Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

A model of the aerodynamic behaviour of an airplane

We have all heard about the Wright brothers and their successful invention of the
first aircraft. However, their success was not achieved overnight; it took numerous
failed attempts to crack the perfect aerodynamic design code. Their work formed the
base reference for aerodynamic engineers and scientists to understand the
aerodynamic principles of commercial aircraft design.

Understanding the fundamentals of aerodynamics means discerning fundamental

aerodynamic variables, including pressure, density, velocity, and temperature as well
as factors like acting forces, flow types, airfoil design, boundary layers, and more. In
this article, we will discuss these fundamental concepts and their importance in
designing a safe aircraft. 

What Are Aerodynamic Forces and Moments?

Aerodynamic forces acting on a body

Aerodynamic Forces

The first step to understanding aerodynamic properties is to have knowledge about the forces
acting on a body. The main aerodynamic forces of flight include:

 Lift: Lift is generated when the fluid and airfoil interact with each other, with either of
them being in motion. A force is generated that acts against the weight of the aircraft,
counterbalancing to hold the plane in the air.
 Drag: Drag is the resisting force that works against the aerodynamic motion or thrust.
For the airplane in motion, the air resists the forward motion due to the opposing drag
force, reducing the velocity. 
 Thrust: Thrust is the forward propelling force in the aircraft, which acts against the
resistance of drag. Constant thrust maintains constant airplane speed while its
increase or decrease may be required during lift-off or landing. Jet engines and
propellers in aircraft can create thrust. 
 Weight: Weight can be expressed as the force of gravity pulling the craft towards the
Earth. Thus, it is always directed downwards from the centre of mass of the airplane.
Lift, the opposing force to weight, is required to enable flight. During flight, weight
can constantly change, affecting the balance of the aircraft. Thus, constant control is
always required. 

Moments

In the flow field, the aerodynamic forces produce a moment, which acts at the centre of
pressure. The centre of pressure is the point where the total pressure force acts on the body
that is moving through the fluid. The forces and moment acting on the body are relative to
factors such as the state and attributes of the fluid medium, shape, and dimension of the
moving body as well as its speed and orientation.

Types of Flow
Aerodynamic behaviour is affected by the nature of the flow. Depending on the basic flow
parameters—pressure, density, velocity, and temperature, and their relationship—flow can be
classified into the following types. 

Incompressible The density of the fluid remains constant. In aerodynamics, the flow is
flow considered incompressible for Mach number (M) less than 0.3.

Compressible The fluid density significantly changes with distance. Most flows in
flow nature are compressible.

Steady flow The fluid flows uniformly without a change in velocity at any point in time.
Unsteady flow The velocity of flow can change with time.

Uniform flow The flow parameters remain the same at different points in a flow
system.

Non-uniform flow The flow parameters vary at different points in a flow system.

Viscous flow Viscosity of the fluid affects the fluid flow.

Inviscid flow Viscosity has no effect on fluid flow.

Laminar flow Fluid flows in a streamlined, parallel layer.

Turbulent flow Fluid layers intermix and velocity fluctuates during the flow.

The flows mentioned are mostly relative to the pressure-density factor. When velocity is
explored, the flow can be classified as transonic, subsonic, or supersonic.
 ➔ Subsonic: Velocity of flow < velocity of sound, (M<1)
 ➔ Supersonic: Velocity of flow > velocity of sound, (M>1)
 ➔ Transonic: Velocity of flow between subsonic and supersonic, (0.8<M<1.2)

Turbulent Flow 

The study of the turbulent flow regime is an important part of aerodynamic design, as it deals
with the variation in pressure, velocity, flow separation, unsteady vortex creation, and other
chaotic factors that are generally considered unfavourable for aerodynamic lift. The turbulent
flow can be distinguished with Reynolds number (Re):

Note that:

ρ : density of the fluid

V : fluid velocity

D: hydraulic diameter (of the pipe, tube, or duct)

μ : fluid viscosity

For a Reynolds number greater than 3500, the flow is considered turbulent. This can easily be
identified in a less viscous fluid with higher velocities.

Vortices of various sizes and frequencies are also created with turbulence.  When these
vortices interact and exchange energies with each other, the result is an increment in drag
which acts negatively against the aerodynamic motion.
Flow separation is caused when the boundary layer is detached due to a change in the
pressure gradient. This flow separation in aerodynamics means an increase in drag and a
reduction in lift.  Capturing all these adverse and variable factors of flow precisely in
turbulence modelling has been an on-going challenge for designers and engineers.

Boundary Layers
As mentioned above, flow passing through the boundary layer respective to its viscosity, flow
velocity, and pressure is an important fundamental of aerodynamics. When the air flows
through the airfoil, the thin layer of fluid near its immediate vicinity is called the boundary
layer. This boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent. For a higher Reynold number, when
the velocity becomes high and the flow unsteady, the turbulent boundary layer becomes
prominent. At a higher angle of attack, this turbulent layer can break away to cause flow
separation. The skin friction contributing to the turbulent boundary layer can cause drag and
affect lift in the aerodynamic system. 

Analysing the Fundamentals of Aerodynamics With CFD

When solving aerodynamic problems, the key is to understand the acting flow regime and
calculate the associated forces and boundary layers. This also involves the analysis of
different aerodynamic variables in different flow conditions to analyse the ideal lift and drag
permissible in the design.

Determining these influencing factors is easier with the proper CFD tools. Along with
Reynolds number calculations for flow regime investigation, CFD simulation also enables the
numerical analysis of acting forces and aerodynamic variables. The simulation ability of
platforms such as Fidelity and the meshing ability of Fidelity Pointwise can help with the
comprehensive visualization and advanced analysis of the fundamentals of aerodynamics for
efficient design solutions.