Article Supervisory Support

Humanomics
Management and supervisory support as a moderator of work–family demands and

women’s well-being: A case study of Muslim female academicians in Malaysia
Meguellati Achour, Shahidra Binti Abdul Khalil, Bahiyah Binti Ahmad, Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor, Mohd
Yakub Zulkifli Bin Mohd Yusoff,
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Management
Management and supervisory and
support as a moderator of supervisory
support
work–family demands and
women’s well-being 335
A case study of Muslim female

academicians in Malaysia
Meguellati Achour
Research and Development Division, University of Malaya,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Shahidra Binti Abdul Khalil and Bahiyah Binti Ahmad
Department of Fiqh and Usul, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor
Department of Islamic History and Civilization, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and
Mohd Yakub Zulkifli Bin Mohd Yusoff
Department of Al-quran and Al-hadith, Academy of Islamic Studies,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to examine the relationship of work–family demands with employees’
well-being, and the role of management/supervisory support in this relationship. The following hypotheses
were proposed: work–family demands would be negatively related to employees’ well-being; management/
supervisory support would moderate the relationship of work–family demands with employees’ well-being.
Design/methodology/approach – The researchers used 250 working female academicians as
respondents, working in the research universities in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Their ages ranged from 30 to
60 years.
Findings – The findings of the present study proved that the work–family demands were negatively
associated with employees’ well-being. Results also revealed that management and supervisory support
strengthens the relationship between work–family demands and employees’ well-being. Thus, management
and supervisory support plays an important role in balancing work demands and family roles and also in
increasing working female academicians’ well-being.
Originality/value – In this study, management and supervisory support was found to be directly related
to well-being, including life satisfaction, job satisfaction and family satisfaction. However, the direct
relationship between management/supervisory support and well-being was positive and significant. This
study also found that management/supervisor support reduced work–family conflict and work–family
Humanomics
Vol. 33 No. 3, 2017
The authors would like to thank a Research and Development Division at Academy of Islamic pp. 335-356
Studies for financial assistance to prepare this article. The grant provided to the authors under © Emerald Publishing Limited
0828-8666
research project RP028B-16HNE is highly appreciated. DOI 10.1108/H-02-2017-0024
H demands. Also, supervisory and management support was found to have a significant and positive
relationship with well-being. Given these findings, supervisory and management support plays a very
33,3 important role as a moderator of work–family demands and in developing and improving well-being in
working women.
Keywords Supervisory support, Well-being, Work–family conflict, Management support,
Work–family demands
336 Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Work–family conflict (WFC) is a widespread phenomenon of modern life in the twenty-first
century, especially in meeting the demands of new economic changes. Globalisation and
technological invention have brought about change in the way work is done, and when and
where it is performed. It simultaneously affects the life of employees and tends to develop
WFC, as the demands of both increase (Hill et al., 2004) and are incompatible in some
respects (Samsinar et al., 2010). Globalisation has affected the family as more women are
now entering into the labour force (Bahira, 2010), meaning there are more dual-career
families (Samsinar et al., 2010). The participation of women in employment may be owing to
educational improvement (Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011). As more women are involved in
paid work, there is the propensity for them having less time to spend with family.
Subsequently, the discussion on WFC becomes a significant subject for the present
environment.
WFC as defined by Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) and Kahn et al. (1964) is a type of inter-
role conflict in which the role demands from work or family are mutually unsuited in some
respect. According to Kahn et al. (1964), a predetermined or expected role results from the
expectations of others about accurate behaviour in a particular position. Conflict of the role
is described as the psychological strain that is brought about by conflicting pressures of
role. Both work and family domains have their demands and problems and can result in
either work interfering with family life, or vice versa (Aryee et al., 1999; Frone et al., 1997).
Such demands include long working hours; extensive, irregular or inflexible work hours;
office work overload; extensive travel; unsupportive supervisors and organisation;
household work; and matters related to children (Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011; Achour et al.,
2015).
The conflict that employees may face from the demands of work and family could be
time-based, strain-based and behaviour-based (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). According to
Siti Aisyah et al. (2011), time-based conflict occurs when the time demand of one role is
incompatible with those of another. Strain-based conflict occurs when strain experienced in
one role intrudes and interferes with participation in another role, and behaviour-based
conflict occurs when behaviour patterns appropriate to one domain are inappropriate in
another. She explained these conflicts with examples. Working overtime forces cancellation
of family outings, while the stress of tending to a sick child affects one’s ability to
concentrate at work. Behaviour-based conflict is described as the incompatibility of
emotional restrictions at work with the openness expected by family members.
WFC commonly demonstrates negative impacts. It is considered a general difficulty
faced by the majority of workers in the world that creates negative outcomes such as stress,
anxiety, depression, loss of control, dissatisfaction, absenteeism, tardiness, turnover,
decrease in productivity and insufficient personal time (Holbeche and McCartney, 2002;
Voydanoff, 2004a, 2004b; Siti Aisyah et al., 2011; Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011). Allen et al.
(2000) claimed WFC as one of the main stressors at the workplace in the USA.
All these effects contribute to the employee’s well-being (Holbeche and McCartney, 2002; Management
Greenhaus et al., 2003; Siti Aisyah et al., 2011). Hence, support from different parties such as and
a spouse, children, colleagues and supervisors is vital to assist the employees to perform
supervisory
their job and responsibility properly either in the workplace or at home. Both the availability
and the quality of social support are important social assets for individual adjustment and support
well-being. Social support has consistently been related to increased health and well-being
(Cohen, 1988; House et al., 1988; Samsinar et al., 2010; Wan Edura et al., 2012).
Therefore, this study aims to analyse the role of management and supervisory support as
337
a moderator of work–family demands in female academicians’ well-being. The research
examines the relationship between work–family demands and female academicians’ well-
being. The study also examines the moderating effect of the management and supervisory
support on the relationship between work–family demands and well-being.
Literature review
Work–family conflict and variables
Previous studies indicated that conflict between work and family demands is higher for
women compared to men because women spend more time on work and family activities
simultaneously (Frone et al., 1992; Hammer et al., 1997). This happens because women are
still principally responsible for the home and family even if she is working (Noor, 2004).
Women normally turn to female-typed occupations to minimise conflict with family
roles, as these occupations tend to be more time-flexible. However, status enhancements in
these occupations are sometimes more difficult to attain (Moore and Gobi, 1995). In a
research in the UK, commitment to family responsibilities was named as a common barrier
to women’s advancement to senior levels among the managers and CEO (Lyness and
Thompson, 1997). In most Western countries, teaching is considered a female profession,
particularly in elementary level (Ruijs and Leather, 1993). However, university teaching and
administration are domains mostly reserved for males (Ruijs and Leather, 1993). Apart from
limiting the career commitment, some women tackle the work demands by opting not to
marry or have children (Elisabeth, 2003). This signifies that family demands such as marital
status, the number of children and age of the youngest child influence the women’s
employment pattern, as proven in a study carried out in Norway (Elisabeth, 2003).
The studies of relationship between gender and work–family balance as reported by
(Lyness and Thompson, 1997) have mixed results, with some studies reporting greater WFC
for female managers than male managers (Gutek et al., 1991) and other studies not finding
significant gender differences in work–family balance (Hill et al., 2001; Tausig and Fenwick,
2001) or WFC (Lyness and Thompson, 1997; Siti Aisyah et al., 2011).
Apart from gender, variables that have been studied and discovered to have a relation
with WFC are work overload, work hours and work schedules. As high role overload implies
that one has too much to undertake in an insufficient period, it may lead to a psychological
preoccupation with unfinished tasks even while responding to the demands of another role
(Aryee et al., 1999). Hence, work overload and parental overload have been reported to have
a significant relation with WFC (Frone et al., 1997). Long working hours also lead to WFC as
reported among medical doctors (Phil et al., 2000; Elisabeth, 2003). Hence, reduced working
hours is a common preference reported by the respondents, as it facilitates work–family
balance and helps reduce WFC (Phil et al., 2000; Elisabeth, 2003).
In terms of family characteristics, Huang et al. (2004) found that WFC has a positive
correlation with the number and ages of dependent children. However, another study in
Malaysia reported that there is no significant relationship between prevalence of conflict
H and studied family characteristics, namely, number of children, childcare arrangement and
33,3 presence of children aged 7-24 years (Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011).
Work–family conflict: the case of Malaysia

The Malaysian culture does not impede females from joining a workplace. Its gender
relations and the cultural set up are unique and conducive for an increment of female
338 participation and achievement in labour.
The first Malaysian Family Life Survey (MFLS-1) and fourth Malaysian Population and
Family Survey (MPFS-4) conducted by the National Population and Family Development
Board (NPFDB) disclosed that between 1978 to 2004, there has been a significant increase in
the proportion of working women in formal sectors such as professional, technical, clerical
and sales workers. This number is expected to increase as the female participation in labour
in Malaysia is increasing year by year. According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia,

there was an escalation in the number of women participating in labour in as shown in
Figure 1. In 2015, the percentage of female participation in labour increased from 53.7
per cent in 2014 to 54.1 per cent in 2015. From the figure, the highest employment of women
ranged from the ages of 25 to 34 years in 2014 and 2015.
Married Malaysian women who have taken the initiative to claim a role outside the home
may be experiencing difficulties in coping with paid (workplace) and unpaid (domestic
chores) work. Although Malaysian men may be supportive of their wives working because
of extra family income, they might not accept an equal share of household tasks. Several
studies indicated that Malaysian women still bear the major responsibility for doing most
household tasks and experience varying levels of WFC (Rahmah and Fatimah, 1999; Roziah,
2003; Noor and Rahamah, 1996; and Noor, 1999). A study on female Malaysian operators,
clerks, secretaries, nurses and physicians found that physicians experienced the greatest
intensity of the work-to-family conflict. However, operators experienced the greatest
intensity of family-to-work conflict (Aminah, 2005).
In studies conducted on married working women in Malaysia, women not only
experienced WFC (Fatimah, 1985; Aminah, 1995) but WFC was shown to lead significantly
to lower job satisfaction and life satisfaction (Aminah, 1996a, 1996b). WFC also significantly
leads to lower family satisfaction (Aminah, 1996a). The findings of Aminah (1996a) and
other studies conducted on 86 female researchers (Aminah, 1995) and 100 professional
women (Fatimah, 1985) showed that married working women in Malaysia experience WFC.
Figure 1.
Labour force
participation rate by
sex and age group,
Malaysia, 2014r and
2015
A more recent study conducted in Malaysia reported that ethnicity, age and employment are Management
the main factors related to the prevalence of WFC among working mothers in Malaysia and
(Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011). Chinese and Indian mothers are more likely to have WFC
compared with Malay mothers. Mothers in their 30s are more likely to have a WFC as do
supervisory
those working in the formal sector. Chinese and Indians in their 30s have the highest support
probability of having a conflict, with the probability of 0.6 and 0.4, respectively. In other
words, for every ten working Chinese mothers aged between 30 and 39 years, on average six
of them will experience WFC. Moreover, for every ten working Indian mothers, on average 339
four will experience WFC. However, type of occupation, number and ages of children and
type of childcare arrangement do not have a significant relationship/association with the
prevalence of conflict.
Role of management and supervisory support on employees’ well-being

Social support to female employees is vital to assist them to manage the conflict that arises
from work and family demands. Social support can be defined as an informal social network
that provides individuals with expressions of emotional concern or empathy, practical
assistance, informational support or appraisal (Samsinar et al., 2010). WFCs create some
problems for family members, which can also affect work demands. Work for women at
home can create behaviour-based conflict, as the pressure to complete work tasks is likely to
conflict with demands for attention from the spouse and/or children. Therefore, for most
women, help is acquired from husbands, children and housemaids. At work, assistance and
support are necessary from the supervisors, co-workers and management or organisational
policies (Samsinar et al., 2010).
Several studies found that WFC is more prevalent than family–work conflict (Jeffrey
et al., 2004; Siti Aisyah et al., 2011), and that the role of supervisor and management is very
important to facilitate employees in delivering better service and achieving satisfaction in
family and job and thus increase well-being (Wan Edura et al., 2012). A few studies found
that supervisory support is an important source of social support in coping with problems
associated with WFC (Anderson et al., 2002; Burke and Greenglass, 1999; Duxbury and
Higgins, 1994; Thomas and Ganster, 1995). Some researchers believe that the well-being of a
family lies largely in the hands of high-level supervisors (Rodgers and Rodgers, 1989). In a
preliminary research, it is shown that the more employees perceive their work environment
as family-supportive, the less they experience WFC (Laurent et al., 2008).
Supervisor support means that managers provide emotional and instrumental support to
workers on balancing job and family responsibilities. Management support can be defined as
employee’s perception towards the value that the organisation contributes and to what extent
the organisation is concerned with its own employees’ well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1997;
Lynch et al., 1999). House (2003) views supervisor’s social support as involving four important
psychosocial aspects, namely, emotional support (esteem, trust, affect, concern and listening),
appraisal support (affirmation, feedback, social comparison), informational support (advice,
suggestions, directives, information) and physical support (aid-in-kind, money, labour, time and
environmental modification). Other than that, family-supportive supervisors engage in a
variety of behaviours such as providing instrumental support, role modelling and “creative”
work–family actions that should increase employees work–family balance (Greenhaus et al.,
2012). This support may increase employees’ predictability, purpose and hope while handling
upsetting and threatening situations in the workplace (Mansor et al., 2003; Simpson, 2000).
Also, one of the major management practices and support systems that have the
propensity to reduce work–life conflict is flexible or alternative work schedules (J.D. Nixon,
undated, EEO Trust, 2006; Conger, 1998; Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011). Policies such as
H flexible work can allow individuals to integrate between work and family demands that lead
33,3 to work–family balance. Many organisations believe that a flexible work arrangement helps
their employees to overcome the problem of conflict between their work and their family
(Almer et al., 2003; Cohen and Single, 2001; Hill et al., 2001; Meyer, 1997).
Apart from that, family-friendly policies, such as job sharing, unpaid family leave, on-site
childcare, support group for working parents and others, can promote work–family balance
340 (Rozanti and Salmiah, 2014). Studies revealed that employees are increasingly turning to
organisations with greater family-oriented benefits, as it evidently has increased life
satisfaction and organisational commitment and reduced absenteeism and turnover
intention (Samsinar et al., 2010).
Most previous research on supervisor support and work–family outcomes has been
based on general measures of emotional support, as opposed to the identification of specific
supervisor behaviours that are supportive of the family role (Kossek et al., 2007). Also,
based on a review of the literature, we conclude that there is a lack of measures of

behavioural supervisor support. Given that this measure is not specific to support the
family role, we still see a need to provide management with prescriptive information about
what supervisors should do to be more supportive of workers with work–family demands.
Hence, more research is needed to develop measures that enable researchers to assess
supervisor support for the family, distinctive from work–family culture and climate
(Hammer et al., 2009).
In this study, as shown in Table I, supervisor/management support consists of two main
dimensions and focuses on measuring management/supervisor support especially from
manager/supervisor in the workplace. First, supervisor support consists of seven items.
Second, management support and policies of institutions contains six items pertaining to the
policies and practices of management towards employees. However, the researcher in this
study focuses on social support from management and supervisor support, because several
studies found that supervisor support has a direct positive relationship with subjective
well-being. For example, Deborah et al. (2007) found that levels of supervisor support had a
primary effect on the levels of well-being.
Family well-being and family well-being in Islam

Family is a core unit in a community. It is a very important unit to be secured and
maintained to ensure that the society is in a stable and harmonious condition. The role of
family is very crucial, as in the Islamic perspective, men and women are urged to marry to
build better generations which will lead to a better nation, as the Prophet Muhammad says,
“Get married, for I will boast of your great numbers before the nations.” (Ibn Majah, 1846).
Its fundamental has been stated in Quranic verses, such as:
And of His signs is that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquillity
in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who
give thought (Quran 30:21).
Even though the meaning of family well-being in Western and Muslim literature differs in
terms of aims and spirituality (Abdel Nasir and Kahree, 2015), they share certain ideals such
as respectful cohabitation between couples and family members. In Western research, Fahri
and Mary (2004), through their study, have identified that family well-being indicated some
dimensions related to good relationship with family members and how they are spending
quality time together, good emotion and health, high quality in communication, support,
child care, education and satisfaction with work and work load at home. Judith et al. (2015),
through their study, have concluded that well-being is mostly related to marital satisfaction
Factors
Management
No. Items F1 F2 Alpha (a) and
supervisory
1 My supervisor is supportive when family problems arise 0.845 0.901
2 My supervisor allows for flexibility in my working 0.805 support
arrangements to enable me to handle my family
responsibility
3 My supervisor gives advice on how to handle my work and 0.752 341
family responsibility
4 In the event of a conflict, managers understand when 0.698
employees have to put their family first
5 In this organisation, employees can easily balance their work 0.661
and family lives
6 My supervisor understands that I have to meet family 0.637
responsibilities as well as those related to my job

7 In this organisation, it is generally okay to talk about one’s 0.579
family at work
8 Managers in this organisation are sympathetic towards 0.758
employees’ childcare responsibilities
9 This organisation is supportive of employees who want to 0.715
switch to less demanding jobs for family reasons
10 In this organisation, employees are encouraged to strike a 0.715
balance between their works and family lives
11 Management in this organisation generally encourages heads 0.700
of department/dean to be sensitive to employees’ family and
personal concerns
12 In general, managers in this organisation are quite 0.685
accommodating of family-related needs
Table I.
13 This organisation encourages employees to set limits on 0.580
where work stops and home life begins Varimax rotated
Coefficient alpha (a) 0.845 0.839 factor loadings of the
Eigenvalues 5.025 4.838 factor items
% of variance (total = 84.37%) 44.254 43.254 (N = 250)
and job satisfaction which is linked to income, health (Ryan and Willits, 2007) and lower
WFC. Muslim women participation in the workforce which is being reported by the Library
of Congress, Washington D.C., is likely the same with other non-Muslim women
(Offenhauer, 2005). Likewise, Muslim women were found to be similar to non-Muslim
women in terms of seeking family well-being, that manifested when they obtained education
and achieved self-independence (Spellings, 2014; Ayesha, 2015) and achieved health safety
and financial stability (Spellings, 2014; Md. Ismail et al., 2015). However, Philip et al. (2016),
through their study results, suggest that even though there are a number of studies on well-
being, there is considerable disagreement regarding how to properly understand and
measure well-being.
Nevertheless, the concept of family well-being in Islam is mentioned to a greater extent.
This is recorded in the Quran:
Whoever does right, whether male or female, and is a believer, We will make him live a good life,
and We will award them their reward for the best of what they used to do (Quran 16:97).
Thus, Kharofa’s (1982) observations on Islamic well-being of man include to abstain from
everything that Allah has forbidden and to do everything that God has commanded man to
do (Abdel Nasir and Kahree, 2015). Thus, to obey the command of Allah is the ultimate goal
H of achieving well-being of a Muslim, as an individual or as a member of his family or
33,3 nations.
Family functioning and working wife in Islam

Islam has laid down a comprehensive system not just on leading a country but on how to
manage a small unit such as a family. The roles of man and woman or husband and wife
342 have been clearly mentioned through the verses of the Quran and the Prophetic traditions.
For example, the men in the family or the husband is obligated to provide food and security
to the wife and children.
Men are in charge of women by [right of] what Allah has given one over the other and what they
spend [for maintenance] from their wealth. So righteous women are devoutly obedient, guarding
in [the husband’s] absence what Allah would have them guard. (Quran 4:34).
And Upon the father is the mothers’ provision and their clothing according to what is acceptable.
No person is charged with more than his capacity. No mother should be harmed through her
child, and no father through his child. (Quran 2:233).
Whereas, the obligation or core duty of a wife is maintaining the household, bringing up the
children and caregiving. As stated in the hadith, Prophet Muhammad says, “All of you are
guardians (in trust of something or someone) and are accountable for your flock” (reported
by Muslims). Thus, the Islamic expectation is that individuals should work to support
themselves and their family, and that family finances should be managed effectively. It is
also the person’s duty to enhance his or her skills and talents to enhance production and
productivity (Abdel Nasir and Kahree, 2015). Thus, the separation of roles and duties of
husband and wife is not a part of bringing down women or identified as part of the
patriarchal system in Islam as reported by some researchers like Anna (2009), but the role
has been exclusively given by the creator of men and the women for them to best meet their
full functioning as individuals and as part of the family or nations.
As times change and challenges increase throughout life, Muslim women are urged to
work to help their family financially. No verses or prophetic traditions (hadith) are recorded
that prohibit women from working if there is a need and the orders and rules set by Syariah
are followed, such as covering their awrah, observing their dignity and not staying with an
unknown man alone in an enclosed space (Abd Karim, 1993). This is keeping in mind that
the primary responsibility of a wife is to concentrate on her home and family, and she is
permitted to work outside if it does not clash with family matters (Abd Karim, 1993).
This is a functional distribution of roles and activities between husband and wife and is
regarded as essential for the proper functioning of the family institution in Islam for its
moral and social health and well-being. However, according to the condition and needs, it is
possible for the spouse to share household roles and duties if the wife needs to work outside.
Husbands and wives need to balance between rights and responsibilities and ensure they
suit the nature and character of each person. This could mean that the working mother
should be supported by her husband in performing household tasks and raising their
children accordingly in a fair manner. This is to ensure that the WFC can be managed and is
handled wisely and accountably.
Conceptual framework
The literature discussed has been used as a foundation for developing a conceptual
framework in this study as shown in Figure 2. Based on the framework, it can be
hypothesised that:
Management
and
supervisory
support
343
Figure 2.
Conceptional model
H1. Work–family demands are negatively related to employees’ well-being.
H2. Management/supervisory support moderates the relationship of work–family

demands with employees’ well-being.
In the perspective of behavioural science, well-being has been defined as satisfaction of an
individual’s goal, wants and needs through the actualisation of their abilities and lifestyle
(Emerson, 1985). Well-being is sometimes used in association with other terms such as
happiness, quality of life and satisfaction. The meaning of objective well-being and
subjective well-being depends on the discipline and can vary when discussed in the fields of
ethics, theology, politics, economics and psychology (Fahri and Mary, 2004). With various
interpretations and lack of a universally acceptable definition, the well-being concept is
ambiguous and difficult to measure (Achour, 2013). However, the bottom line is well-being is
generally viewed as a description of the state of people’s life situation (McGillivray, 2007).
In this article, the measurement of well-being is based on a subjective approach which
focuses on human feelings (Achour, 2013; Alicia et al., 2011). An objective approach which
measures well-being through certain observable facts such as economic, social and
environmental statistics thus is not applied (Achour, 2013). Following the subjective
approach, well-being is assessed based on the respondent’s self-reported experiences and not
based on the researcher’s judgement (Rojas, 2013). People who experience more positive and
less negative feelings tend to be more satisfied with their life (Alicia et al., 2011; Rojas, 2013).
The respondents’ affective state, which is studied to understand their satisfaction with life
and well-being, is valued by their experience of being well (Rojas, 2013).
In this research, the subjective well-being facets studied are job satisfaction, family
satisfaction and life satisfaction. Job satisfaction derived from career development and
success had been reported to increase subjective well-being (Alicia et al., 2011). Other than
that, several studies had revealed some important factors to job satisfaction, which include
H supervisory role, type of employment, work commute and also working hours (Martin and
33,3 Pablo, 2015). Employees reported to have higher satisfaction with jobs involving greater
autonomy, more supervisory roles and well-paid positions. By contrast, their satisfaction is
negatively affected by boring job, insecure job, long working hours and long traveling time
to work (Martin and Pablo, 2015). Working conditions were also found to impact life
satisfaction in European countries, as studied by Drobnic et al. (2010).
344 Family satisfaction is the individual attitude or expression towards family life (Wan
Edura et al., 2012). As the core unit in society through which basic human needs are met, the
quality of family life was consistently reported to significantly influence subjective well-
being (Fahri and Mary, 2004). Fahri and Mary reported that the most salient dimensions of
family well-being are gaining a sense of satisfaction from the family work and being
comfortable with the work load, having personal time and spending quality time with
family members.
The overall satisfaction with life has a significant positive relationship with quality of
work life and quality of non-work life, as discussed above and also reported in other studies
(Samsinar et al., 2010). Life satisfaction means persistent contentment – the degree to which
people consider the overall quality of their life in various aspects of life experiences.
Previous studies implied that quality of work life affects life satisfaction stronger than the
quality of non-work life. This denoted that satisfaction at the workplace plays a vital role in
promoting overall life satisfaction (Samsinar et al., 2010).
This argument signifies that supervisor and management play a significant role in
employee’s well-being, especially in promoting work–life balance. Supervisor and
management role is among the coping strategies discussed to deal with WFC together with
other coping strategies such as personal coping strategy, professional coping strategy and
social coping strategy (Achour, 2013). This study emphasises supervisor and management
role as a social support to the employees, especially women, as they hold the authority in the
workplace which can influence the quality of work life. In general, the empirical evidence on
subjective well-being confirms that the quality of working conditions is important. A study
done by Namkee (2007) revealed that work flexibility, work independence, trust in superiors
and pleasant and low-stress work environment play a significant role in promoting job
satisfaction and influence life satisfaction. On the other hand, irregular working schedules
and long working hours have a negative impact on the employees’ subjective well-being, as
they reduce their level of job satisfaction (Martin and Pablo, 2015).
Other studies also support this argument. Laurent et al. (2008) claimed that a family-
supportive work environment can increase life satisfaction by reducing work–family
incompatibilities that reduce their satisfaction at work and home. This indicated that
employees’ perception of their work environment’s family supportiveness may play an
important role in their overall level of enjoyment in life. In Fahri and Mary’s (2004) research,
it is argued that a reduced workload may or may not be helpful to family well-being because
the challenges are not so much related to time as to inter-relationships between family
members. But they agreed that a reduced workload seems to facilitate employees to find
time for their own personal leisure activities and allow them to work at a calmer and more
relaxed pace and easier inter-linking with others. This positively contributes to ultimate
collaboration and compromise with others in the family and has an impact on family
satisfaction or well-being.
What can be concluded here is supervisor and management may help employees in
achieving work–family balance, which depends on managing the conflict between work and
family roles. This has been supported by Greenhaus et al. (2012), who showed that family-
supportive supervision positively related to employee’s feelings of work–family balance.
What is meant by work–family balance is “the degree to which an individual is able to Management
simultaneously balance the temporal, emotional and behavioral demands of both paid work and
and family responsibilities” (Karen and Marcia, 2005). Work–family balance is also
perceived by Clark (2000) as “satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home with a
supervisory
minimum of role conflict” (Greenhaus et al., 2003). Previous studies maintain that work– support
family balance is assumed to promote well-being, and it is proposed that organisational
change approach consider promoting work–family balance through their policies
(Greenhaus et al., 2003). 345
Method
Participants and procedures
The population of this study was working female academicians, working in research
universities in the Klang Valley, including University of Malaya (UM), National University
of Malaysia (UKM), and Putra University (UPM). Their ages ranged from 30 to 60 years.
Rapport was established by explaining the importance and the relevance of the study.
Participants were assured that their answers would be kept confidential and used only for
the study purposes. Random sampling technique was used, and the data were collected
through questionnaires that were distributed personally to each respondent at their
respective workplace. In total, 600 questionnaires were distributed to all universities, of
which 250 were returned, resulting in a response rate of 41.66 per cent. A majority of the
respondents are from Malay (82 per cent), followed by other ethnicities (12.8 per cent), Indian
(4 per cent) and Chinese (1.2 per cent). Most of the respondents (36.8 per cent) were between
31 and 40 years old, 35.26 per cent are between 41 and 50 years, 14 per cent are below 30
years and 13.94 per cent are 51 years and above. In all, 40.4 per cent of the respondents had
more than three children, about 19.6 per cent had two children, 26.8 per cent had one child
and 13.2 per cent did not have any children.
Measures
Work–family demands. Family demand was measured by a three-item scale developed by
Yang (1993). The Cronbach’s alpha reported was 0.77, and work demands were measured by
a five-item scale by Spector (1975). The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.81. A sample item includes
“My family’s responsibilities make me feel tired” (Item 6).
Work–family conflict. WFC was measured using two subscales (five items for WFC and
five items for family–work conflict) and included ten items developed by Netemeyer et al.
(1996). The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.77. Sample item includes “The amount of time my job
takes up makes it difficult to fulfil family responsibilities” (Item 2).
Supervisory/management support. Management support was measured by a six-item
scale developed by Houston and Waumsley (2003) and the researcher modified and deleted
some items. Supervisory support was measured by a seven-item scale developed by
Galinsky et al. (1996). The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84. Sample item includes “This
organisation is supportive of employees who want to switch to less demanding jobs for
family reasons” (Item 9).
Well-being. In this research, the major components of well-being that were considered
were job satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction. Family satisfaction was
measured using three items developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975), and the Cronbach’s
alpha was 0.68. Job satisfaction was measured using five items developed by Hackman and
Oldham (1975). The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.83. Life satisfaction was measured using five
items developed by Diener et al. (1985), and the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.87. Sample item
included “Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with my job” (Item 1).
H Reliability results
33,3 The reliability test for this paper was conducted. Coefficient Cronbach’s alpha is a measure
of reliability or internal consistency. A value of Cronbach’s alpha of 0.50 or above is
consistent with the recommended minimum values stated by Nunnally (1967) (Reliability
results: see Table II).
346 Correlation analysis

Table III shows the correlation coefficients among all variables. All independent variables are
correlated, but not all are significant to well-being. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
(2-tailed). The criterion used for the level of significance was set a priori. The relationship must
be at least significant at **p < 0.01. Table III shows that there is a strong positive and
significant correlation between work–family demands and WFC (r = 0.568, p = 0.000 < 0.01).
There is also a negative and significant correlation between WFC and management and
supervisory support (r = 0.329, p = 0.000 < 0.01) and well-being (r = 0.311, p = 0.000 <
0.01). There is a positive correlation between well-being and management and supervisory
support (r = 0.482, p = 0.000 < 0.01), and a negative correlation between well-being and
work–family demands but not significant (r = 0.103, p = 0.104 > 0.01). There is also a
negative correlation between work–family demands and management and supervisory
support but not significant (r = 0.178, p = 0.05 > 0.01).
Multiple regression analysis

In this paper, a regression analysis was also used to test the hypothesis that management and
supervisory moderates the relationship between work–family demands and well-being. All
variables were entered into the regression equation as recommended by Rose et al. (2004). In
Step 1, work–family demands were entered. In Step 2, we entered management and supervisory
support, and in Step 3, interaction of management and supervisory support and work–family
demands was entered and well-being was entered as a dependent variable. The results of the
moderator analyses are presented in Table IV. Results revealed that management and
supervisory support strengthens the relationship between work–family demands and well-being.
Thus, it is the management and supervisory support that plays an important role in balancing
work demands and family roles and increases working female academicians’ well-being.
Variables Alpha (a)
Work–family conflict 0.91

Work–family demands 0.81
Table II. Management and supervisory support 0.90
Reliability results Well-being 0.83
Variables (1) (2) (3) (4)
WFC (1) 1
WFD (2) 0.568** 1
Man supp (3) 0.329** 0.178 1
Well-being (4) 0.311** 0.103 0.482** 1
Table III.
Correlation matrix Note: **p < 0.01
Discussion Management
Previous research on WFC has found that this variable (WFC) influences a variety of and
outcomes, including psychological well-being, such as depression, marital satisfaction, life
satisfaction (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985; Gutek et al., 1991; Voydanoff, 1988), job
supervisory
satisfaction, organisational commitment, burnout, emotional exhaustion, mental health and support
turnover (Burke, 1988; Frone et al., 1992; Greenhaus, 1988; Pleck et al., 1980; Tayfur and
Arslan, 2013; and Siti Aisyah et al., 2011). Tayfur and Arslan (2013) found that workload
increases WFC among physicians, which directly increases their emotional exhaustion.
347
Whereas, Siti Aisyah et al. (2011) identified the existence of a significant relationship
between WFC, mental health and turnover intention.
Allen et al. (2000) linked WFC to three categories of outcomes: work-related (e.g. job
satisfaction), non-work-related (e.g. life satisfaction) and stress-related (e.g. depression).
Several studies have supported the outlook that long working hours are negatively related
to personal and family well-being (Cooper, 2000; Charlesworth et al., 2002; Dawson,
McCulloch and Baker, 2001; Pocock, 2003; Glezer and Wolcott, 1999), as well as workload
and work commitments (Sanz-Vergel et al., 2015). However, as Spurgeon et al. (1997) note,
much of the research fails to differentiate between long working hours and change work,
which can be very disruptive, and between long working hours and work overload, which
may be both highly stressful and an essential reason for long working hours. Barnett (1998)
arrived at a similar conclusion that there is evidence that negative impacts of long working
hours on well-being may be restricted to very long hours.
Many studies have in fact shown WFC to mediate the stress–strain relationship, acting
as a mechanism through which work and family demands influence well-being (Eby et al.,
2005; Frone et al., 1997; Noor, 2003). The number of children has also been associated with
increased work and family demands, leading to higher levels of WFC (Noor, 1994) and,
consequently, to reduced well-being (Kinnunen and Mauno, 1998). Wagner et al. (2014) also
found that surface acting during a day’s work (which is associated with greater number of
negative work-related outcomes than is deep acting) is also one of the variables which
influences strain-based work-to-family conflict experienced at home after working hours.
Gordon and Whelan-Berry (2004) added that the support provided by husbands and
partners provides a critical complement to family-friendly programs offered by many
organisations to facilitate the balancing of work and family demands and results in the
greater well-being of women. A study conducted in Malaysia found that spouse support and
supervisor support are essential to improve the overall well-being of an individual (Samsinar
et al., 2010).
Variable (b ) R2 Adj. R2 F R2.change p
D.V: Well-being
Step 1:
Work–family demands 0.951 0.011 0.007 2.668* 0.011 0.004**
Step 2:
Management/supervisory support 0.836 0.232 0.226 71.396** 0.222 0.000**
Step 3:
WFD M. supervisory support 0.022 0.264 0.255 10.421** 0.031 0.001** Table IV.
Results of multiple
Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01 regression
H Relationship between supervisory/management support and work–family conflict
33,3 This present study examined the relationship between supervisory or management support
and WFC and reported a negative and significant relationship between them. The results
suggested that when the supervisory or management support increases, then there is an
expected decrease in WFC. Several studies found that supervisory support was an
important source of social support in coping with problems related to WFC (Greenhaus et al.,
348 2012; Tang et al., 2014; Irwan and Nor Azaian, 2011; Laurent et al., 2008). Greenhaus et al.
(2012) reported that employees who report to family-supportive supervisors experience high
levels of balance because they experience relatively little WFC. Tang et al. (2014) found that
women who had quality relationships with their superiors also had a low conflict at work
and were satisfied with their jobs. Their results show important associations among social
relationships at home and work related to the quality of life.
Previous research indicated that the positive relationship between abusive supervision
and WFC. Carlson et al. (2011) matched a set of 280 subordinates and partners and found
that abusive supervision contributes to work-to-family conflict and relationship tension.
Abusive supervision can be understood as subordinates’ perceptions of the extent to which
supervisors engage in the sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviour,
including physical contact. Examples of abusive supervision include tantrums, rudeness,
public criticism and inconsiderate action (Carlson et al., 2011). Additionally, Neves (2014)
found that workers who received less support from co-workers or colleges and have low self-
evaluations tend to be more exposed to abusive supervision. These research works (abusive
supervision) supported and reinforced the result that when supervisory or management
support increases, there is an expected decrease in WFC and vice versa.
The present study also discusses supervisory support as an antecedent variable for WFC.
Some studies have found that supervisory support is an important variable and source of social
support in coping with problems related to WFC (Anderson et al., 2002; Burke and Greenglass,
1999). In this study, supervisory support is divided into instrumental and emotional support
(Frone et al., 1997). Emotional supervisory support refers to more listening, and understanding,
sensitivity towards the issues related to WFC and real anxiety for the well-being of the
employee and his or her family (Frone et al., 1997). Instrumental supervisory support refers to
direct advice and assistance provided with the intent of helping an employee meet his or her
family responsibilities (Frone et al., 1997). Supportive supervisors are instrumental in making
and interpreting an organisation’s work–family policies (Eby et al., 2002).
For management support, Magnini (2009) reported that without suitable and proper
management, WFC could create a series of unfavourable issues, including decreased
employee performance, reduced job satisfaction, high absenteeism and high turnover. Major
and Lauzun (2010) offered recommendations for the management in their role to decrease
WFCs such as managerial training, motivation, informing and empowering managers to
negotiate the type of work–family inference, as the supervisor or immediate manager is in a
critical position to influence WFC.
The effect of management/supervisory support as a moderator of the relationship between

work–family demands and well-being
The second aim of the study is to examine the effect of management and supervisory
support as a moderator of the relationship between work–family demands and well-being.
This research found that management and supervisory support is negatively associated
with work–family demands and positively related to job, family and life satisfaction. This is
in line with previous research that indicated the positive relationship between supervisory
support and female well-being. Towler and Stuhlmacher (2013) found that women who had
a quality relationship with their superiors at work had a low conflict at work as well as at Management
home and were satisfied with their jobs and life. Additionally, studies in China and Malaysia and
reported that employees who received support from co-workers experienced increased jobs
satisfaction and family life (Tang et al., 2014; Ismail et al., 2013).
supervisory
This study suggested that management support would help working women to balance support
their work demands and family life and achieve more well-being. The result in Table III
shows the model is statistically significant. This result supports the presence of a
moderating effect, or in other words, the moderating effect of management or supervisory 349
support explains 26.4 per cent of the variance in well-being. Several studies have examined
the relationship between WFC and an individual’s general well-being (Chou, 2004; Huang,
2005; Towler and Stuhlmacher, 2013; Tang et al., 2014).
Work schedule flexibility and support from supervisors lead to greater well-being and
reduced levels of work–family conflict

Results of this research also reported that those who have more work schedule flexibility and
support from supervisors would experience greater well-being and reduced levels of WFC.
This supports the previous results from Duxbury and Higgins (1994) and Thomas and
Ganster (1995) who found that if the supervisor provides flexibility to his employees even
when unofficial in the case of the absence of an organisational policy, employees can balance
between work demands and family roles more easily. Ferguson et al. (2015) found that work
schedule flexibility relates not only to positives outcomes at work such as affective
commitment but also with family functioning. Radcliffe and Cassell (2015) reported evidence
suggesting WFCs are experienced and resolved differently, depending on whether it is the
male or the female who works flexibly within dual-earner couples. Additionally, Allen et al.
(2013) examined and suggested flexible work arrangements in dealing with WFC.
The present study examines the indirect effect of management and supervisory support
as a moderator of the relationship between work–family demands and employees’ well-
being. In other words, working women’s well-being will not emerge from WFC, except those
who have more flexibility and unlimited support from supervisors and managers. If the
female academicians have limited flexibility, then work–family demands will increase, and
WFC will affect their well-being. Therefore, the management and supervisory support plays
an important role as a moderator with work–family demands in developing the well-being of
working female academicians.
Conclusion
This research focused on work–family demands among female academicians in Malaysian
universities. The present study highlights the main sources of WFC, including long working
hours, office work overload, household work and matters related to children. Both
work–family demands and WFC were found to have significant and negative correlations
with well-being. Also, in this study, management and supervisory support was found to be
directly related to well-being, including life satisfaction, job satisfaction and family
satisfaction. However, the direct relationship between management/supervisory support
and well-being was positive and significant. This finding also found that management/
supervisor support reduced WFC as well as work–family demands. Also, supervisory and
management support was found to have a significant and positive relationship with well-
being. Given these findings, supervisory and management support plays a very important
role as moderator of work–family demands and in developing and improving well-being in
working women. These findings were supported by relevant literature and were consistent
with previous research in local and international settings. Several recommendations and
H limitations have been identified through this study that may direct future studies. The
33,3 findings of this study can be applied in both public and private institutions, especially in
educational institutions. More research should be conducted especially among Muslim
women in Muslim countries. This study suggests that supervisory and management
support with a more flexible work schedule would help female academicians create a
balance between their work demands and family responsibilities, and consequently improve
350 their well-being. This study also suggests lifting some responsibilities from staff that have
full working hours and distribute the workload among them evenly to reduce work
overload. Social support, flexibilities and family-friendly policies are important factors to
deal with work–family problems that need to be taken into consideration in future research.
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“Relationship between work stress, coworker’s social support, work stress and work
interference with family conflict: an empirical study in Malaysia”, International Business
About the authors

Meguellati Achour is a Senior Lecturer at the Research and Development Division, Academy of
Islamic Studies. Achour obtained his Masters in Sciences of Management from Universiti Utara
Malaysia and his PhD degree in Human Resources Management from the Institute of Graduate
Studies, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Achour has attended some international conferences and
published various papers in his field. Achour is an expert in work-family conflict, well-being, social
support, coping strategies, religiosity, job stress and Muslim women issues. Meguellati Achour is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: megue_a2007@yahoo.fr
Shahidra Binti Abdul Khalil is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Fiqh and Usul, Academy of
Islamic Studies University of Malaya, Malaysia. She graduated with a bachelor’s degree in Shariah
from the University of Malaya and holds a PhD degree from her alma mater. Her main research
interest is in the Islamic law, criminal justice and its implementation in contemporary world. She is
also interested in research pertaining to women issues.
Bahiyah Binti Ahmad is a PhD holder in Islamic family jurisprudence from the University of Malaya,
Malaysia, and is currently as a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Fiqh and Usul Fiqh, Academy of
Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, Malaysia.
Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor is currently the Deputy Director (Research & Development) at
the Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Prior to that, he served as the Head of
the Department of Islamic History and Civilization, at the same Academy. Roslan’s broad academic
interests involve the Middle East, Islam and multi-culturalism, Muslim affairs, religious studies and
civilization. He has published several academic articles in international refereed journals. Roslan
participated in the Study of the United States Institute on Religious Pluralism, University of California
Santa Barbara (2010), and has been a Visiting Scholar at different institutions such as Al-Maktoum
Institute, Scotland (2009), and Minzu University, Beijing (2012-2013).
Prof Dato’ Dr Mohd Yakub Zulkifli Bin Mohd Yusoff is currently the Director at the Academy of
Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, Malaysia. He serves as a Professor at the Department of Quran
and Hadith, supervising many postgraduate studies and leading numerous local and international
research grants. His research expertise is in Quran and Hadith studies with its application on
contemporary issues. He has published many academic articles in international refereed journals.
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Humanomics

Management and supervisory support as a moderator of work–family demands and

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

A case study of Muslim female

Research and Development Division, University of Malaya,

336 Paper type Research paper

Work–family conﬂict: the case of Malaysia

in Malaysia is increasing year by year. According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia,

Role of management and supervisory support on employees’ well-being

based on a review of the literature, we conclude that there is a lack of measures of

Family well-being and family well-being in Islam

responsibilities as well as those related to my job

Family functioning and working wife in Islam

H1. Work–family demands are negatively related to employees’ well-being.

H2. Management/supervisory support moderates the relationship of work–family

346 Correlation analysis

Multiple regression analysis

Variables Alpha (a)

Work–family conﬂict 0.91

Variables (1) (2) (3) (4)

Variable (b ) R2 Adj. R2 F R2.change p

The eﬀect of management/supervisory support as a moderator of the relationship between

reduced levels of work–family conﬂict

Management, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 76-83.

About the authors

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