Knowledge - Information, skills

and expertise
acquired by a person through
various life
experiences, or through
formal/informal
learning such as formal education,
self-study,
vocational
Epistemology - branch of inquiry
that is
concerned with the theory of
knowledge or
how knowledge came to be.
Sources of Knowledge
1. Traditional knowledge – passed
down from
generation to generation.
2. Authoritative knowledge – an
idea by a
person of authority which is
perceived as true
because of his or her expertise.
3. Scientific knowledge – came
from a
scientific method through research.
Science
Latin (scientia) “knowledge”-the
organized
body of knowledge gained through
research.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
1. Observation
2. Gathering Data
3. Forming Hypothesis
4. Experimental Investigation
5.Conclusion/Theoretical
Explanation
TERMS:
1. Theory – an explanation of a set
of related
observations or events based upon
proven
hypotheses & verified multiple
times by
detached groups of researchers
Knowledge - Information, skills
and expertise
acquired by a person through
various life
experiences, or through
formal/informal
learning such as formal education,
self-study,
vocational
Epistemology - branch of inquiry
that is
concerned with the theory of
knowledge or
how knowledge came to be.
Sources of Knowledge
1. Traditional knowledge – passed
down from
generation to generation.
2. Authoritative knowledge – an
idea by a
person of authority which is
perceived as true
because of his or her expertise.
3. Scientific knowledge – came
from a
scientific method through research.
Science
Latin (scientia) “knowledge”-the
organized
body of knowledge gained through
research.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
1. Observation
2. Gathering Data
3. Forming Hypothesis
4. Experimental Investigation
5.Conclusion/Theoretical
Explanation
TERMS:
1. Theory – an explanation of a set
of related
observations or events based upon
proven
hypotheses & verified multiple
times by
detached groups of researchers
Knowledge - Information, skills
and expertise
acquired by a person through
various life
experiences, or through
formal/informal
learning such as formal education,
self-study,
vocational
Epistemology - branch of inquiry
that is
concerned with the theory of
knowledge or
how knowledge came to be.
Sources of Knowledge
1. Traditional knowledge – passed
down from
generation to generation.
2. Authoritative knowledge – an
idea by a
person of authority which is
perceived as true
because of his or her expertise.
3. Scientific knowledge – came
from a
scientific method through research.
Science
Latin (scientia) “knowledge”-the
organized
body of knowledge gained through
research.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
1. Observation
2. Gathering Data
3. Forming Hypothesis
4. Experimental Investigation
5.Conclusion/Theoretical
Explanation
TERMS:
1. Theory – an explanation of a set
of related
observations or events based upon
proven
hypotheses & verified multiple
times by
detached groups of researchers
Nursing theories are organized bodies of knowledge to define what nursing is, what nurses do, and
why they do it. It is a framework of concepts and purposes intended to guide nursing practice at a more
concrete and specific level.

 Philosophy. These are beliefs and values that define a way of thinking and are generally known
and understood by a group or discipline.
 Theory. A belief, policy, or procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action. It refers to a
logical group of general propositions used as principles of explanation. Theories are also used to
describe, predict, or control phenomena.
 Concept. Concepts are often called the building blocks of theories. They are primarily the vehicles
of thought that involve images.
 Models. Models are representations of the interaction among and between the concepts showing
patterns. They present an overview of the theory’s thinking and may demonstrate how theory can
be introduced into practice.
 Conceptual framework. A conceptual framework is a group of related ideas, statements, or
concepts. It is often used interchangeably with the conceptual model and with grand theories.
 Proposition. Propositions are statements that describe the relationship between the concepts.
 Domain. The domain is the perspective or territory of a profession or discipline.
 Process. Processes are organized steps, changes, or functions intended to bring about the
desired result.
 Paradigm. A paradigm refers to a pattern of shared understanding and assumptions about reality
and the world, worldview, or widely accepted value system.
 Metaparadigm. A metaparadigm is the most general statement of discipline and functions as a
framework in which the more restricted structures of conceptual models develop. Much of the
theoretical work in nursing focused on articulating relationships among four major concepts:
person, environment, health, and nursing.

History of Nursing Theories
The first nursing theories appeared in the late 1800s when a strong emphasis was placed on nursing
education.

 In 1860, Florence Nightingale defined nursing in her “Environmental Theory” as “the act of

utilizing the patient’s environment to assist him in his recovery.”
 In the 1950s, there is a consensus among nursing scholars that nursing needed to validate itself
through the production of its own scientifically tested body of knowledge.
 In 1952, Hildegard Peplau introduced her Theory of Interpersonal Relations that emphasizes
the nurse-client relationship as the foundation of nursing practice.
 In 1955, Virginia Henderson conceptualized the nurse’s role as assisting sick or healthy
individuals to gain independence in meeting 14 fundamental needs. Thus her Nursing Need
Theory was developed.
 In 1960, Faye Abdellah published her work “Typology of 21 Nursing Problems,” which shifted
the focus of nursing from a disease-centered approach to a patient-centered approach.
 In 1962, Ida Jean Orlando emphasized the reciprocal relationship between patient and nurse
and viewed nursing’s professional function as finding out and meeting the patient’s immediate
need for help.
 In 1968, Dorothy Johnson pioneered the Behavioral System Model and upheld the fostering of
efficient and effective behavioral functioning in the patient to prevent illness.
 In 1970, Martha Rogers viewed nursing as both a science and an art as it provides a way to view
the unitary human being, who is integral with the universe.
 In 1971, Dorothea Orem stated in her theory that nursing care is required if the client is unable
to fulfill biological, psychological, developmental, or social needs.
 In 1971, Imogene King‘s Theory of Goal attainment stated that the nurse is considered part of
the patient’s environment and the nurse-patient relationship is for meeting goals towards good
health.
 In 1972, Betty Neuman, in her theory, states that many needs exist, and each may disrupt client
balance or stability. Stress reduction is the goal of the system model of nursing practice.
 In 1979, Sr. Callista Roy viewed the individual as a set of interrelated systems that maintain the
balance between these various stimuli.
 In 1979, Jean Watson developed the philosophy of caring, highlighted humanistic aspects of
nursing as they intertwine with scientific knowledge and nursing practice.

Components of Nursing Theories

Phenomenon

A term given to describe an idea or response about an event, a situation, a process, a group of events, or
a group of situations. Phenomena may be temporary or permanent. Nursing theories focus on the
phenomena of nursing.
Concepts

Interrelated concepts define a theory. Concepts are used to help describe or label a phenomenon. They
are words or phrases that identify, define, and establish structure and boundaries for ideas generated
about a particular phenomenon. Concepts may be abstract or concrete.

 Abstract Concepts. Defined as mentally constructed independently of a specific time or place.

 Concrete Concepts. Are directly experienced and related to a particular time or place.
Definitions

Definitions are used to convey the general meaning of the concepts of the theory. Definitions can be
theoretical or operational.

 Theoretical Definitions. Define a particular concept based on the theorist’s perspective.

 Operational Definitions. States how concepts are measured.
Assumptions

Assumptions are accepted as truths and are based on values and beliefs. These statements explain the
nature of concepts, definitions, purpose, relationships, and structure of a theory.

Grand Nursing Theories

 Grand theories are abstract, broad in scope, and complex, therefore requiring further research for
clarification.
 Grand nursing theories do not guide specific nursing interventions but rather provide a general
framework and nursing ideas.
 Grand nursing theorists develop their works based on their own experiences and their time,
explaining why there is so much variation among theories.
 Address the nursing metaparadigm components of person, nursing, health, and environment.
Middle-Range Nursing Theories

 More limited in scope (compared to grand theories) and present concepts and propositions at a
lower level of abstraction. They address a specific phenomenon in nursing.
 Due to the difficulty of testing grand theories, nursing scholars proposed using this level of
theory.
 Most middle-range theories are based on a grand theorist’s works, but they can be conceived
from research, nursing practice, or the theories of other disciplines.
Practice-Level Nursing Theories

 Practice nursing theories are situation-specific theories that are narrow in scope and focuses on a
specific patient population at a specific time.
 Practice-level nursing theories provide frameworks for nursing interventions and suggest
outcomes or the effect of nursing practice.
 Theories developed at this level have a more direct effect on nursing practice than more abstract
theories.
  These theories are interrelated with concepts from middle-range theories or grand theories.
 Descriptive theories are not action-oriented or attempt to produce or change a situation.
 There are two types of descriptive theories: factor-isolating theory and explanatory theory.
Ways of Classifying Nursing Theories

 Needs-Based Theories. The needs theorists were the first group of nurses who thought of giving
nursing care a conceptual order. Theories under this group are based on helping individuals to
fulfill their physical and mental needs. Theories of Orem, Henderson, and Abdella are categorized
under this group. Need theories are criticized for relying too much on the medical model of
health and placing the patient in an overtly dependent position.
 Interaction Theories. These theories emphasized nursing on the establishment and maintenance
of relationships. They highlighted the impact of nursing on patients and how they interact with
the environment, people, and situations. Theories of King, Orlando, and Travelbee are grouped
under this category.
 Outcome Theories. These theories describe the nurse as controlling and directing patient care
using their knowledge of the human physiological and behavioral systems. The nursing theories
of Johnson, Levine, Rogers, and Roy belong to this group.

Nursing Theories and Theorists

Florence Nightingale

 Founder of Modern Nursing and Pioneer of the Environmental Theory. 

 Defined Nursing as “the act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his
recovery.”
 Stated that nursing “ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet,
and the proper selection and administration of diet – all at the least expense of vital power to the
patient.”
 Identified five (5) environmental factors: fresh air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness or
sanitation, and light or direct sunlight.
Virginia Henderson

 Developed the Nursing Need Theory

 Focuses on the importance of increasing the patient’s independence to hasten their progress in
the hospital.
 Emphasizes the basic human needs and how nurses can assist in meeting those needs.
 “The nurse is expected to carry out a physician’s therapeutic plan, but individualized care is the
result of the nurse’s creativity in planning for care.”
 known as “The First Lady of Nursing,” “The Nightingale of Modern Nursing,” “Modern-Day Mother
of Nursing,” and “The 20th Century Florence Nightingale.”
 Jean Watson
 Theory of Human Caring
 In 1997, she lost her eye sight
 Transpersonal ug Occasional

General Objectives of Physical Education

 Physical Development -  It is not only free from diseases but includes physical fitness as well,
 Emotional Development - The informal nature of physical education activities offers opportunities for
the development of a high level of self-esteem and the ability to cope with the routine stresses of daily
living.
 Social Development - It is the development and maintenance of a meaningful interpersonal relationship.
 Mental Development - Through participation in physical education activities, the individual develops
his mental capacities as he learns the principles, rules, and strategies of games and sports.

PHYSICAL FITNESS
               It is a combination of medical fitness (body soundness) and dynamic fitness (capacity for action).
A physically fit person is free from disease and can move and perform efficiently. Neither good health
nor physical proficiency alone constitutes physical fitness, which combines both qualities. Another factor
is the emotional factor. This is readily apparent in athletic contests, where good performance requires
self-discipline, effective teamwork, and the ability to remain calm under stress.
        Physical fitness is the primary specific objective in teaching PE. Physical fitness is the ability of an
individual to perform one's daily activities efficiently without undue fatigue, reduce the risk of health
problems, and with extra "reserve" in case of emergency.

HEALTH-RELATED COMPONENTS
o Cardio-respiratory endurance - the ability of the heart and lungs to function efficiently and effectively
over a prolonged period of time.
o Muscular strength - the ability of muscle group to contract against resistance.   examples would be the
bench press, leg press, or bicep curl. The push-up test is most often used to test muscular strength.
o Muscular endurance - the ability to continue selected muscle group movements for a prolonged period
of time.  an example would be cycling, step machines, and elliptical, machines. The sit-up test is the most
often used to test muscular endurance.
o Flexibility - the functional capacity of a joint to move through a normal range of motion. The muscular
system is also involved.  examples would be stretching individual muscles or the ability to perform
certain functional movements such as the lunge. The sit and reach test is most often used to test
flexibility.
o Body Composition - one of the newer attributes in physical fitness components. It refers to the relative
distribution of lean and fat body tissues

SKILL-RELATED COMPONENTS 
o Balance - It involves vision, reflexes, and skeletal muscular system which provides the maintenance of
equilibrium.
o Coordination - It is the ability to integrate the sense with muscles so as to produce accurate, smooth, and
harmonious body movement.
o Agility - It is the capacity to change the direction of the body quickly and effectively.
o Speed -  It is the ability to move one's body from one point to another in a short possible time.
o Power - power is sometimes confused with strength. Speed of contraction, likewise, is the basic
ingredient, when combined with strength, provides an explosive type of movement.
o Reaction Time - the time required to respond or initiate a movement as a result of a given stimulus.

SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

 Organic Vigor - refers to the soundness of the heart and lungs which contributes to the ability to resist
disease.
 Endurance - is the ability to sustain long continued contractions where a number of muscle groups are
used; the capacity to bear or last long in a certain task without undue fatigue.
 Strength - is the capacity to sustain the application of force without yielding or breaking; the ability of the
muscles to exert efforts against resistance.
 Power - refers to the ability of the muscles to release maximum force in the shortest period of time.
 Flexibility - is the quality of plasticity, which gives the ability to do a wide range of movements.
 Agility - is the ability of the individual to change direction or position in space with quickness and
lightness of movement while maintaining dynamic balance.
 Balance - is the ability to control organic equipment neuro-muscularly; a state of equilibrium.
 Speed - is the ability to make successive movements of the same kind in the shortest period of time.
 Coordination - is the ability to integrate the body parts to produce smooth motion.

PHYSICAL WELLNESS

 Is the positive state of well-being and capability of an individual to design a personal fitness program
for improving and maintaining optimum levels of health. It is a combination of many different
components (mental, social, emotional, and physical) that expand one's potential to live a quality life,
work effectively, and make a significant contribution to society. Wellness reflects how one feels about life
as well as one's ability to function effectively. It is also described as a positive component of good health.
 Being physically active can build physical fitness that in turn, provides you with many health and
wellness benefits.

BENEFITS OF HEALTH AND WELLNESS

 LOOKING GOOD - regular physical activity is a healthy lifestyle. A healthy lifestyle such as proper
nutrition, good posture, and good body mechanics can help you look at your best.
 FEELING GOOD - people who engage in regular physical activity feel better. You can resist fatigue, are
less likely to be injured, and are capable of working more efficiently.
 ENJOYING LIFE - life is more enjoyable when you engage in regular physical activity that results in
physical fitness as the key to being able to do more of the things you want to do.
 MEETING EMERGENCIES - fit and active person has the capacity to help or assist other people when
they needed some help.

Philosophical Perspectives of the Self

The Self in the Greek Philosophy
The Greek philosophers are considered as forerunners in the study of man. Protagoras’ maxim “man is the
measure of all things”(homo mensura) signalled a significant shift in philosophical probing from cosmological to
anthropocentric. Their approach is man-centered for its special concern with the nature of man, virtue and human
personality.

Socrates (469-399 B.C.)

Socrates’s main philosophical interest is in epistemology and ethics, and the correlation between
knowledge and virtue known as rationalistic moral philosophy. Based on the rationalistic moral philosophy, reason
or rationality is the principal component in shaping moral component. The key to self-discovery is mediation:
“Know thy self”. The self is the one who thinks, reflects, and acts on what is right. Only in the pursuit of goodness,
the self can find happiness.

Plato (427-3447 B.C.)

Plato’s dualistic, idealistic, and abstract view on reality shaped his notion of the self. The self, for him, is a
rational substance consisting of body and soul. The soul is derived from the world of ideas, while the body from the
world of matter. The soul of the self consists of three dissimilar elements; the highest is the element of reason
(head); the spirited element (heart) which expressed emotional drives such as aggression, ambition, pride, anger,
honor, loyalty, courage, and protectiveness; and at the bottom level of hierarchy are the bodily appetite Updated
on January 2021 (stomach), which includes ones physiological desire and needs. To attain happiness, the self,
therefore, must be intellectually, emotionally, and biologically balanced.

The Self in the Medieval Philosophy

 The medieval philosophy to which St. Augustine belonged. The theocentric approach of the medieval
philosophy relegated the self to secondary concern.

St. Augustine (354-430 AD)

St. Augustine is one of the two great thinkers of the medieval period whose works to some extent were
influenced by Plato’s philosophy. St. Augustine along with St. Thomas Aquinas, contemplated that the self is a
tripartite being. The self is composed of the body, soul, and spirit.

The Self in the Modern Philosophy

In opposition to the medieval view of man and his knowledge as subordinate to the divine truth, the
modern philosophy affirms the dignity and worth of man with regards to the power of his reason to know the truth
of his nature.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Descartes, the celebrated French rationalist, presented an extreme dualistic separation of mind and body.
His idea on the self is centered on the concept of substance. Substance refers to anything that exists in itself. There
are two kinds of substances: infinite and finite. Infinite, abstract substance refers to the innate idea of God while
finite substance refers to man. “I think, therefore, I am.” So the self is nothing else but a thinking thing or a
machine that thinks.

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke, a British philosopher, believed that the source of authentic knowledge of reality must pass the
test of sensory experience. Knowledge cannot be innate because mind is like a blank sheet of paper (Tabula Rasa).
As we grow and interact with others, we accumulate knowledge. The accumulated experiences are then printed in
the blank sheet of paper or mind. The existence of the self is reliant on our consciousness of it. The essence of the
self is its conscious awareness of itself as a thinking, reasoning, reflecting identity and is not tied up with any
particular body or substance.

David Hume (1711-1776)

Hume, a British thinker who believed in empiricism, postulated that the concept of the self, if to be
intelligible and meaningful, must be based on sense impression. To understand the concept the self, we must first
discuss his concepts of impressions and ideas. Impressions are the experience of sense such as pain, pleasure,
heat, cold etc., which are “lively” and “vivid”. Ideas refer to the recalled copies of the impressions. We see, feel,
smell, taste things, then we remember what we have seen, felt, smelt and tasted. “There is no such thing as the
self”

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Kant reconciled the conflicting philosophy of rationalism of the 17th century and empiricism of the 18th
century. In his theory of knowledge, Kant said that human knowledge is composed of sensory component and
rational component. Kant conceptualized the two kinds of the self: the empirical self and the transcendental self.
The empirical self, just like anything else in the world, is known through experience. As a transcendental self, the
self is an activity or organizing principle that actively interprets, constructs, and gives meaning to collections of
sensory data. The self is not an object, but a subject, an organizing principle that actively interprets, constructs,
and gives meaning to sensory experiences.
 Martin Buber (1878-1965)
Martin Buber was a Jewish philosopher and theologian who was born in Vienna in 1878. The basic
formulation of Buber’s philosophy (the philosophy of dialogue) is contained in I and Thou (Ich und Du in German)
where he makes a radical distinction between two basic attitudes of which men are capable, described as I-Thou
and I-It. I-Thou designates a relation between subject Updated on January 2021 and subject, a relation of
reciprocity and mutuality. I-It is the relation between subject and object, involving some form of utilization or
control, the object being wholly passive. Man becomes whole not in relation to himself but only through a relation
to another self.

Roque Ferriols
The encounter between God and the human person can be concretely experienced in the attempt of
being human.

Ramon Reyes
Filipino. Self as dependent on others and as rational in nature.

The Self as Product of Modern Society

Modernization- affected how an individual builds and develops his or her self-identity.

Pre-modern society ― centered on survival ― people behaved according to social rules and
traditions

Modern society ― people are free to choose how to lead their lives but stability has decreased as
traditions and traditional support system have decreased.

Development of the Self

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

• Developed the theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual’s
personality (1962, orig. 1934).

• Self is part of individual’s personality composed of self awareness and self image.

Three stages of Self Development according to Mead

Preparatory Stage- children imitate others.

Play Stage – children begin “role-taking”

Game Stage – children are aware of their position.

Two sides of the Self: ”I” and “Me”

 Development of the Self
Charles Horton Cooley: “The Looking Glass Self” Theory
• The people around us become a mirror in which we can see ourselves.
• Used the phrase looking-glass self to mean a self-image based on how we think others see us.
• Believed that individuals and their personalities are products of social interactions and social
influences, and that attitudes, behaviors and self-concepts develop from our interactions with others.
Erving Goffman: The Dramaturgical Approach
• Views social life as a stage where people interact with one another.
• People are viewed as members of the audience and as actors.
*Dramaturgical Approach- compares the behavior of people in a society to acting on a stage.
People are acting out a script on society’s (real life) expectation and even making improvements in order
to impress the audience.
• In short, people are “social actors” who do not have a “real self” but many “real selves”
ANTHROPOLOGY
- The study of people past and present. Focuses on understanding human condition in its
cultural aspect.

ASPECTS OF THE SELF (Joseph LeDoux)

o Explicit – Self that you are consciously aware of Implicit – Self that is not immediately available
to the consciousness
o “The self is not static, it is added to and subtracted from genetic maturation, learning,
forgetting, stress, ageing, and disease.”
o Self-representation (Culturally shaped “self”)
o Prof. Katherine Ewing (1989) asserted that “self is illusory.” People construct a series of
selfrepresentation that are based on selected on selected cultural concepts of person and
selected ‘chains’ of personal memories.
SELF IS CONSTRUCTED (CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGIST)
- Independent Construct (Individualistic Culture)
Internal Attributes – values and skills
- Interdependent Construct (Collectivist Culture)
The essential connection between individual to other people.
--Catherine Raeff (2010) believed that culture can influence how you view: relationship,
personality traits, achievement, and expressing emotions.
 PSYCHOLOGY
 Comes from the words “psyche” which means soul/mind and “logos” which means “study”

 It is the scientific study of how people behave, think, and feel.

HARTER’S SELF-DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

EARLY CHILDHOOD

The child describes the “self” in terms of concrete, observable characteristics, such as physical
attributes, material possessions, behaviors, and preferences

MIDDLE TO LATER CHILDHOOD

The child is described in terms of trait-like constructs (e.g. smart, honest, friendly, shy)

ADOLESCENCE
The emergence of more abstract self-definitions, such as inner thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and
motives

EMERGING ADULTHOOD
The age of possibilities. Has a vision of a “possible self”.

SIGMUND FREUD
A physician considered as the Father of the Psychoanalytic Theory.

Levels of Personality
Conscious - Plays a relatively minor role and includes those mental elements in awareness at any given
point in time
Preconscious/Subconscious –Contains all elements that are not conscious but can become conscious
either quite readily or with some difficulty.
Unconscious - Contains all drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but that
nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions.

Personality Structures
ID -Motivated entirely by the pleasure principle
Ego -Motivated by the reality principle
SUPEREGO -Motivated by the morality principle
REAL VS IDEAL SELF (CARL ROGERS)
- Rogers' personality theory is basically focusing on the notion of self or self-concept.
- Self-concept includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are
perceived in awareness by the individual.
- Experiences that are inconsistent with their selfconcept usually are either denied or
distorted.
 REAL SELF
- How we see ourselves It’s the self that feels most true to what and who we really are.
IDEAL SELF
- One’s view of self as one wishes to be.

THEOLOGY
- systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths.

Etymological definition. This type defines the word according to its origin or root words.  The beauty of
this type of definition is that it allows one to see the development of the meanings of the word throughout
history.  This is the simplest and easiest way of understanding words.  It is like how we define biology
earlier during high school as coming from the root words “bios” – life and “logos” – study.  So by
etymology.  Biology is the study of life.
Essential definition. They key word is essence.  Essence is the thing that makes a thing, the thing. 
Simply put, it is the very material that created the thing.  In definitions, when we speak of essential, we
define the meaning of the word by its very essence.  Water for example needs 2 molecules of hydrogen
and one molecule of oxygen to form water.  The absence of the elements of hydrogen and oxygen makes
it difficult to create water.

Functional definition. Here we define the meaning of the word by its function, purpose or task.  For
example.  We define a chair as an object or furniture that one sits on so anything that people use to sit on
could actually be considered a chair
 
Normative definition.  In this type of definition, the meanings are given according to how it is establish or
define by the community.    If the community defines good students as those who always come to class
on time then it is the definition of a good student.
 
Contextual definition. The meaning of the words depends on the context, or surrounding words,
phrases, and paragraphs, of the writing.  It is also to understand the meaning of the word according to the
situation where it is connected. 

Interpersonal relationship
• social associations, connections, or affiliations bet
Contact Praxis
• is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, practiced, embodied, or realised
Orthodoxy-orthopraxis
• Ortho - from Greek word ὀρθός meaning "straight" or "correct"
• Dox comes from the Greek, "doxa," and means "thought" or "teaching"
• Praxis - From Ancient Greek πρᾶξις (praksis, “action, activity, practice
Religion
- is a unified system of beliefs and practices concerned with sacred things.

-social institution involving beliefs and practices based upon a conception of the sacred.

-involve ritual, formal ceremonial behavior.

- involves faith, belief anchored in conviction rather than scientific evidence.

Emile Durkheim

-every society has things that are sacred and things that are profane.

Sacred - extraordinary, inspiring a sense of awe, reverence and even fear.

Profane - non-sacred aspects of life. 

-The commonplace in our society and don't involve the supernatural; secular.

Sociologists - religion gives formal approval to existing social arrangements. 

-it justifies our society's norms and customs.

Three major social functions of religion: (Durkheim)

Social cohesion - willingness to cooperate

Social control - regulation

Providing meaning and purpose.

Karl Marx

• religion is used by the rulers or the Bourgeoisie to justify its economic, political, and social advantages
over the oppressed.

• Religion is the opium of the masses

Max Weber -Religion promotes social change.

John Calvin (Protestant)

 Types of Religious Organization
CHURCH -religious organization well integrated into the larger society. There are two types of churches.

• ECCLESIA - church that is formally allied with the state.

• DENOMINATION -church, independent of the state, in societies that accept religious pluralism
SECT -religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. They display the following characteristics:

a) They are less formal, more emotional, less intellectualize.

b) Their leaders display charisma.
c) They rely on active proselytization, recruiting many members through a process of conversion.

CULT -religious organization that is substantially outside the cultural traditions of a society
IMPORTANT TERMS

• Monotheism: existence of only one God.

- Islam, Christianity, Judaism

• Polytheism: existence of many gods.

- Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism, Taoism

• Proselytize: to try to convert people to one’s belief or opinion.(proselytization)

ETHYMOLOGY
LIGARE (to bind)

• see the world as a whole

• Not regard some areas as sacred or profane (bad)

LEGERE (to read)

•read the world correctly

•We have to see not just the negativities in life but also the goodness around us

Eligare (to choose)

• choose God and God’s way in everything that we do

• The religious person always chooses the good, better and holier
Religiosity - Religious attitudes and behaviors people display in everyday lives. (Charles Glock and Rodney Stark)

10 Elements (dimensions) of Religions

1. Belief Systems -worldview
2. Consequence -decisions and commitments
3. Sacredness -set apart
4. Community -practicing of the belief system and valuing the same ideals as a group creates a community
5. Central Myths -Stories that are told and enacted to convey the beliefs
 6. Ritual -Ceremonies are used to enact and reinforce beliefs
7. Characteristic Emotional Experiences -Emotions that are often associated with religions
8. Ethics -Established set of rules for the community, often with divine origin; rules how to behave
9. Intellectual dimension -knowledge one has of scriptures
10. Material Expression -use of physical elements

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE

There are 5 category of religious experience (Swinburne, 2016)
PUBLIC EXPERIENCES
1) Ordinary, interpreted experience – e.g. night sky
2) Extraordinary experience – Jesus walking on water
PRIVATE EXPERIENCE
3) Describable in normal language (Jacob’s ladder)
4) Not describable in normal language (mystical)
5) No specific experience

Rudolph Otto (German, 1896-1937)

Religious experience is the Holy or numinous experience

The numinous can be understood to be the experience of a mysterious terror and awe
(Mysterium tremendum et fascinans) and majesty (Majestas) in the presence of that which is “entirely
other” (das ganz Andere) and thus incapable of being expressed directly through human language and
other media.

Two Kinds of Religious Experience

• Numinous -Externally oriented; of the “awesome and fearful Other”; dualistic; otherness
• Mystical -Internally oriented; of the ultimate oneness and unity of all; Connectedness;
Non-dualistic
Shared Characteristics

1. Smallness of self 2. Limits of the ordinary

SPIRITUALITY
- is intrinsic to human beings
-We use it to transcend and experience deeper relationship with self, family, and others (nature)
-Spirituality is expressed through beliefs, values, traditions, and practices.

Spirituality Integrates Three Facets

Healthy relationships- treating ourselves and others with respect, honesty, integrity, and love, are a sign of
spiritual well-being.

Values are our principles—not only the things we say we care about, but also the things that cause us to behave
the way we do.
Purpose in life, and make choices that manifest that purpose

Urian Spirituality -inspired by the Life of Saint Joseph, our Patron saint and the spirituality of St. Ignatius as
exemplified by Father Urios. Thus, we make claims of the elements found both in the Spirit of St. Joseph and The
Ignatian Spirituality.

James Martin SJ -The Jesuit Guide to (Almost) Everything

Spiritual But Not Religious Exercises.(SBNR)

Animism
Latin “Anima” – breath, spirit, life
- Objects, places and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence

o Founder - There is no one person who is considered the founder of Animism

o Geographic Origin - Developed worldwide in different parts of the world. (Africa, the Americas, Asia, and
Australia)
o Currently Practiced - World-wide, but most common in traditional societies of Africa, the Americas and
Australia
o - It is even found in the Philippines

o 4. Significant Writings – None, but have an oral tradition of story-telling (oral history)
o Beliefs:
a. Religion that believes that each object has its own spirit and that ancestors watch over the living.
b. Polytheistic - Spirits are found in natural objects (living and nonliving objects)
c. There is belief in a Supreme Being and in lesser gods.
d. Obey the gods and follow tradition and you will be rewarded with good harvests and many healthy
children.
e. Failure to follow traditions would anger the Gods and result in hardships, crop failure, illness and
death.
 Practices:
a. Prayers and ceremonies keep spirits on your side
b. Use of ceremonial masks as a way to receive what the people want or need.

Significant Religious People

a. Shaman - A person who communicates with the spiritual world and conducts rituals
b. Medicine Man/Woman - A healer or a person who can treat illnesses
c. Griot - A professional storyteller in a traditional African Animist society.

Pantheism
- God is everything and everything is part of God. Reality is spiritual in nature and everyday world
is an illusion.
Monotheism
- a belief in one God
• The foundation of the Judeo Christian-Muslim line of religions
• began with a man named Abraham in about 2000 BC.
Polytheism
- a belief in multiple gods
• Originated with Hinduism in about 2500 BC.
• Polytheism was also the religion of many ancient cultures
• Egypt, Greece and Rome