGURE 2.3 Ageless-Eye oxygen indicator
Source: Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co.

RETURN TO PAGE
Source: Islem A.Yazza: “Printed Intelligence in Packaging,”

RETURN TO PAGE
2009 Symposium on Nanomaterials for Flexible Packaging
FIGURE 2.2 A typical time-temperature indicator
Source: Islem A.Yazza

RETURN TO PAGE
Source: OnVu
RETURN TO PAGE
TABLE 2.1 Examples of indicators and their working principles TABLE 3.1 Barrier packaging technologies, properties and applications
Technique Principle/reagents Information provided Application Barrier Properties / developments Applications
Tamper evidence Mechanical, optical Breach of package or Security tape, shrink technology
containment labels Monolayer Bulk polymeric materials capable Soda and beer bottles, other rigid containers
Quality and safety indicators Mechanical, chemical, Storage conditions, Foods stored under of extrusion, injection moulding,
Time-temperature (TTI) enzymatic, dyes that package leak, microbial chilled and frozen thermoforming etc. (EVOH, nylon,
Microbial growth react with certain quality of food (i.e. conditions, modified PET, PP, PE)
Gas sensing devices microbes or pathogens spoilage), specific atmosphere packaging, Base webs or films such as OPP, PET, Packaging wrap. Flexible bags and pouches. Base for
Pathogen detection pathogenic bacteria perishable foods such as cellulose, PVC multilayer film
meat, fish and poultry, Nanocomposites consisting of Bottles and containers. Fuel tanks. Food trays and
pharmaceuticals, combinations of materials such as packaging
personal care products polyamide and clay particles
Traceability devices RFID chips/tags, Source manufacturer, Food and nonfood Multilayer Adhesives lamination of a barrier Vacuum-packed cheese and other perishable products.
barcodes date of manufacture, products that have film to a more conventional Sugar confectionery. Packaging for sliced cooked
location of package, value or where packaging substrate meats. Blister packs for drugs
inventory, sale, theft traceability or tracking Extrusion lamination with Flexible packaging for ground coffee and other
are important aluminium foil or barrier resins perishable products. Packaging for light sensitive
Product authenticity Hidden design print Source manufacturer Premium goods materials
elements, holographic requiring verification Coextrusion or co-injection moulding Soda and beer bottles. Vacuum-packed foods. More
images and logos of source, avoidance of used for commodity plastics
counterfeit product Coatings Metallisation Microwavable packaging. Thin coatings on mainly rigid
plastic packaging. Substitute for aluminium foil
Source: Pira International Ltd RETURN TO PAGE Liquid applied (aqueous or solvent Coating of preforms for subsequent moulding to
solution or solventless with thermal bottles. Thin coatings on webs and rigid plastics (bottle
or UV cure) exteriors). Often used with commodity films
TABLE 3.4 Examples of coextruded, laminated and coated films Vapour deposition Microwaveable articles. Boil-in-bag packaging. Interiors
Type of barrier Typical applications in the food packaging industry of soda and beer bottles
Coextruded Other (extrusion, hot melt) See extrusion and coextrusion above
High impact polystyrene – polyethylene Margarine, butter tubs
terephthalate (PET) Source: Pira International Ltd RETURN TO PAGE
Polystyrene – polystyrene – polyvinylidene Juices, milk bottles
chloride (PVdC) – polystyrene TABLE 3.5 Permeability of metallised films
Polystyrene-polystyrene – PVdC – polyethylene Butter, cheese, margarine, coffee, mayonnaise, sauce tubs and Film WVTR (gms/m2/d) OTR (cm3/m2/day)
bottles Initial Metallised Initial Metallised
Laminated LDPE (30 micron) 17 0.8 5000 38
Cellulose – polyethylene (PE) – cellulose Pies, crusty bread, bacon, coffee, cooked meats, cheese Cast PP (25 micron) 15 1.0 3600 47
Cellulose acetate – paper – foil – polyethylene Dried soups Biaxially oriented PP (25 micron) 6 1-2 1600 20
Polyethylene – aluminium – paper Dried soups, dried vegetables, chocolate PET (12 micron) 46 0.7 58 1.6
Coated PVdC coated PET (12 micron) 11 0.5 9 0.8
PVdC coated polypropylene (two layers) Crisps, snack foods, confectionery, ice cream, biscuits,
chocolate Note: Metallised layer is 5,000 angstroms thick
PVdC coated polypropylene – polyethylene Bakery products, cheese, confectionery, dried fruit, frozen
RETURN TO PAGE
Source: Briston, J., “Advances in Plastics Packaging Technology,”
vegetables Pira International, Leatherhead UK, 1992. p.88.
Metallised polyester (PET) – polyethylene Coffee, dried milk
Source: ‘Packaging Materials for Foods’, RETURN TO PAGE

Intermediate Technology Development Group,
The Schumacher Center for Technology and Development
TABLE 3.7 Applications and characteristics of metallised films, other than PET TABLE 3.11 Properties of barrier materials and their uses
Base Film Characteristics Applications
Barrier materials Properties and use
PA PA does not have as smooth a surface profile and its Ground coffee when laminated to
hydroscopic nature makes it a difficult material to metallise. a PE film
Base webs
OTR is not enhanced as dramatically as with PET films
OPP Metallised OPP provides decoration and moisture protec- Potato chips, chocolate BOPET is used to improve the barrier properties to oxygen, water vapour and carbon
tion. It is generally coated with PVdC or acrylic. confectionery, ice creams, and BOPET dioxide. It has excellent clarity and is often used as a glass replacement. BOPET can
lollypop wraps. bear temperatures up to 220°C
CPP Metallised CP is a niche product Twist-wrap confectionery and PA (Nylon) is a good barrier material to oxygen and carbon dioxide whereas it is a
special laminate applications such PA (Nylon) moderate barrier material to moisture vapour. Having less-than-adequate heat-sealing
as flow-packed noodles characteristics, it is an expensive material to purchase
PE OTR and moisture transmission properties are not as good Bread bags
Barrier polymers
as metallised PET
During manufacture, the barrier properties rely entirely on the degree of plasticiser. It is
Source: Pira International Ltd PVdC
RETURN TO PAGE mostly used to overwrap foods
A high barrier material to carbon dioxide and oxygen and a moderate barrier material
to moisture vapour. The barrier properties of EVOH to carbon dioxide, oxygen and
TABLE 3.9 Comparison of oxygen and water vapour barrier performance EVOH
moisture vapour decrease when kept in a moist/humid environment. It is a costly
Barrier material Thickness of OTR (cm3/m2/d) WVTR Deposition process packaging material and is largely used as the barrier film in a laminate
substrate or (gms/m2/d)
PEN is a high barrier material to chemicals and is UV resistant. Used for cosmetics
coating PEN
packaging, fruit juices, mineral water and food containers
PET 12 μm 100 65
LCP is a high barrier material noted for heat resistance and chemical resistance and is
PVdC 24 μm 8 0.3 LCP
largely used for applications in the electrical, electronic and automotive field
EVOH 24 μm 0.16-1.86 NA Packaging applications are films for pharmaceuticals and personal health care,
OPA 15 μm 30 blister packs, food packaging. COC has a number of properties such as excellent
Aluminized 30 nm 0.31-1.53 0.31-1.55 Evaporation COC optical properties, high flow and ultra-low moisture absorption, high HDT, glass like
PET(single) transparency, low shrinkage, low water absorption, good electrical properties, purity,
Aluminized PET 30 nm each 0.03 NA Evaporation low density and good heat resistance
(double)
Aluminium on PE 7 μm Al 0.001 NA Laminated Source: Pira International Ltd
RETURN TO PAGE
SiOx on PET 10-80 nm 0.35-10 0.46-1.24 Evaporation
SiOx on PET 10-80 nm 0.08-1.55 0.5-5.0 PECVD
AlOx on PET 20 nm 1.5 5.0 Reactive Evaporation
AlOx/SiOx on PET 50 nm 2-3 1.0 Evaporation
Carbon on PET 20 nm 2 1.5 PECVD
Source: Decker, W., and Henry, B.,

RETURN TO PAGE
“Basic Principles of Thin-Film Barrier Coatings,”
Society of Vacuum Coaters, 45th Annual Technical Conference, 2002.
TABLE 5.1 Entry nanoclay products in the packaging industry

Trade name (supplier) Polymer matrix Comments/applications
Durethan LDPU (Bayer AG) Nylon 6 Barrier for multilayer packaging. Gloss and clarity equivalent to more
costly copolyamide films. Good antiblock performance.
(Clariant) Polypropylene Packaging applications
Aegis (Honeywell) Nylon 6, barrier polyamide Medium-barrier product for bottles and films. Used as core layer in
three-layer PET beer bottles. Grades available in combination with
oxygen absorbers (Aegis OX).
Imperm (Nanocor) Polypropylene, nylon 6, copolyamide Multipurpose applications and PET beer bottles
Source: Pira International Ltd RETURN TO PAGE
TABLE 5.2 Active and intelligent packaging provide value in three of the four primary functions served by packaging
Protection Communication Convenience Containment
Active and intelligent packaging
Tamper resistance Shelf-life sensors Easy opening and closing features
Source identification Bar tags Automated cooking
Gas absorbers RFID
Antimicrobial additives Notification of expiration,
next use date, etc.
Source: Pira International Ltd; modified from Han, J.H., et al.,
“Intelligent Packaging,” Chapter 9 in Innovation in Food Packaging, RETURN TO PAGE
J.H. Han, ed., Elsevier Press, New York, 2005, p. 140
List of Tables and Figures
TABLE 2.1 Examples of indicators and their working principles

TABLE 3.1 Barrier packaging technologies, properties and applications
TABLE 3.2 Barrier classification
TABLE 3.3 Typical properties for polymer barriers
TABLE 3.4 Examples of coextruded, laminated and coated films
TABLE 3.5 Permeability of metallised films
TABLE 3.6 Typical applications for metallised polyester laminates
TABLE 3.7 Applications and characteristics of metallised films, other than PET
TABLE 3.8 Oxygen and moisture vapour characteristics of PVdC coatings for various film structures
TABLE 3.9 Comparison of oxygen and water vapour barrier performance
TABLE 3.10 Barrier properties of SiOx coated barrier films and rigid packaging
TABLE 3.11 Properties of barrier materials and their uses
TABLE 5.1 Entry nanoclay products in the packaging industry
TABLE 5.2 Active and intelligent packaging provide value in three of the four primary functions served by packaging
FIGURE 2.1 Intelligent packaging diagram

FIGURE 2.2 A typical time-temperature indicator
FIGURE 2.3 Ageless-Eye oxygen indicator
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Extended Shelf Life Technologies

This report examines the technologies available to the

Head of US publishing Find out more

Customer services manager

growth over the coming years.

Barrier films and coating systems developments are also examined.

One of the most promising developments in the packaging industry

Introduction and Methodology

Introduction and Methodology

Introduction and Methodology

Introduction and Methodology

to prolong the shelf life of processed or fresh food by changing

Vacuum packaging: A packaging technology that removes

Active Packaging Oxygen Scavengers and Emitters Oxygen scavengers help

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

its OnCap product reduces acetaldehyde-related taste and odour

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Packaging Technology Developments

Biosensors The two primary components of a biosensor are a

FIGURE 2.4 Food Sentinel System

Gas Indicators The most common gas indicators are oxygen

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier coatings and biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) films

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

Functional Additives Anti-fog additives are made of two-part molecules: a hydrophilic

Barrier Coatings, Films and Functional

The most popular anti-fogging agents have ester chemical

End-Use Sector Developments

End-Use Sector Developments

End-Use Sector Developments

End-Use Sector Developments

End-Use Sector Developments

End-Use Sector Developments

For plastics, the FDA offers a complete positive list for