P.B.R.

VISVODAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NAAC)
KAVALI – 524201, S.P.S.R Nellore Dist., A.P. India. Ph: 08626-243930
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING

DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN AND COMPUTER ORGANIZATION (21A050401)

Course Name: B.Tech Year/SEM: 2/1

Name of the Faculty: G.MALYADRI A.Y: 2022-2023

SWITCHING NETWORKS (PO2)

Switched communication networks are those in which data transferred from source to
destination is routed between various intermediate nodes. Switching is the technique by
which nodes control or switch data to transmit it between specific points on a network.
There are 3 common switching techniques: 

1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching
Message Switching – 
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternative to circuit switching before
packet switching was introduced. In message switching, end-users communicate by sending
and receiving messages that included the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest
individual unit. 
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of
intermediate nodes that transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its destination.
Message switched data networks are hence called hop-by-hop systems. 
They provide 2 distinct and important characteristics: 

1. Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the
entire message to the next node. Hence, each node must have storage capacity. A
message will only be delivered if the next hop and the link connecting it are both
available, otherwise, it’ll be stored indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch forwards a
message only if sufficient resources are available and the next hop is accepting data.
This is called the store-and-forward property. 
 
2. Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single message
and transferring it from the source to the destination node. Each message must have a
header that contains the message routing information, including the source and
destination.
Message switching network consists of transmission links (channels), store-and-forward
switch nodes, and end stations as shown in the following picture: 

Characteristics of message switching – 

Message switching is advantageous as it enables efficient usage of network resources. Also,
because of the store-and-forward capability of intermediary nodes, traffic can be efficiently
regulated and controlled. Message delivery as one unit, rather than in pieces, is another
benefit. 
However, message switching has certain disadvantages as well. Since messages are stored
indefinitely at each intermediate node, switches require a large storage capacity. Also, these
are pretty slow. This is because at each node, first there is a wait till the entire message is
received, then it must be stored and transmitted after processing the next node and links to
it depending on availability and channel traffic. Hence, message switching cannot be used
for real-time or interactive applications like a video conference. 

Advantages of Message Switching – 

Message switching has the following advantages:  
1. As message switching is able to store the message for which communication channel is
not available, it helps in reducing the traffic congestion in the network.
2. In message switching, the data channels are shared by the network devices.
3. It makes traffic management efficient by assigning priorities to the messages.
4. Because the messages are delivered via a store and forward method, it is possible to
include priority in them.
5. It allows for infinite message lengths.
6. Unlike circuit switching, it does not necessitate the actual connection of source and
destination devices.
Disadvantages of Message Switching – 
Message switching has the following disadvantages:  
1. Message switching cannot be used for real-time applications as storing messages causes
delay.
2. In message switching, the message has to be stored for which every intermediate device
in the network requires a large storing capacity.
3. Because the system is so intricate, people are frequently unaware of whether or not
messages are correctly conveyed. This could cause problems in social relationships.
4. The type of message switching does not create a dedicated path between the devices. It
is not dependable communication because there is no direct relationship between sender
and receiver.
Applications – 
The store-and-forward method was implemented in telegraph message switching centres.
Today, although many major networks and systems are packet-switched or circuit-switched
networks, their delivery processes can be based on message switching. For example, in
most electronic mail systems the delivery process is based on message switching, while the
network is in fact either circuit-switched or packet-switched.

Routing algorithms (PO2)

A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data packets
from source to the destination. They help in directing Internet traffic efficiently. After a data
packet leaves its source, it can choose among the many different paths to reach its
destination. Routing algorithm mathematically computes the best path, i.e. “least – cost path”
that the packet can be routed through.

Types of Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types, adaptive and nonadaptive
routing algorithms. They can be further categorized as shown in the following diagram −
Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Adaptive routing algorithms, also known as dynamic routing algorithms, makes routing
decisions dynamically depending on the network conditions. It constructs the routing table
depending upon the network traffic and topology. They try to compute the optimized route
depending upon the hop count, transit time and distance.

The three popular types of adaptive routing algorithms are −

 Centralized algorithm − It finds the least-cost path between source and destination
nodes by using global knowledge about the network. So, it is also known as global
routing algorithm.
 Isolated algorithm − This algorithm procures the routing information by using local
information instead of gathering information from other nodes.
 Distributed algorithm − This is a decentralized algorithm that computes the least-
cost path between source and destination iteratively in a distributed manner.

Non – Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Non-adaptive Routing algorithms, also known as static routing algorithms, construct a static
routing table to determine the path through which packets are to be sent. The static routing
table is constructed based upon the routing information stored in the routers when the
network is booted up.

The two types of non – adaptive routing algorithms are −

  Flooding − In flooding, when a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the
outgoing links except the one it has arrived on. Flooding may be uncontrolled,
controlled or selective flooding.
 Random walks − This is a probabilistic algorithm where a data packet is sent by the
router to any one of its neighbours randomly.

A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data packets
from source to the destination. They help in directing Internet traffic efficiently. After a data
packet leaves its source, it can choose among the many different paths to reach its
destination. Routing algorithm mathematically computes the best path, i.e. “least – cost path”
that the packet can be routed through.

Types of A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data
packets from source to the destination. They help in directing Internet traffic efficiently.
After a data packet leaves its source, it can choose among the many different paths to reach
its destination. Routing algorithm mathematically computes the best path, i.e. “least – cost
path” that the packet can be routed through.

Types of Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types, adaptive and nonadaptive
routing algorithms. They can be further categorized as shown in the following diagram −

Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Adaptive routing algorithms, also known as dynamic routing algorithms, makes routing
decisions dynamically depending on the network conditions. It constructs the routing table
depending upon the network traffic and topology. They try to compute the optimized route
depending upon the hop count, transit time and distance.

The three popular types of adaptive routing algorithms are −

 Centralized algorithm − It finds the least-cost path between source and destination
nodes by using global knowledge about the network. So, it is also known as global
routing algorithm.
 Isolated algorithm − This algorithm procures the routing information by using local
information instead of gathering information from other nodes.
 Distributed algorithm − This is a decentralized algorithm that computes the least-
cost path between source and destination iteratively in a distributed manner.

Non – Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Non-adaptive Routing algorithms, also known as static routing algorithms, construct a static
routing table to determine the path through which packets are to be sent. The static routing
table is constructed based upon the routing information stored in the routers when the
network is booted up.

The two types of non – adaptive routing algorithms are −

 Flooding − In flooding, when a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the
outgoing links except the one it has arrived on. Flooding may be uncontrolled,
controlled or selective flooding.
 Random walks − This is a probabilistic algorithm where a data packet is sent by the
router to any one of its neighbours randomly.

Routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types, adaptive and nonadaptive
routing algorithms. They can be further categorized as shown in the following diagram −
Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Adaptive routing algorithms, also known as dynamic routing algorithms, makes routing
decisions dynamically depending on the network conditions. It constructs the routing table
depending upon the network traffic and topology. They try to compute the optimized route
depending upon the hop count, transit time and distance.

The three popular types of adaptive routing algorithms are −

 Centralized algorithm − It finds the least-cost path between source and destination
nodes by using global knowledge about the network. So, it is also known as global
routing algorithm.
 Isolated algorithm − This algorithm procures the routing information by using local
information instead of gathering information from other nodes.
 Distributed algorithm − This is a decentralized algorithm that computes the least-
cost path between source and destination iteratively in a distributed manner.

Non – Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Non-adaptive Routing algorithms, also known as static routing algorithms, construct a static
routing table to determine the path through which packets are to be sent. The static routing
table is constructed based upon the routing information stored in the routers when the
network is booted up.

The two types of non – adaptive routing algorithms are −

  Flooding − In flooding, when a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the
outgoing links except the one it has arrived on. Flooding may be uncontrolled,
controlled or selective flooding.
 Random walks − This is a probabilistic algorithm where a data packet is sent by the
router to any one of its neighbours randomly.

Course
Course Outcome Taxonomy Level
Code
C212.1 Understand the basic functional units interconnection with computer TL2 - UNDERSTAND

C212.2 Analyze combinational and Sequential circuits. TL4 - ANALYZE

C212.3 Interpret Arithmetic operations on fixed point and floating point numbers TL2 - UNDERSTAND

C212.4 Describe memory management strategies TL2 - UNDERSTAND

C212.5 Illustrate I/O data transfer methods TL3 - APPLY