Moam - Info Technology and Learning 5986531e1723ddcb690d52fd

Proceedings of
AECT International Conference

on the Frontier in e-Learning
Research 2013
AECT-ICFER 2013
June 18 - 20, 2013

Taichung, Taiwan
Publisher
Graduated Institute of Learning and Instruction, National Central University, Taiwan
Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Editors
Tzu-Chien Liu
Yueh-Min Huang
Marcus Childress
Associate Editors
Melissa Hui-Mei Fan
ORGANIZATION
Hosts
Graduate Institute of Learning and Instruction, National Central University, Taiwan
Co-Hosts
Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Taiwan
Taiwan E-Learning and Digital Content Association
National Museum of Natural Science, Taiwan
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education, National Taiwan University of
Science and Technology, Taiwan
E-Learning Research Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
Graduate Institute of Information and Computer Education, National Taiwan Normal
University, Taiwan
Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education
Taiwan Association for Educational Communications and technology
Graduate Institute of Network Learning Technology, National Central University,
Taiwan
Sponsors
National Science Council, Republic of China
National Central University, Taiwan
Honorary Chairs
Kuo-En Chang, President, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Tak-Wai Chan, National Central University, Taiwan
Ana Donaldson, Walden University, USA
Phil Harris, University of Chester, UK
Advisory Chairs
Chien Chou, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan
Chun-Yen Chang, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Demetrios Sampson, University of Piraeus & CERTH, Greece
Hwa-Wei Ko, National Central University, Taiwan
Kinshuk, Athabasca University, Canada
Michael Grant, University of Memphis, USA
Nian-Shing Chen, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan
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Peter Leong, University of Hawaii, USA
Stephen Jenn-Hwa Yang, National Central University, Taiwan
Sunny Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan
Wei-Hsin Sun, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
Yao-Ting Sung, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Yuen-Kuang Liao, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
Conference General Chairs

Tzu-Chien Liu, National Central University, Taiwan
Yueh-Min Huang, National Cheng Kung University and Chia-Nan University of
Pharmacy and Science, Taiwan
Marcus Childress, Emporia State University, USA
Program Chairs
Chen-Chung Liu, National Central University, Taiwan (Track 1)
Gwo-Jen Hwang, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan (Track 2)
Ming-Puu Chen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan (Track 3)
Chin-Chung Tsai, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan (Track 4)
Meng-Jung Tsai, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan (Track 4)
Jie-Chi Yang, National Central University, Taiwan (Track 5)
Michael Spector, University of North Texas, USA
Jimmy H.M. Lee, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Local Organization Chairs

Hong-Ren Chen, National TaiChung University, Taiwan
Yi-Chun Lin, National Central University, Taiwan
Chia-Ju Liu, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan
Publicity Chairs
Melissa Hui-Mei Fan, National Central University, Taiwan
Chun-Min Wang, National HsinChu University of Education, Taiwan
Ting-Ting Wu, Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Taiwan
Poster Chairs
Yong-Ming Huang, Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Taiwan
Ming-Chi Liu, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Sheng-Yao Tai, National Central University, Taiwan
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Program Committee
Allan Yuen, University of Hong Kong, China
Arthur Markman, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Atwi Suparman, Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia
Ben Chang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Bradley Love, University College London, UK
Baltasar Fernandez Manjon, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
Chengjiu Yin, Kyushu University, Japan
Clarence Chu, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
Chen-Chung Liu, National Central University, Taiwan
Chih-Cheng Lin, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chin-Chung Tsai, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Chih-Hung Lai, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Carol H.C. Chu, Soochow University, Taiwan
Chee Kit Looi, National Institute of Education, Singapore
Chih-Kai Chang, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
Ching-Kun Hsu, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chih-Ming Chen, National Chengchi University, Taiwan
Chiu-Pin Lin, National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan
Chun-Yen Chang, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Daniel Spikol, Malmo University, Sweden
Elliot Soloway, University of Michigan, USA
Fang-Ying Yang, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Fu-Yun Yu, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
George Ghinea, Brunel University, UK
Gi-Zen Liu, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
HeeBae Kim, Kwandong University, Korea
Hiroaki Ogata, University of Tokushima, Japan
Hiroyuki Tarumi, Kagawa University, Japan
Hyo-Jeong So, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Hsin-Tzu Chen, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
Hsiu-Ting Hung, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
Jukka Hyona, University of Turku, Finland
Jyoti Bawane, Indian Institute of Education, India
Jie-Chi Yang, National Central University, Taiwan
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Jyh-Chong Liang, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Jimmy H.M. Lee, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Jun-Jie Shang, Peking University, China
Ju-Ling Shih, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
Jun-Ming Su, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
John P. Charlton, University of Bolton, UK
Kazuo Nagano, University of the Sacred Heart, Japan
Keith Chan, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Kinshuk, Athabasca University, Canada
Koong Lin, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
Lucia Mason, University of Padova, Italy
Lung-Hsiang Wong, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Maiga Chang, Athabasca University, Canada
Marcelo Milrad, Linnaeus University, Sweden
Mary Hegarty, University of California at Santa Barbara, USA
Masanori Sugimoto, University of Tokyo, Japan
Masanori Yamada, Kyushu University, Japan
Mike Sharples, Open University, UK
Ming-Fon Jan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Miao-Hsuan Yen, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Meng-Jung Tsai, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Mark J.W. Lee, Charles Sturt University and University of New England, Australia
Meng-Lung Lai, National Chia-Yi University, Taiwan
Marcus Specht, The Open University, UK
Morris S. Y. Jong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Nancy Nersessian, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
Naomi Miyake, University of Tokyo, Japan
Noboru Matsuda, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Paul Thagard, University of Waterloo, Canada
Pierre Dillenbourg, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland
Pi-Hsia Hung, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
Qun Jin, Waseda University, Japan
Radha Ganesan, Azim Premji Foundation, India
Richard Mayer, University of California at Santa Barbara, USA
Robin Lin, National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan
Roger Anderson, Teachers College, Columbia University, USA
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Ronghuai Huang, Beijing Normal University, China
Siu Cheung Kong, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Su-Fen Chen, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Stephen Jenn-Hwa Yang, National Central University, Taiwan
Silvia Wen-Yu Lee, National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan
Tomoo Inoue, University of Tsukuba, Japan
Tzu-Chien Liu, National Central University, Taiwan
Ulrich Hoppe, University Duisburg-Essen Faculty, Germany
Vincent Aleven, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Wenli Chen, National Institute of Education, Singapore
Wu-Yuin Hwang, National Central University, Taiwan
Xibin Han, Beijing Tsinghua University, China
Yanjie Song, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Yoshiko Goda, Kumamoto University, Japan
Yuichi Ono, University of Tsukuba, Japan
Yuen-Kuang Liao, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
Yam-San Chee, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Zhi-Hong Chen, Yuan-Ze University, Taiwan
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PREFACE
The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) is the oldest
professional association which is devoted to improving instruction through technology. In
response to requests from AECT International affiliates and members, AECT is proud to
present its 2013 International Conference on the Frontier in e-Learning Research, held at the
National Museum of Natural Science in Taichung, Taiwan on June 18-20, 2013.
AECT-ICFER 2013 features distinguished scholars in e-Learning research and provides an
international forum to foster the exchange of ideas, bringing together scholars and experts
working in this area.
Foremost e-Learning Research Topics
AECT-ICFER 2013 is a meta-conference, comprised of five-interrelated tracks and

specialized themes:
Track 1: Digital Classrooms: From Dream-based Research to Practice-based Research

 Learning activities in digital classrooms
 New classroom environments
 Evaluations of digital classrooms
 Learning assessment in digital classrooms
 Electronic books in digital classrooms
 Teacher development
 Scaling-up and implementation of digital classrooms
 Social influence of digital classrooms
Track 2: Insights from Distinguished Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning Projects across the
World
 Theoretical foundations for mobile and ubiquitous learning
 Emerging tools and technologies for mobile and ubiquitous learning
 Learning strategies for mobile and ubiquitous learning
 Development of digital content for mobile and ubiquitous learning
 Applications of mobile and ubiquitous learning
Track 3: Transforming the Classrooms: Innovative Digital Game-based Learning Designs
and Applications
 Innovative games-based learning technologies tools and environments
 Mobile and location-based technology for game-based learning
 Learning and instructional theory for games-based learning
 Assessment in games-based learning
 Case studies and best practices in the use of games-based learning
 Social and collaborative aspects of games-based learning
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Track 4: Technology-Enhanced Science Learning
 Learning strategies for technology-enhanced science learning
 Teaching strategies for technology-enhanced science learning
 Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) integrated learning
 Neuroscience perspectives on research in technology-enhanced science learning
 Eye-tracking or brain-based research in technology-enhanced science learning
 Interdisciplinary collaborations between cognitive science and learning science
 Human-computer-interactions in technology-enhanced science learning
environments
Track 5: Other Technology-Enhanced Learning Studies or Applications
 Web-based learning
 Collaborative learning
 Adaptive learning
 Artificial intelligence in education
 Theories and policy for technologies in education
 Computer-assisted language learning
Each track is organized by a program committee to appear as part of the two-and-a-half day
conference schedule.
An Array of Distinguished Scholars in e-Learning Research
AECT-ICFER 2013 expressly invited 14 distinguished scholars from 9 countries in the

e-Learning research field to be the speakers and provides an international forum, bringing
experts and scholars together for academic exchange (see Table 1).
Table 1 List of the Keynote Speakers and Invited Speakers
Speech Types Speakers Title of the Speech

Transforming Textbooks to
Special Keynote Gwo-Dong Chen, Taiwan
e-Textbook and Learning Courseware
The Benefits of Mobile Technologies
Elliot Soloway , USA for K-12: Enabling New Pedagogical
Cathie Norris , USA Practices and Dramatic Increases in
Student Performance
Ubiquitous Learning Analytics for
Kinshuk , Canada
Keynote Speech Adaptive and Authentic Instruction
Games, Learning, Instruction, and
Michael Spector , USA
Research
Processing Science Illustrated Texts to
Lucia Mason , Italy Understand Concepts: Evidence from
Eye Movements
Invited Speech Tak-Wai Chan , Taiwan Creator-Based Learning
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Speech Types Speakers Title of the Speech
Learner-centered Learning in Digital
Siu Cheung Kong , Hong
Classrooms for the Development of
Kong
Twenty-first Century Skills
Supporting Experiential Learning With
Hiroaki Ogata , Japan
Mobile and Ubiquitous Technologies
Designing the Next Generation
Daniel Spikol , Sweden
Personal Mobile Learning
Beyond Wow Effect: Making Fun
Masanori Sugimoto , Japan Experience Learning and Learning
Experience Fun
Reframing Game-Based Learning to
Invited Speech Mingfong Jan , Singapore Foster Collaborative Dialogic
Argumentation in the Classroom
Assessing and Supporting Learning
Bradley Love , UK using Neuroscience and
Computational Methods
What the Eye-tracking Technology
Can Tell About the Authentic Science
Fang-Ying Yang , Taiwan Learning Process? – From the
Experimental Settings to the Real
Classrooms
A Rich Opportunity for Exchange of Ideas

AECT-ICFER 2013 provides an opportunity for researchers, graduate students, professional
practitioners, and educators in any discipline to participate in all parts of the conference. The
program organizing committee is comprised of a strong team including 4 Honorary Chairs,
3 Conference General Chairs, 7 Program Chairs, 12 Advisory Chairs, 88 PC Members, and
20 experts in the field of e-Learning research from 14 countries. Totally, 203 Authors
submitted 90 papers from 9 countries (See Table 2).
Table 2 Distribution of PC Members and Authors

PC PC
No. Country Members Authors No. Country Members Authors
1 Australia 1 0 10 Netherlands 0 3
2 Canada 3 0 11 Singapore 6 13
3 China 2 0 12 Spain 1 0
4 Finland 1 0 13 Sweden 1 0
5 Germany 2 5 14 Taiwan 45 145
6 Hong Kong 5 2 15 Thailand 0 3
7 Italy 1 0 16 United Kingdom 5 0
8 Japan 11 4 17 United States 4 29
9 Mexico 0 2 Total 88 203
Table 3 shows the distribution of paper submission with 66% submitted from Taiwan, 12%
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submitted from other Asian countries including Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, and
Thailand. In addition, 19% submitted from United States and Mexico, and 3% submitted
from Europe, including Netherlands and Germany.
Table 3 Distribution of Paper Submission

Country Track 1 Track 2 Track 3 Track 4 Track 5 Total
Taiwan 9 7 13 13 17 59 66%
Hong Kong 1 1
Japan 2 2
12%
Singapore 2 1 3 1 7
Thailand 1 1
United States 3 2 1 1 9 16
19%
Mexico 1 1
Netherlands 1 1
3%
Germany 2 2
Total 15 10 17 18 30 90
A Unique Opportunity to Have Your Research Published in Special Issues

in Well-Known International Journals
All papers were reviewed by at least two reviewers from the respective track program
committees. Across five tracks, 22 Full Papers, 30 Short Papers, and 25 Posters were
accepted, as shown in Table 4. The overall acceptance rate for Full and Short Papers is 68%.
Outstanding papers accepted and presented in AECT-ICFER 2013, after further revisions,
will be invited to submit to the corresponding special issues of international journals
including Educational Technology & Society (ET&S), International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education (IJSME), Educational Technology Research and Development
(ETR&D), and Journal of Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning
(RPTEL). In addition, many of the authors will be invited to expand papers for an edited
volume to be published by Springer in its AECT summer research series.
Table 4 Distribution of Paper Acceptance

Paper Acceptance Track 1 Track 2 Track 3 Track 4 Track 5 Total
Full Paper 4 2 5 5 6 22
Short Paper 7 7 6 4 6 30
Poster 2 1 4 7 11 25
Acceptance Rate of the
85% 90% 73% 56% 52% 68%
Full and Short Papers
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A Special Conference Venue Rich with Treasures
AECT-ICFER 2013 is held at the National Museum of Natural Science. The museum is a
six-venue complex housing the Space IMAX Theater, Science Center, Life Science Hall,
Human Cultures Hall (the original Chinese Science Hall), Global Environment Hall and the
Botanical Garden, excluding the Earthquake Museum in Wufong. Over 30 permanent
exhibit areas cover subjects on astronomy, space science, paleontology, ecology, gems and
minerals, Taiwanese aborigines, and tropical plants. Rotating special exhibits are a constant
occurrence. On June 20th, one special exhibition display is offered expressly for the
attendees of AECT-ICFER 2013.
Nothing great can occur without effort from great and talented people. We are so grateful to
those who have dedicated their time and expertise for the conference, including other
members of the organizing committee, paper reviewers and working staff. Finally, special
appreciation goes to Prof. Nian-Shing Chen who initiated the conference. Without his
constant dedication, we could not host such an exciting and enriching event here in
Taichung.
Conference General Chairs
Tzu-Chien Liu Yueh-Min Huang Marcus Childress

National Central University National Cheng Kung University Emporia State University
Taiwan Taiwan USA
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KEYNOTE SPEECHES
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Special Keynote
Transforming Textbooks to E-Textbook and

Learning Courseware
Dr. Gwo-Dong Chen

Director, Department of Science Education,
National Science Council, Republic of China
Professor, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering,
Abstract
With the popularity of tablet and e-ink technology, people think we can put all textbooks in
an e-book reader. However, previous studies showed that students do not like to use e-books
to read and study and perform worse than those used paper textbooks. There may be two
directions to improve this situation. One is to mend the functions that the paper books have
however lost on e-books. We call it as Paper-opportunities. The other is to build scaffolding
tools on e-books that can facilitate good learning performance. We call it as e-opportunities.
This talk will present some works we did in these two directions. The goal is to provide
e-textbook mechanism that can make e-books toward better e-textbook that can support
students learn with good learning performance.
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Track 1: Digital classrooms: From Dream-based Research to
Practice-based Research
The Benefits of Mobile Technologies for K-12:

Enabling New Pedagogical Practices and
Dramatic Increases in Student Performance
Dr. Elliot Soloway

Dr. Cathleen A. Norris
Arthur F. Thurnau Professor
Regents Professor
Intergalactic Mobile Learning Center
Department of Learning Technologies,
(iMLC), College of Engineering, CSE
College of Information,
Dept. School of Information, School of
University of North Texas Denton, USA
Education, University of Michigan, USA
Abstract
We stand by our 2010 prediction: by 2015, each and every student in primary & secondary
school classrooms of developed nations will be using his or her own mobile computing
device 24/7 for curricular purposes. For good reasons! Those miraculously-thin and light,
aluminum-encased slabs of glass -- smart phones, tablets -- afford significant benefits for
teaching and learning. For example, Internet-connected, mobile devices enable learners to
directly and immediately access information, events, organizations, places, individuals, data,
tools, etc., etc. Such unprecedented access enables learners to take control of their own
learning – thereby enabling all teachers, not just artisan teachers, to enact a learn-by-doing,
inquiry-directed pedagogy in their classrooms. Flipping the classroom is only the beginning;
mobile technologies extend the classroom to enable all-the-time, everywhere learning,
which, in turn, supports the linking of the abstract ideas explored inside the classroom to the
concrete, real world of people, places, and things outside the classroom. The benefits of
mobile devices can – and will – enable the next wave of educational practices and unleash
dramatic increases in student performance. And, most importantly make no mistake: THIS
CHANGE IS INEVITABLE.
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Track 2: Insights from Distinguished Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning
Projects across the World
Ubiquitous Learning Analytics for Adaptive

and Authentic Instruction
Dr. Kinshuk
Associate Dean, Faculty of Science and Technology
Professor, School of Computing and Information Systems
NSERC/iCORE/Xerox/Markin Industrial Research Chair in Adaptivity and
Personalization in Informatics
Athabasca University, Canada
Abstract
There is greater awareness in educational system regarding benefits authentic learning
experiences bring to the learning process. As a result, ubiquitous educational environments
have started to gain acceptance in mainstream education. These environments break the
boundaries of the classroom and enable learning to take place in the contexts where learners
are able to relate with the learning scenarios in their own living and work environments.
While these environments enable extremely powerful learning experiences for the learners,
they demand highly complex teacher intervention techniques for providing appropriate
support to the learners in real-time. This talk will focus on an emerging area of "ubiquitous
learning analytics" that gleans real-time information from learners' immediate context,
caters for any ambiguities or temporary absence of certain information, makes sense of
information by analyzing patterns of real-time vs. historical learner profile, and enables
teachers to intervene in both individual and group learning processes that are taking place in
authentic environments. With particular focus on adaptive learning, the talk will explore the
diminishing boundaries of formal and informal learning, and the potential of
location-dependent context-sensitive approaches that are emerging as successor of Web
2.0paradigm.
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Track 3: Transforming the Classrooms: Innovative Digital Game-based
Learning Designs and Applications
Games, Learning, Instruction, and Research
Dr. Jonathan Michael Spector

Professor and Chairperson, Learning Technologies, College of Information
University of North Texas, USA
Abstract
The history of educational technology is filled with unfulfilled promises. Examples include
how the advent of television would revolutionize learning, how computer-based instruction
would make traditional teaching obsolete, and how the Internet would radically transform
education. Each new technology that brings with it new potential to support learning and
instruction also brings with it a group of advocates who promise that adoption of that
technology will solve most or all of the existing problems with learning and instruction.
This dream has yet to be realized. Recent technologies that are receiving a great deal of
attention include MOOCs (Massively Open Online Courses) and personalized learning (not
new when considered generically but new when coupled with the Internet, learning
analytics, dynamic student modeling, and other developments). If one focuses on those two
highly promoted developments, one will notice a tension between instruction that brings
with it little or no formative feedback during the learning process (MOOCs) and one which
is built around the notion that dynamic, informative feedback during learning activities is
essential (personalized learning). It is likely that this tension will be resolved by yet another
technology; the point here, however, is that one cannot accept all of the promises made by
advocates of these technologies. A great deal of attention is now being placed on
game-based learning. There is a very large network of advocates of serious games and many
funded projects, including a prominent network of excellence in Europe called GaLA –
Games and Learning Alliance). This presentation focuses on the promises and pitfalls
associated with game-based learning. While the story will be somewhat skeptical, a
balanced perspective will be presented that suggests an appropriate framework for
designing, implementing and investigating games in learning and instruction.
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Processing Science Illustrated Texts to

Understand Concepts:
Evidence from Eye Movements
Dr. Lucia Mason

Professor, Educational Psychology
Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization
University of Padova, Italy
Abstract
Most science learning in school and academic contexts is still based on successful
comprehension of illustrated texts, which implies the integration of verbal and graphical
information, as posited by theoretical models and documented by outcome-oriented
empirical studies. Yet, little is still known about the ways in which texts and different types
of visualizations, commonly introduced in science textbooks, are scanned when they are
being read and observed to learn concepts from them. For a better understanding of the
reasons behind a poor learning performance from reading a science text with illustrations, a
process approach is needed. This presentation will focus on studies that indicate how and
why science text and graphics processing can be examined by means of eye-tracking
methodology, which has rarely been adopted in educational research. However, this
methodology has recently received increased attention in studies on multimedia learning,
although mainly only with university students.
Data about eye-tracking investigations with primary, middle, and secondary school students
will indicate that basic and finer-grained indices of visual behavior can be collected during
the first and second-pass reading of an illustrated science text to understand – in an
unintrusive way – the cognitive processing of different types of representation. Data will
also reveal the important link between the online integrative processing, as revealed by eye
movements, and the offline outcomes of scientific conceptual learning, as revealed by
various measures at immediate and delayed posttests.
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INVITED SPEECHES
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Creator-Based Learning
Dr. Tak-Wai Chan

Chair Professor, Graduate Institute of Network Learning Technology
Abstract
People create by learning and learn by creating. Genuine and original creation, however, is
rare. Most creations are re-creations. From the historical perspective, five million years ago,
our ancestors started to stand and walk with feet. Someone created an original tool, for
example, a stoneaxe, followed by abundant re-creations of the tool by others through
modeling, transforming and refining. In terms of learning, we were learning by modeling,
learning by transforming and learning by refining. Inherited from our ancestors, these three
creation abilities—well-practiced and effective—are actually three learning archetypes.
Fifty thousand years ago, the great leap forward occurred, and human started to
communicate with oral language. People exchanged ideas and experiences, speeding up the
processes of modeling, transforming and refining. Similarly, emerging technologies, such
as written language, typography, computers and network, have been integrating and
upgrading these learning archetypes. In designing learning activities, we, therefore, should
primarily consider these three inherent learning archetypes as well as their integrated and
upgraded forms supported by technology.
We postulate that creation is a form of effective learning, and nurturing a creator means
nurturing an effective learner. Therefore, we should treat every learner as a creator.
Furthermore, we define a creator to be a person who is interested in creation and acquires a
habit of creation as well as plays a role in a community. This definition intends to encourage
continual, voluminous, and lifelong creation by students. Actually people acquire a habit
through developing interest and develop interest while sustaining a habit. Furthermore, they
seek recognition of their creations by playing some roles in their community. Creator-based
learning (CBL) talks about creation, interest, habit, and community as well as their
relationships.
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Learner-Centered Learning in Digital

Classrooms for the Development of
Twenty-First Century Skills
Dr. Siu Cheung Kong

Head and Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics and Information Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Abstract
This talk highlights the e-Learning experience in Hong Kong primary schools for discussing
the ways of forwarding learner-centered learning in digital classrooms for the development
of twenty-first century skills. The talk first reports the results of a recent census survey on
the readiness of Hong Kong primary schools in three areas important for the implementation
of digital classrooms – infrastructure provision, curriculum integration and professional
development. Local primary schools are found to be ready to start the ad hoc use of a small
amount of portable computing devices for learner-centered learning activities; but yet to
equip every general classroom with sufficient amount of computers to facilitate each student
to learn with IT during subject lessons. Local primary school teachers are found to be ready
to use IT for supporting day-to-day teaching, but yet to adapt to the use of IT for promoting
learner-centered learning among students. Based on the survey results, the talk then
discusses the policy support needed by primary schools to acquire portable computing
devices and wireless connectivity, as well as to provide sustainable and scalable teacher
development for meeting the new demands on digital classrooms for developing
twenty-first century skills.
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Track 2: Insights from Distinguished Mobile and Ubiquitous
Learning Projects across the World
Supporting Experiential Learning with Mobile

and Ubiquitous Technologies
Dr. Hiroaki Ogata

Associate Professor
Dept. of Information Science and Intelligent Systems, Faculty of Engineering
University of Tokushima, Japan
Abstract
This talk will present how recent technologies can augment experiential learning in the real
world. In this talk, a learning-log system called SCROLL (System for Capturing and
Reusing of Learning Log) will be shown. The system captures learning experiences with
smart phones and tablets as learning logs, and reuse them by providing personalized quizzes
and recommending personalized tasks to enhance learning by experiences. This talk will
also present practical experiments and future directions of this research.
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Track 2: Insights from Distinguished Mobile and Ubiquitous
Learning Projects across the World
Designing the Next Generation Personal

Mobile Learning
Dr. Daniel Spikol

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science
School of Technology and Society
MalmöUniversity, Sweden
Abstract
The widespread use of mobile devices and their integration in our daily activities is
changing the way we communicate, share information, and learn. A vital part of society is
the ability for people to have opportunities for personal and meaningful life-long learning,
which these new mobile devices can support. A central and unsolved research challenge is
how to design software that addresses the fragmentation of learning, to create a seamless
continuity of learning activities across contexts and life transitions. This talk proposes that
the solution is to design a new generation of software for support of learning that is
inquiry-led, mobile, personalized and social, thus empowering learners to control and
integrate their learning. These new tools and resources go beyond e-learning systems and
encompass the personalized, social and mobile landscape of life-wide learning. They
connect the everyday lives and personal learning projects of dispersed groups of learners, to
support social learning webs based on personal interests. The key objective of designing
these new technology experiences is to provide personal and meaningful learning tools that
empower learners to investigate, organize, share, and expand their learning interests across
different life experiences and technologies.
My talk raises the following questions for researchers and practitioners to consider
(although I will offer some ideas for discussion):
 How do we investigate and develop new types of digital mobile tools informed by
theory and practice of contextual learning that enable learners to create personal
meaning by exploring topics of direct relevance to their lives and interests?
 What are the theoretical implications of these personalized and mobile learning tools?
How do we conduct iterative design studies in real-world contexts with diverse
stakeholders?
 How do we evaluate and assess findings across formative and summative studies
through scientific and practical dissemination?
What are the possible means for innovation and how do we as researchers consider
commercialization and business.
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Track 3: Transforming the Classrooms: Innovative Digital
Game-based Learning Designs and Applications
Beyond Wow Effect: Making Fun Experience

Learning and Learning Experience Fun
Dr. Masanori Sugimoto

Professor, Department of Computer Science
Hokkaido University, Japan
Abstract
Our team has been designed and implemented several systems for supporting children’s
learning. We believed that game and toy enhanced learning (GTEL) is one of the promising
ways for raising their learning motivation and engagement. Lessons learned through
evaluations of the systems, especially, how learning environments including technologies
that provide children’s with fun experiences should be designed to truly enhance their
learning experiences, are discussed.
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Track 3: Transforming the Classrooms: Innovative Digital
Game-based Learning Designs and Applications
Reframing Game-Based Learning to Foster

Collaborative Dialogic Argumentation in the
Classroom
Dr. Mingfong Jan

Research Scientist, Learning Sciences Lab
National Institute of Education, Singapore
Abstract
In Asia, game-based learning is often framed as developing learning games to drive and
motivate content-based learning. In this talk, I will present a different framing for
game-based learning—designing the classroom as a game. In particular, I will present the
design of the classroom game and address how this new framing of game-based learning can
transform a “talking about” mode of learning to a “doing” mode of learning. As a conclusion,
I will share issues and challenges of bringing such learning design to Asian countries.
xxiii
Assessing and Supporting Learning using

Neuroscience and Computational Methods
Dr. Bradley Love

Professor, Department of Cognitive, Perceptual, and Brain Sciences
University College London (UCL), UK
Abstract
One educational challenge is assessing the state of a student's knowledge. Identifying when
and in which ways a student is unclear about a concept makes it possible to tailor instruction
to bolster learning. Can new methods from neuroscience and computation be used to help
characterize people's knowledge? In this talk, I will present some work that pairs
neuroscience (e.g., brain imaging) and computational methods (e.g., cognitive modeling,
model selection) to better understand the basis for novel learning. In particular, these
methods allow for assessment of whether learners are relying on item memorization or
forming broader abstract concepts. These methods are useful in visualizing how learners
conceptually organize their acquired knowledge. Much like how traditional
multidimensional scaling (MDS) techniques can simplify complex data, related techniques
can be used to visualize how newly acquired concepts are represented in the brain. Finally, I
will consider how to use insights into how people store and retrieve information to improve
learning by selecting the best possible examples.
xxiv
What the Eye-Tracking Technology can Tell

about the Authentic Science Learning Process?
– From the Experimental Settings to the Real
Classrooms
Dr. Fang-Ying Yang

Professor, Graduate Institute of Science Education
Department of Earth Science, National Taiwan Normal University
Abstract
The eye tracking technology is known to its capacity to record the online human cognitive
activities. In past decades, psychologists have intensively use eye trackers to study basic
cognitive processes during reading and other types of information processing behaviors.
Until recent years, educational researchers did not recognize how the eye tracking
technology can inform about the process of learning. According to the literature survey, a
considerable number of eye-movement studies focusing on educational issues have started
to emerge in just 5 years. Among these studies, there are two frequently discussed issues.
One is how different instructional designs affect learning, the other how learners process
different learning materials. In short, with the aid of the eye tracking technology, educators
have an alternative tool to examine how their instructional practices may affect learning
overtime.
Although the new research approach in education can shed lights on the online process of
learning, most of the eye-movement studies were conducted in experimental settings.
Consequently, the power of inferences that these study results can offer for learning that
actually takes place in real classrooms is reduced. In a recent study, we placed an eye tracker
in a real classroom in an attempt to analyze how adult learners read and obtain information
from a multimedia presentation displayed in an authentic learning environment. Our study,
while showing most findings consistent with those found in the experimental settings,
indicated there were cognitive processes that cannot be completely explained by prior
research claims. To close the talk, the gap between experimental and real-classroom studies,
and the limitation of the eye tracking technology for educational research are discussed.
xxv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Organization i
Preface vi
Keynote Speeches xi
Invited Speeches xvii
Track 1:
Digital Classrooms: From Dream-based Research to Practice-based Research
Full paper
Self-observation Model with Instinctive Interfaces for Classroom Learning 1
Chin-Yeh WANG & Gwo-Dong CHEN
Integrating CSCL to Improve math Concept Learning: An Example of

“Fraction” Learning in a Primary School 9
Chiu-Pin LIN, Yi-Tsu SU, Wenli CHEN & Wenting XIE
Pedagogical Strategies for Using Interactive Whiteboards in K-12

Classrooms 17
Ying W. SHEN, Ronald A. GINN & Teresa GONSKE
Exploring a Self-generated Drawings Environment to Facilitate Children’s

Writing and Storytelling 25
Calvin C. Y. LIAO & Tak-Wai CHAN
Short Paper
Facebook or Moodle? From Students’ Perspective: A Study of Learning
Primary-level English for Freshman in a Technology University in Northern
Taiwan 33
Ru Ling CHEN, Ming Hsiu TSAI & Ru-Jen CHENG
Designing Knowledge Building Classrooms 37

Seng Chee TAN
Online Participation in Digital Classroom 41

Poh Khoon THIAK & Khe Foon HEW1
Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills via a Primary School Blog + Webquest

Project 45
Kai-Ming LI & Yuen-Mei CHOW
Transforming Classroom Learning from Conventional Teaching to
iPad-enhanced Learning 49
Yi-Hsuan WANG & Shelley Shwu-Ching YOUNG
Gender Differences in Adopting Motion Controller for Mental Rotation

Training 53
Shih-Ching YEH, Jing-Liang WANG & Chin-Yeh WANG
The Development of an Innovative E-book Reading System to Enhance

Students’ Reading Comprehension and Reading Motivation 57
Ming-Hsiang SU, Po-Jen CHENG, Keui-Mi CHEN, Yu-Jen CHEN, Yuan-Hsun
LIAO & Pao-Ta YU
Poster
The Effects of Self-directed Learning Ability and Page Interface Design on
Students' Electronic Reading Performances 61
Pao-Nan CHOU & Wei-Fan CHEN
Exploring the Principles of Constructing Physical Classroom for Digital

Learning 63
Chun-Min Wang
Track 2:
Insights from Distinguished Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning Projects across the World
Full paper
Study on Nursing Students Acceptance of Annotation System Based on
Technology Acceptance Model 65
Ying-Hung PU, Ting-Ting WU & Yueh-Min HUANG
The Effects of Cognitive Styles on M-learning: Adaptability vs. Adaptivity 73

Chen-Wei HSIEH, Sherry Y. CHEN & Wu-Yuin HWANG
Short paper
Contrasting the Study and People Survey on Mobile Assisted Language
Learning 81
Gloria Shu Mei CHWO
Designing an Online Mobile Learning Course for Hawaii’s Public Schools

Teachers’ Professional Development 85
Meng-Fen Grace LIN, Ritsuko IYODA, Catherine P. FULFOR & Curtis HO
Generic Learning Outcomes for Mobile-enhanced Learning in Children: A

Case Study of the National Museum of Natural Science in Taiwan 89
Tien-Yu HSU, Ying-Chun CHOU & Pi-Hsiang LI
Educators Making Mobile Apps in an Online Course 93
Yu-Chang HSU & Yu-Hui CHING
Preliminary Investigation of Integrating Social Community Website into

Pervasive game for Learning Local History 97
Jyun-Fong GUO, Cheng-Ping CHEN, Ju-Ling SHIH & Chang-Hsin LIN
A Holistic Point of View in U-learning: An Initial Review 101

Leonor A. CÁRDENAS-R. & Alejandro PEÑ A-AYALA
Design of a Ubiquitous Travel-English Learning System for Middle-aged

People for Use on Small-screen Displays 105
Yea-Lih CHIANG, Chia-yun WU & Hong-Ren CHEN
Poster
Mobile Learning Activities Design based on Conceptual Learning 109
Wei-en CHOU, Chin-Yun LIN, Wan-Chun LEE, Fei-Chun CHENG,
Yuan-Chen LIU & Te-Yu WANG
Track 3:
Transforming the Classrooms: Innovative Digital Game-based Learning Designs and
Applications
Full paper
Digital Adventure Education Game for Cooperative Learning 111
Chang-Hsin LIN, Yu-Jen HSU, Ju-Ling SHIH & Jyun-Fong GUO
Characterizing the Design Process of a Game-based Learning Program: A

Design-based Research Approach 119
Mingfong JAN & Ek Ming TAN
Learner Attitudes towards an English Learning Multiplayer Online

Role-playing Game 127
Jie Chi YANG & Hui Fen HSU
Developing an Educational Computer Game for Migratory Bird

Identification based on a Two-tier Test Approach 134
Hui-Chun CHU & Shao-Chen ZHANG
Effects of Digital Game-Based Learning on Students’ Academic

Achievement in Taiwan: A Meta-analysis 142
Yuen-Kuang Cliff LIAO & Szu-Han WANG
Short Paper
Career Guidance with a Life Simulation Game 149
Yen-Ru SHI & Ju-Ling SHIH
Creating Simulations in History Game that Enhance Players’ Sense of

Cultural Reality 153
Shun-Chien CHENG, Ju-Ling SHIH & Yi-Han WANG
Designing a Multi-dimensional Narrative Structure Digital History Game 157

Yi-Han WANG, Ju-Ling SHIH & Shun-Cian JHENG
A Survey Research on the Usage and Its Influencing Factors of Game-based

Learning among Elementary Teachers in New Taipei City 161
Yu-Wen LEE, Hao-Ping CHU & Chun-Yi SHEN
Promoting College Students’ Body Image through Exergaming 165

Jie Chi YANG & Qiang MIAO
Learning Areas of Parallelograms in a Multimedia Environment: A

Preliminary Report 169
Shyh-Chii TZENG, Hui-Chuan HUANG, Huei-Min WU & Tai-Yih TSO
Poster
Exploring Learners’ Flow and Cognitive Load in an Educational Match
Game 173
Ya-Hui HSIEH, Yi-Chun LIN, Huei-Tse HOU, Yi-Shiuan CHOU, Hui-Shi WU
& Hui-Jen LEE
Forming Cultural and Emotional Atmosphere with 3D Simulations on the

Stage to Create Shared Experience 175
Wei-Chin CHEN
App-enabled Game-initiated Learning through Metaphor-enhanced

Learning Objects 177
Ching-Huei CHEN & Kuan-Chieh WANG
What are You Dying to Play? : When Flow Experiences in Game-based

Learning cross the Line to Addiction 179
Daphne ChingYu TSENG & Dusti HOWELL
Track 4:
Technology-Enhanced Science Learning
Full paper
Exploring the Relationship between Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of
Efficacy for Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Efficacy
for ICT Design Thinking 181
Joyce Hwee Ling KOH, Ching Sing CHAI, Huang-Yao HONG & Chin-Ching
TSAI
Cognitive Processes in Program Debugging based on Eye-movement

Analysis 189
Ting-Yun Hou, Yu-Tzu Lin &Yu-Chih Lin
6E Inquiry Science: Marriage of Cognitive Science and Learning Sciences 197

Aik Ling TAN & Seng Chee TAN
Mental Efforts on Reading and Selecting WWW Science Information 205

Chia-Wen CHEN & Meng-Jung TSAI
The Effect of Different Representation on Computer-based Test: Taking

Elementary Mechanics Concepts as an Example 213
Ah-Fur LAI & Chi-Che LIN
Short paper
A Novel Approach: Implementation of Idea-Creator-Map to Enhance
Students’ Knowledge Building Processes 221
Pei-Shan TSAI, Ching Sing CHAI, Chin-Chung TSAI & Nian-Shing CHEN
Researchers’ Online Academic Literature Searching Strategies:

Comparisons among Doctoral Students, Ph.D. Candidates, and Young
Scholars 225
Ching-Ting HSIN & Chin-Chung TSAI
The Review of the Physiology Signals for Learning State Recognition

System 227
Chih-Hung WU, Yi-Lin TZENG, Bor-Chen KUO & Gwo-Hshiung TZENG
Different Eye Movements during Active Video Games: An Eye-tracking

Pilot Study 229
Yu-ping CHEN & Meng-Jung TSAI
Poster
How the Format of Advance Organizers Have an Impact on Learners’
Cognitive Load and Information Processing: An Eye-Tracking Exploration 233
Han-Chin LIU & Hsueh-Hua CHUANG
Technology and Learning: Facilitating Pre-service Teachers' Stages of
Concern and Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK)
235
Kuan-Chung CHEN
Interdisciplinary Inquiry Curriculum Development on Mechatronic for

Vocational High-school Students 237
Yu-Liang (Aldy) CHANG, Wan-Jing CHEN & Huan-Hung WU
Instructional Effect on Text-and-graphic Readings in Game-based Science

Learning 239
Li-Ju HUANG, Ching-Yeh WANG & Meng-Jung TSAI
Technology Supported Prediction-based Learning Framework Design 241

Ben CHANG & Hsue-Yie WANG
Literature Review: Recent Trends in E-book 243

Yilun HUANG, Zewen PAN , Yuhsuan ZHANG & Meng-Jung TSAI
Cognitive Processes in Logical Reasoning: Evidence from Eve Movements 245

Meng-Lung LAI, Liang-Chen CHIEN, Yi-Chen CHEN & Yi-hua CHENG
Track 5:
Other Technology-Enhanced Learning Studies or Applications
Full paper
Effects of Cognitive Styles on Students’ Web-based Collaborative
Problem-solving Performance 247
Fan-Ray KUO, Gwo-Jen HWANG & Nian-Sing CHEN
Motivating English-language Learning by Using Mobile-Quest Learning

Approach 255
Ching CHANG, Ju-ling SHIH & Chih-Kai CHANG
Effects of Cognitive Diagnostic Dynamic Assessment and Adaptive

Instruction System on Learning 3D Objects of Students with Different
Degrees of Self-Awareness 263
Lin-Jung WU, Su-Lan YANG, Yao-Ting SUNG & Kuo-En CHANG
Young and Adult Learners’ Learning Effects on Formative and Summative

Feedback in the ASR-based CALL System 271
Yi-Hsuan WANG & Shelley Shwu-Ching YOUNG
Investigating Learning Strategies of Using Texts Generated by Speech to

Text Recognition Technology in Traditional Classroom 279
Rustam SHADIEV, Wu-Yuin HWANG & Yueh-Min HUANG
Estimation of Item Difficulty Index based on Item Response Theory for
Computerized Adaptive Testing 287
Shu-Chen CHENG & Guan-Yu CHEN
Short Paper
A Cooperative Learning Certification Examination Tutoring System
Combining Hamming Distance with Bloom's Taxonomy of Education
Objectives 295
Gwo-Haur HWANG, Beyin CHEN, Dong-Ming LOE & Cin-Wei HUANG
Instructional Designs with WordPress: Tools and Processes for Four

Education Websites 299
Elliot JORDAN & Yu-Ju LIN
Evaluating the Feasibility of Adopting E-learning Quality Certification

System in Taiwan Universities 303
Yi-Lin LIU, Tzy-Ling CHEN & Hsiu-Ping YUEH
Investigating the Perceptions of Vocational Undergraduates Using Podcasts

307
Kuang-yun TING & Mei-sheng CHAO
Worked-Examples with Metacognitive Questions: How do Children of

Different Abilities Learn? 310
Huei-Min WU, You-Jia HUANG, Hui-Chuan HUANG, Shyh-Chii TZENG,
Tai-Yih TSO & Ning-Chun TAN
Educators’ Perceptions on Public Health Education beyond Borders 314

Erlyana ERLYANA & Veronica ACOSTA-DEPREZ
Poster
Promoting Personalized Learning with Open Educational Resources 318
Yu-Ju LIN & Elliot JORDAN
Kanji Learning Method Using Digital Pen 320

Hironari NOZAKI, Tetsuro EJIMA & Kyoko UMEDA
Learning but not Learning – Informal Learning with Web 2.0 322
Michelle Mei Ling YEO
Investigate the Effectiveness in Applying Interactive Device on Natural

Science Curriculum 324
Pei-Fen WU, Chian WANG, Kuang-Yi FAN & Chin-Tsang TENG
The Teachers College Television: A Digital Storytelling Approach to

Learning Community 326
E-Lu CHEN & Marcus D. CHILDRESS
An English Teaching and Learning Environment based on Augmented
Reality for Junior High School Student 328
Min-Chai HSIEH, Cheng-Hung WANG, Ching-Ju CHAO & Hao-Chiang
Koong LIN
Practical Adaptive Instruction with IWB for Language Education 330

Hsin-Tzu (Tommy) CHEN
Using Automatically Generated Mind Maps to Promote Initial

Communication 332
Brendan FLANAGAN, Yohei INOKUCHI, Chengjiu YIN & Sachio HIROKAWA
SOI Model of Learning to Tablet Instructional Implication Generating 334

Wanwisa WANNAPIPAT, Sumalee CHAIJAROEN & Anucha SOMABUT
An Examination of Students’ Perceptions toward Small Group Work

Activities in a Fully Online Course 336
Yi-Chun HONG & Robert KLEINSASSER
A Deductive Conceptual Learning System to Online Cooperative Learning 338

Meng-Rong LEE, Chin-Yun LIN, Wan-Chun LEE, Fei-Chun CHENG,
Yuan-Chen LIU & Han-Yao CHANG
PAPERS
&
POSTERS
Track 1: Digital Classrooms:
From Dream-based Research to
Liu et al. (Eds.) (2013). Proceedings of the AECT International Conference on the Frontier in
e-Learning Research 2013. Taiwan: National Central University & AECT
Self-observation Model with Instinctive

Interfaces for Classroom Learning
Chin-Yeh WANGa* & Gwo-Dong CHENb

a
Research Center for Science and Technology for Learning, National Central University,
Taiwan
b
Computer Science & Information Engineering, National Central University, Taiwan
*chinyea@cc.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: In classroom, to obtain an active, whole-focused, and engaging learning results

from the design are not always easy. This study proposed a self-observation model with
instinctive interfaces for classroom learning. Students can communicate with virtual avatars
in the vertical screen and can react naturally according to the situation and tasks. Students
could also immediately observe themselves mixed with virtual environment and therefore
reflect what improvement should be. With the designed system, some potential advantages
may arise, such as motivation, enjoyment, context for situated learning, immersion, social
collaboration, and role-playing. To examine the idea, a case study was carried out with 60
fourth-grade elementary students to investigate learners’ behavior as a performer and a peer
audience and their perception with body movements and speech commands in a board
game-based learning environment. The results show that student’s image in the vertical
screen gave positive effect on the student himself and peer audience. Moreover, there was
positive perception of competence and enjoyment after they performed the contextual
learning activities with body movement interface.
Keywords: Self-observation, active learning, body movements, instinctive interfaces,

classroom learning
Introduction
Instead of passive teaching and learning practices in a classroom, nowadays active teaching
and learning gets more and more attention. Active learning facilitates knowledge
acquisition, critical thinking skills, problem solving, and independent thinking, while
passive learning has some disadvantages, such as: teachers become ‘the sage on stage’,
knowledge transfer is one-way, and students become quiet (Wang et al., 2009). An example
of active learning is the use of hypertext so learners should actively choose links, and this
helped to effectively integrate and understand knowledge more deeply (Shapiro, 1998).
1
1. Related work
Being able to see oneself in learning may have beneficial effect for feedback, introspection,
and a sense of self-assessment resulting in some learning gain. Self-observation (seeing
oneself) has positive effect on learning (Fireman, Kose & Solomon, 2003). Observation of
self-action in (Gupta & Bostrom, 2012) is called enactive learning while observation of
others action for learning is vicarious learning, i.e., via behavior modeling from others. In
oral performance in learning English as a foreign language, Chen (2008) noted that
self-assessment promotes self-confidence, extra effort, awareness of competence and
mastery in learning, and eventually it may facilitate learners’ autonomy and life-long
learning skills. While to perform tends to use body movements, the movements of body
have also related to learning gain, e.g., with gesture based interaction (Ozcelik & Sengul,
2012). Although active learning via performance and body movements is beneficial, only
few researchers have been exploring this by using new existing technological tools.
Another way of creating active learning with technology has been the use of a video camera.
With a video camera, learners may create a meaningful activity, view their own
performance, self-express, become creative, and collaborate (Broady & Duc, 1995). Active
learning has also been achieved by using the digital learning playground (Chen et al., 2012).
However, the setting has not considered somatosensory computation and self-observation.
2. Model of the learning environment
Learning in an authentic environment has been intuitively claimed as beneficial (Herrington
& Kervin, 2007) in which technology tools in a classroom may further provide opportunities
for delivering an effective authentic-based learning. Figure 1 shows the interaction setting
consisting of various parts, including a vertical display, a horizontal touch-enabled board,
and action zone for the performer. Both screens display the beams from upper and front
projectors. Kinect detects commands via performer’s body movements and voice, and
2
render performer’s image to put and interact with learning objects in the vertical screen. The
controlling orchestration of interaction between users and the system is a desktop PC. Peer
students and teacher may stand up in the left and right side of the horizontal board. With the
designed system, some potential advantages may arise, such as motivation, enjoyment,
context for situated learning, immersion, social collaboration, and role-playing.
Figure 1. Self-observation model with instinctive interfaces for classroom learning.
The horizontal screen is a shared touch-enabled space to provide menus for a teacher to
preview the lesson and to explain how to play the game. It could provide a lay out of
board-game matters to plan by a group of learners when collaborating for role assignment. It
could also be a virtual keyboard, for example, to type some words in a game session played
by one of the group member. The vertical screen provides simulative and task situational
context, for example, a kitchen for a cook role to do a virtual cooking using their body
movements. The screen could also allow learners see virtual events that they can
authentically interact with in a situated manner. The instinctive interaction could be
implemented by equipping Kinect sensor for Xbox 360 or other motion/voice controllers.
Kinect detects learner’s body movement. It also facilitates voice commands, for example,
3
when choosing kind of drink. It can also bring the learner’s image to the vertical screen
where the ongoing task scenes happen. The learner, as a live task performer, with his/her
body movements and/or speech commands can act out and interact with the context objects.
3. Evaluation
To examine the proposed model, we implemented the system as a case study for kids
learning English as second language in Taiwan. Data collection includes activity
videotaping, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) survey (Schunk et al., 2007), and
interview.
3.1 Participants
Participants of this study were fourth-grade elementary students (60 students) from two
classes of Da-Cheng Elementary School, Taiwan, where the experiment took place. English
is their foreign language. The English teacher of the school, who had assigned these two
classes, confirmed that the subjects’ English background knowledge was about the same.
3.2 Learning material
The learning objective was about knowing food and how to order food where the learning
material was taken from English textbook. In the beginning, teachers explained learning
tasks and goals to the participants. Each group of students consisting of five people need
collaborate in planning their actions and managing their resources on the shared game table
when the group turned to play comes. In this case, students run a fast-food restaurant, and
decide their daily menu and staff arrangement (roles assignment). Based on the assigned
role, each role should play their action to serve a virtual customer showed on the vertical
screen. The student as a role of a counter person is in charge of taking orders from the virtual
customers at a counter scene. The starring student’s live image was shown on the screen.
Meanwhile, the student as a trainee should listen, watch the conversations and then input
guest order via a virtual keyboard on the game table. After that, the student starring as a
4
cook uses their speech command and body movement to make food based on the guest order
in the kitchen scene. For example, a cook needs to flip physically the patty to make burgers
in the virtual kitchen and responds to the beverage machine to refill a drink.
3.3 Procedures
Sixty students were divided into two thirty-student groups: experiment and control groups.
The division is based on their class. Each group was divided into 6 five-student gaming
groups. There were two-class period (80 minutes) for the learning activity and 20 minutes
for evaluations including interviews and questionnaires. The same teacher as mentioned
previously facilitated the process during the teaching phase. We randomly picked one class
as an experimental group and the other as a control group. The students of the experimental
group could see their classmate’s image in the scene; on the other hand, the students’
appearance would not be displayed on the screen while acting out the conversation with the
characters in the control group.
Data collection includes activity videotaping, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) survey
(Schunk et al., 2007), and interview. The IMI questionnaire was used to examine subjects’
intrinsic learning motivation with respect to the aspects of Interest/Enjoyment,
Effort/Importance, Value/Usefulness, Perceived competence, and Pressure/Tension. The
score ranges from 1 (lowest) to 7 (highest). Interview was also conducted to understand
their perceptions of the learning experience.
3.4 Results
According to the interview, two students who got nervous expressed, “I was nervous
because I was afraid to give a wrong answer,“ and “I got nervous because I wasn’t sure my
response was right.” We inferred that most students were unconscious of their nervousness,
and this did not really affect their performance. In addition, the performers’ pressure was
5
mostly from giving proper responses, not quite as their appearance in the scene. Regarding
to the issue of being the task focus, the observation indicates that the popping prompts and
the assistance from the instructor and the peers also help ease the tension of becoming the
task focus.
Furthermore, we observed experiment students doing the task with smile (75%) and
appeared making funny faces hand movements. This body language indicates their curiosity
toward their images in the scene and the learning content. As to the control group, they were
calmer while talking to the virtual roles. The students in control group expressed in the later
interview said, “I would rather not to be a counter person because I don’t like to speak out,”
“I can learn how to talk to a customer but not so fun doing that.” In addition, from the result
of Interest aspect of IMI, the control group does show less interest in role-playing (5.81)
than the experimental group (6.38).
To see active learning through the observation, the performers of the control group, were
more like individual performers and did not really search for assistance from the teammates
(0%). The phenomenon draws an interesting relationship between the performers and the
teammates. Both groups reported that they put lots effort and felt pretty competent (Effort
and Perceived competence) after performing the tasks. Additionally, all the students truly
agreed that learning by interacting with relevant contexts helped them relate to new learned
knowledge (over 6 on Value/ Usefulness).
4. Discussion
We found that involving body motions brings out a lot of fun in task performing. Although
some of the students felt stressed and shy to see themselves on the screen, the stress seemed
not overly affected their performance. On the contrary, being in the spotlight could have
students put more effort into the activity. Besides that, only students with their images into
6
the scene could trigger the animated effect to the surrounding objects such as touching the
cash register. This sort of magic power made students really put the pressure away.
Learner’s real-time observation of their self-action while interacting with contextual objects
in the vertical screen would provide positive learning outcomes. This is also supported by
social cognitive theory stating that “learning interventions affect learning outcomes through
reflection on observations. Accordingly, peer learner doing vicarious learning may also be
positively affected from observing their classmate performing an action in our scheme.
The most interesting finding of the research was the attention-focus of the peer audience
while learning with the designed learning environment. A classmates’ image in situated
scenes was such an attention getter, and live performance kept the other students’ focusing
on the learning matter. Gathering whole class attention on the subject matter is not an easy
task especially under game-based learning settings but we have gladly found the way to
have full attention and energy from learners to a learning activity.
5. Conclusion
We proposed a self-observation model with instinctive interfaces to enhance the
engagement of active learning by incorporating board-game activities, role-play, and body
movements. Results of a case study showed: deeper learning is possible from acting, action
provides meaning in learning, and nearly real situation can make direct knowledge
experience.
Future work could include further exploration for this active and engaging learning
environment by adding more themed activities. It is also possible to involve them in
planning their teaching learning activities with the system when it is readily implemented
with an authoring tool for them.
7
References
Broady, E., & Duc, D. L. (1995). Learner autonomy and the video camera: a wider role for
video recording activities? The Language Learning Journal, 11(1), 74–77.
Chen, G.-D., Nurkhamid, Wang, C.-Y., Yang, S.-H., Lu, W.-Y., & Chang, C.-K. (2012).
Digital Learning Playground: supporting authentic learning experiences in the
classroom. Interactive Learning Environments, 0(0), 1–12.
Chen, Y.-M. (2008). Learning to self-assess oral performance in English: A longitudinal
case study. Language Teaching Research, 12(2), 235–262.
Fireman, G., Kose, G., & Solomon, M. J. (2003). Self-observation and learning: the effect of
watching oneself on problem solving performance. Cognitive Development, 18(3),
339–354.
Gupta, S., & Bostrom, R. (2012). An Investigation of the Appropriation of
Technology-Mediated Training Methods Incorporating Enactive and Collaborative
Learning. Information Systems Research.
Herrington, J., & Kervin, L. (2007). Authentic Learning Supported by Technology: Ten
suggestions and cases of integration in classrooms. Educational Media International,
44(3), 219–236.
Ozcelik, E., & Sengul, G. (2012). Gesture-based interaction for learning: time to make the
dream a reality. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(3), E86–E89.
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. (2007). Motivation in Education: Theory,
Research, and Applications (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
Shapiro, A. M. (1998). Promoting Active Learning: The Role of System Structure in
Learning From Hypertext. Human–Computer Interaction, 13(1), 1–35.
Wang, M., Shen, R., Novak, D., & Pan, X. (2009). The impact of mobile learning on
students’ learning behaviours and performance: Report from a large blended classroom.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(4), 673–695.

8
Integrating CSCL to Improve math Concept

Learning: An Example of “Fraction” Learning
in a Primary School
Chiu-Pin LIN a*, Yi-Tsu SU a, Wenli CHEN b & Wenting XIEb

aGraduate Institute of e-Learning Technology, National Hsinchu University of Education,
Taiwan
bLearning Sciences Laboratory, National Institute of Education, Singapore
*chiupin.lin@gmail.com
Abstract: In this study, we integrated Group Scribbles-supported collaborative learning

into a primary math classroom to improve fraction learning in students. 55 Grade 3 students
participated in this study. Quasi-experiment study confirmed the positive role of student
collaboration in producing enhanced learning gains and improved student perceptions.
Keywords: CSCL, fraction, Group Scribbles, primary education
Introduction
For students in primary schools, the concept of “fraction” is difficult to grasp (Hunting,
1991). Math educators have made great efforts to identify the effective pedagogies that can
help students learning that concept (Streefland, 1991). Among all the approaches proposed,
collaborative learning is gaining increasing favor. This constructive pedagogical approach
underscores promoting peer-peer interactions and authentic problem solving in mathematic
knowledge\concept construction and practicing learning activities that are organized around
the students (Liu, 1996). This learner-centered pedagogy has been practiced in various
contexts to improve mathematic learning and has produced remarkable results (with
enhanced learning effectiveness, promoted learner motivation, interest and efficacy,
improved attitude and epistemology) (Johnson & Johnson, 1996).
Enlightened and encouraged by previous endeavors, we would like to translate collaborative
problem solving to improve “fraction” concept learning for students in primary schools.
Considering collaboration on physical media may be restricted, we introduced a network
technology into the traditional classroom. In this research, an experiment study was
9
conducted to investigate whether the learning infrastructure (Lipponen & Lallimo, 2004)
constructed would cultivate enhanced learning effectiveness and improved attitudes.
1. Research Design
1.1 Participants
Two Grade 3 classes participated in this experiment study. We randomly selected one class
as the experiment class (27 students) and the other as the control class (28 students)
delivered by the same researcher. The control group received traditional
lecture-based\didactic instruction on an individual basis. In the experiment class, the 27
students were distributed into 6 groups (3 of 4 students each and 3 of 5 students each).
Students with different math competence (indicated by student math test scores) were put
into one group as heterogeneous grouping was proved more beneficial to learning compared
to homogenous grouping (Salvin, 1987).
1.2 Group Scribbles-Supported Collaborative Learning
Group Scribbles 2.0, a network technology co-developed by SRI International and Learning
Sciences Lab in Singapore. Established on the metaphor of whiteboard and sticky notes for
collaboration knowledge construction (Roschelle et al., 2007), GS has been identified as an
effective and flexible tool for collaborative activity design and enactment in classrooms
(Looi et al., 2011). GS presents users with a two-paned interface including a private
working area (the “private board” in the lower section) and a public working area (the
“public board” in the upper section) (Figure 1). On the private board, students generate
virtual pads of “scribbles” to draw, write and type on. All the actions performed and
contents produced in this area will remain invisible to others. When students drag scribbles
onto the public board which is synchronized among all the learning devices, they are
published and shared. The essential feature of GS technology is the synergy of autonomous
cognition (on private board) and collaborative cognition (on public board). Pictures,
templates, audio and video clips can be inserted on the public board to better accommodate
10
individual users’ needs. To facilitate teacher supervision and facilitation, an Interactive
Whiteboard was placed in front of the whole class.
Public Board
Private Board
Figure 1. Group Scribbles Interface

1.3 Pedagogical Design
6 math lessons where designed and implemented to achieve the learning objectives
prescribed in the “fraction” module. In the experiment class, A typical GS lesson consisted
of 6 steps: 1) proposing the model problem (teacher); 2) collaborative problem solving
(intra-group); 3) collective solution discussing and sharing (inter-group & teacher); 4)
summarizing and consolidating learning points (teacher); 5) extended practice:
collaborative problem solving (intra-group); 6) rewarding (teacher). In contrast to GS
lessons where students interactions were highlighted, lessons designed for the control class
were based on teacher lecturing: 1) introducing learning points (teacher); 2) explaining and
elaborating the learning points (teacher); 3) extended practice (individual student).
2. Data Collection & Analysis
2.1 “Fraction” Learning Outcomes
To assess student learning outcomes, there were 13 items of 3 question types which tap on
students’ understanding on Equal Distribution, Simple Fractions, Fraction Unit, Equivalent
Fractions, Fraction Calculation (Addition & Subtraction) (learning objectives for fraction
learning: Grade 3). Previous research pointed out that the difficulty level and
discriminability level of good test items should between 0.4-0.8 and 0.4-1 respectively (Ebel
& Frisbie, 1991). The items we developed had met the “good” item standard (average
difficulty=0.65; average discriminability=0.45). To evaluate learning effectiveness, in the

11
first two rounds of testing, identical test items were used and presented in different orders.
In the delayed test, with equal difficulty and discriminability was employed.
2.2 Pre-test Analysis
As indicated in the independent sample t test (Table1), there was significant difference
between student scores in the experiment class and those in the control class, the latter
outperforming the former (t=-3.541, P= .001< .01). This result showed that the control class
students were much more competent in fractions compared to the experiment class.
Table 1 Comparison of student scores in Pretest: Independent sample t Test

Experiment class Control class Sig.
t
Mean SD Mean SD (2-tail)
Pretest score 49.56 24.63 71.45 21.00 -3.541 .001**
*p<.05 **p<.01
2.3 Post-test Analysis
In analysis, Pairwise t test was performed to investigate whether students had progressed
after having fraction lessons. Significant improvement were observed in both the
experiment class (t=-7.710, P= .000< .01) and the control class (t=-3.558, P= .001< .01)
(Table 2). In the following, ANCOVA (student pretest score being the covariant) was
employed to examine whether discrepancy existed between the two classes. Data analysis
denied the hypothesized difference (F=3.136, P= .052> .01) (Table 3).
Table 2 Comparison of student scores in pretest and posttest: Pairwise t test

Pretest Posttest Sig.
t
Experiment class 49.56 24.63 76.4 13.25 -7.710 .001**
Control class 71.46 21.00 80.23 13.86 -3.558 .001**
*p<.05 **p<.01
Table 3 Comparison of student scores in two classes in posttest: ANCOVA
Class Type III SS df MSS F Sig. (2-tail)
Adjusted Model 1071.243 a 2 535.622 3.136 .052
Pre-test 30981.127 1 20981.127 181.405 .000**
Class 11.869 1 11.869 .069 .793
Error 8880.774 52 170.784
*p<.05 **p<.01
12
2.4 Delayed-test Analysis
Comparison of student scores in the post-test and delayed post-test scores showed the
experiment class not only retained their learning but also achieved a significant
improvement (t=-4.882, P= .000< .01) while the control class remained the same with the
posttest (t=-.270, P= .789> .01).
Table 4. Comparison of student scores in posttest and delayed test: Pairwise t test
Post-test Delayed-test Sig.
t
Experiment class 76.40 13.25 84.96 9.60 -4.882 .000**
Control class 80.23 13.86 81.11 10.02 -3.558 .001**
*p<.05 **p<.01
2.5 Student Perception in Fraction Learning
Apart from student learning outcomes, student perception of the learning experiences also
serves as important indicator of learning effectiveness. In the present study, a survey
questionnaire was constructed to collect data. In response, a 5 point Likert scale was used
(1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). The higher the
score was, the more a student agreed with the given statement. Comparison of student scores
in the two classes was achieved via Independent sample t test.
2.6 Student Perception of Learning Gains
In the questionnaire, 3 items probed into students’ perception of their gains in the learning
process. Data collected showed that the students in the experiment class in general were
more confident about their learning effectiveness (Table 5). Through class collaboration,
students believed they had gained mastery over fraction calculation (adding and subtracting
fractions with common denominator). However, students who mostly received teacher
instruction were fewer firms on this issue.
Table 5. Comparison of student perception of learning gains

Items Class M SD Sig.
I have learnt how to add fractions with Experiment class 5 0
.005**
common denominator. Control class 4.61 0.69
I have learnt how to do subtract fractions Experiment class 5 0
.003**
with common denominator Control class 4.54 0.74
13
Experiment class 4.85 0.77

I have learnt how to compare fractions. 0.218
Control class 4.61 0.69
*p<.05 **p<.01
2.7 Student perception of learning engagement
Whether students were actively engaged with the learning activities was another important
dimension explored in our survey. Data mined from 4 items revealed that collaborative
learning promoted students’ engagement in learning. Compared to the control class,
students in the experiment class were more involved in interactions with the teacher, the text
book and other learners in the environment.
Table 6. Comparison of student perception of learning engagement

Items Class M SD Sig.
I participated in all the learning activities and Experiment class 4.96 0.19
.025*
expressed my ideas. Control class 4.68 0.61
I listened carefully to teacher’s instructions. .007**
I listened carefully to my classmates’ opinions. .016*
I worked on the problems listed in the textbook Experiment class 4.93 0.27
.007**
with full concentration. Control class 4.5 0.79
* **
p<.05 p<.01
2.8 Student reflections on GS-supported collaborative learning
After intervention, students in the experiment class were required to reflect their group
learning process on the virtual platform. Analysis of student notes shows that in general
students held positive attitude towards GS-supported collaborative learning. The benefits
students mined in this novel leaning environment include: 1) Students could improve
communication skills 2) students could enhance negotiation and coordination skills; 3)
learning interest, efficacy and motivation could be promoted. 4) Students could develop
good relationships with other classmates.
With regard to technology use, most students found GS was easy and beneficial to use
(Table 7). After initial training, students could attain certain proficiency in using GS. And
the integration of GS made classroom collaboration easier.
Table 7 Student reflection on GS

14
Strongly Strongly
Items Agree
Agree Neutral Disagree
Disagree
M SD
I know how to use GS. 92.6 7.4 0 0 0 4.93 0.27

With GS, I can easily see others’ ideas. 88.9 7.4 0 0 3.4 4.78 0.8
It is easy to learning in Computer supported
88.9 11.1 0 0 0 4.89 0.32
classrooms.
3. Discussion and Conclusion
GS supported group work has positive effects on student learning effectiveness. Though GS
experiment class didn’t outperform the control class in the post-test, they did not
underperform as well though their competency in fractions had been much lower than the
control class before the intervention. More importantly, their improvement in mathematics
concepts not only retained but also progressed. That progress was not observed in the
control class where there was little peer collaboration but substantial teacher instruction. In
the experiment class, students could communicate and discuss their ideas with ease and
comfort. When immersed in a pool of diverse ideas, students can interact with multiple
perspectives, and their thinking is always being reorganized and reconstructed (Hewitt &
Scardamalia, 1998), which cultivates cognition of improved scope, depth and precision, all
good to cognitive development.
Apart from inducing enhanced learning effectiveness, collaborative group work could also
improve student perceptions of the learning experiences, motivation, interest and
confidence in students. Compared to the control class, students who were involved in group
work reported higher participation and engagement in the learning activities. They were also
more satisfied and confident about their learning gains. In a collaborative classroom,
students are no longer passive recipients of “knowledge” but active agents for knowledge
consolidation and construction. When students shoulder the role of knowledge maker, they
will take more responsibility and initiatives for their own and group learning.
Concept learning is really a challenge for students in primary schools. However, teachers
can employ specific pedagogies to engage students and help them construct the concept.
15
From our investigation, collaborative learning is found beneficial to fraction learning in
primary classrooms. However, considering the scope and specificity of the present study,
we should be cautious when applying the findings to other scenarios. Whether this
constructive pedagogy will benefit the learning of other math concepts in other contexts?
References
Ebel, R. L. & Frisbie, D. A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement (5th edition). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hewitt, J., & Scardamalia, M. (1998). Design principles for distributed knowledge building
processes. Educational Psychology Review, 10 (1), 75-96.
Hunting, R. P. (1983). Alan: A case study of knowledge of units and performance with fraction.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 14(3), 182-197.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1996). Cooperative learning and traditional American values: an
appreciation. NASSP Bulletin, 80(579), 63–66.
Lipponen, L., & Lallimo, J. (2004). From Collaborative Technology to Collaborative Use of
Technology: Designing Learning Oriented Infrastructures. Educational Media International,
41(2), 111-116. doi:10.1080/09523980410001678566
Liu, Q. (1996). Mathematics education in primary schools. Taipei: WuNan.
Looi, C.K., So, H.J., Toh, Y., & Chen, W. (2011). The Singapore experience: Synergy of national
policy, classroom practice and design research. International Journal of Computer-Supported
Collaborative Learning, 6(1), 9-37.
Roschelle, J., Tatar, D., Chaudhury, S. R., Dimitriadis, Y., Patton, C., & DiGiano, C. (2007). Ink,
improvisation, and interactive engagement: Learning with tablets. Computer, 40 (9), 42-48.
Slavin, R. E. (1987). Developmental and motivational perspectives on co-operative learning. A
Reconciliation. Child Development, 58, 1161-1167.
Streefland, L. (1991). Fractions in realistic Mathematics Education: A paradigm of developmental
research. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
16
Pedagogical Strategies for Using Interactive

Whiteboards in K-12 Classrooms
Ying W. SHEN, Ronald A. GINN & Teresa GONSKE

Department of Education, Northwestern College, U.S.A.
Abstract: This paper reports findings from a qualitative study of K-12 teachers’ use of
interactive whiteboards (IWBs). Sixteen teachers who were identified by their colleagues as
experienced users of IWBs participated in semi-structured interviews. Their teaching
practices were also recorded. Results of data analysis indicate four categories of their
pedagogical strategies using IWBs: visual display (including static and dynamic), student
direct interaction with IWBs, organization of content for enhanced student-content
interaction, and combination of IWBs with other equipment for enhanced interactivity. Such
pedagogical strategies reflect teachers’ orchestration of their technological pedagogy
knowledge (TPK) and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) for effective
technology integration practices.
Keywords: interactive whiteboard, technology integration, TPACK
1. Introduction
Interactive whiteboards (IWBs) have been used in schools in the United States since the
1990s. Teachers use IWBs in different ways ranging from using them as a projection screen
to using their advanced interactive features for students’ active learning. Recent studies
have focused on pedagogical strategies using IWBs. Armstrong, Barnes, Sutherland, Mills
and Thompson (2005) studied the interactions between students, teachers, and technology
when using the IWB. They emphasized that teachers are the critical agents for integrating
IWBs to promote quality interaction and interactivity. They also stressed the importance of
providing ongoing support for teachers through IWB training and selection of appropriate
software. Kennewell, Tanner, and Beauchamp (2008) reported a case study to analyze
interactivity using IWBs and suggested that technical interactivity does not secure learning.
It is more valuable to increase pedagogical interactivity. Kennewell and Beauchamp (2007)
observed different pedagogical strategies for teaching various content areas, for example:
17
“In English, the IWB was often used to support children in generating and amending text,
whereas in mathematics, the children mainly manipulated fixed sets of numbers or shapes…
in science the teachers relied primarily on prepared, dynamic PowerPoint presentations”
(p.238). Lisenbee (2009) cited constructivist theory to support the infusion of IWBs into
early childhood curriculum. The interactive elements of IWBs attract young children and
allow them to construct a better understanding of their experience and thinking. Glover
Miller, Averis, and Door (2007) classified math and modern languages teachers’
pedagogical usage of the IWB into three categories: supported didactic, interactive, and
enhanced interactivity.
These studies provide insights on pedagogical strategies of teaching a specific content area.
Research is needed that examines pedagogical strategies using IWBs across content areas at
different grade levels.
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework is a theoretical
framework for understanding teacher knowledge for effective technology integration
(Mishra, Koehler, & Shi, 2009). This framework not only illustrates the technological
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge, but also emphasizes
technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPACK). This study aims to use the TPACK framework to analyze
pedagogical strategies of using IWBs by experienced teachers.
2. Method
2.1 Participants
Sixteen teachers participated in this qualitative study, including seven elementary school
teachers (one Kindergarten, one second grade, one third grade, one fourth grade, two fifth
grade, and one K-6 music), five middle school teachers (Math, ESL, Science, Social Studies,
and Library), and four high school teachers (Math, English, ESL and World Languages).
18
Participants were identified as experienced IWB users by their colleagues. Teaching
experience ranged from two to forty-three years and IWB use ranged from two to eight
years. Twelve teachers were female and four were male.
2.2 Procedures
After the teachers accepted the call for participation in the study, the research team
scheduled interviews with them. Each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes using an
interview checklist including all interview questions. All interviews were recorded and
transcribed for analysis. Video recording was discussed during each interview. Two
teachers asked the research team to record their lessons with IWBs and thirteen teachers did
the recording themselves. Parent permissions were obtained for video recordings.
2.3 Data Analysis
Interview and video data were analyzed qualitatively. Initial coding categories for the
interview and video data included three main categories: activity description, activity type,
and activity without IWB. Two researchers paired up to code the interview transcriptions
and videos of participating elementary school teachers and two to code secondary school
teachers. The inter-coder reliability of 90% agreement was achieved for the initial coding.
Common themes of pedagogical strategies were drawn from interview data based on the
coding of “activity description” and “activity type.” After identifying the common themes,
the interview data were reviewed and tallied for the second-round coding.
3. Results
Four types of instructional activities were identified in the teacher interviews supported by
initial analysis of the video data: 1) visual display (including static and dynamic); 2)
organization of content for enhanced student-teacher interaction; 3) student indirect

19
interaction with IWBs; and 4) combination with other equipment for enhanced interactivity.
The results show that visual display was used most frequently by both elementary and
secondary teachers, followed by activities that allow students to directly interact with IWBs,
organization of content for enhanced student-content interaction, and combination of IWBs
with other equipment for enhanced interactivity (see Table 1).
Table 1: Tally of pedagogical strategies of using IWBs reported by teachers
Categories Total Secondary Elementary

Grades Grades
Visual display (Dynamic visual display) 48 (28) 26 (16) 22 (12)
Student direct interaction with IWBs 35 21 14
Organization of content for enhanced 29 13 16
student-content interaction
Combination with other equipment for enhanced 11 7 4
interactivity
3.1 Pedagogical Strategy One: Static and Dynamic Visual Display
Participating teachers identified visual display as the most frequent use of IWBs. In addition
to static display of information on IWBs such as displaying calendar, agenda, worksheet,
rubric, map, book pages, pictures, video, or websites for a big visual display, teachers
incorporated dynamic visual display using multimedia and/or the interactive functions of
IWBs to illustrate concepts. Twenty-eight of the 48 (58%) tallied activities using IWBs for
visual display were identified as dynamic visual display from the teacher interview data.
Such activities included 1) teachers writing on a scanned worksheet to display how to solve
a problem to the whole class; 2) teachers showing streamed video or animations to illustrate
concepts to students; 3) teachers using the highlighting, hiding, spotlighting, and such
features of the IWB software to show examples or explain concepts; 4) teachers attaching
sound to add effects to the visual display or teach audio content; and 5) teachers drawing
over real-life pictures to illustrate geometric shapes for math. The dynamic visual display
empowered teachers to capture student attention and to motivate and engage students to
actively participate in the learning process. For example, one seventh grade English teacher
20
set up an activity for her Holocaust unit by listing characteristics of different groups of
people (Jewish, Gypsies, etc.) on the IWB and grouping them together. Then while telling
the whole class that Hitler did not allow for people to have individual views, she deleted all
the characteristics at once on the IWB:
“So it takes all of those, and I said, it just allowed for him to totally wipe out this
group of people. And that was a really powerful thing that I couldn’t do [without the
IWB]. You know, I could erase it probably on a [white] board, but it’s just group and
then delete, it’s really quick and then it’s gone” (Mrs. W).
3.2 Pedagogical Strategy Two: Student Direct Interaction with IWBs
Teachers in this study made use of the interactive functions of IWBs and hyperlinks to
resources to create interactive activities such as “word finder” and similar educational
games, graphing, and interactive books that involved students’ direct interaction with IWBs.
Common interactive activities included calling students to write, tab, highlight, or move
objects on the board. This pedagogical strategy reflects teachers’ understanding of the IWB
technology, pedagogy, and content, as well as their TPK and TPACK.
3.3 Pedagogical Strategy Three: Organization of Content for Enhanced Student-Content
Interaction
Teachers in this study also reported utilizing IWB software to organize content for quick
transition, expansion of curriculum, and provision of assistance to students as needed.
Utilizing the hyperlink, shade, and exporting features of the IWB software, teachers
organized the content of their lessons effectively to allow students to interact with the
content for a longer time and at a deeper level. Such activities included linking different
parts of a lesson together, linking to online resources, organizing files in groups for easy
21
access, hiding and revealing information, and recording or saving notes for students to
review after class.
3.2 3.4 Pedagogical Strategy Four: Combination of IWBs with Other Equipment for
Enhanced Interactivity
3.3 The experienced IWB users combined the IWB with equipment such as student
response systems, slate, wireless mouse, wireless keyboard, document camera,
clipboards, and regular whiteboard for assessment, instant feedback to students and
teaching on demand. Such combinations allowed enhanced interactivity. This
strategy reflects teachers’ knowledge and skills of the technologies, pedagogy, and
content in order to integrate different technologies skillfully and seamlessly to
increase the efficiency and effectiveness of teaching and learning.
“They like knowing what they got. So I try to take that desire to reflect on their
learning and put into some activities… with the clickers, they are more engaged
because they know I can see the scores” (Ms. S., high school German teacher).
3.5 Enhanced Interactivity for Active Learning
Video clips of teachers’ teaching practices with IWBs support results from analyzing
interview data; for example, using online resources such as an animation of approximating π
for 7th grade math and frog sight word reading for Kindergarten. In the 7th grade math class,
Mr. M first asked students about the origin of π and identified students’ confusion. He then
opened an online animation of π approximation and asked one student to come to the IWB to
tap on the circle to unfold the circumference to a straight line. Then he called another
student to the IWB to drag the radius onto the straight line unfolded from the circumference.
Three students came to the IWB to drag the radius to the straight line. That was the time
when some students started to make the comments like, “Ah, that’s why!” “The
circumference equals a little more than 3 radius together!” “Now I get it!” Mr. M enlarged
22
the circle and called other students to the IWB to unfold the circumference into a straight
line and drag the radius to the line. Then he shrank the size of the circle to a smaller size and
called students to the IWB to do the same thing. Through this demonstration and student
direct interaction with the IWB, Mr. M used the IWB as an integral part of the lesson to
teach the concept of π in a visual and hands-on way. Miss K’s kindergarten students loved
the frog sight words activity. The dynamic visual display of the animated frog that can spit
out the words captured students’ attention and motivated them to learn the words. IWBs
were utilized as an integral part of these lessons and reflected teachers’ proficient
technological knowledge, content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and the interaction of
TPK and TPACK.
4. Discussion & Conclusion
The teachers in this study were identified as experienced users of IWBs in their buildings.
They reported different pedagogical strategies using IWBs in the categories of static and
dynamic visual display, student direct interaction with IWBs, organization of content for
enhanced student-content interaction, and combination of IWB with other equipment for
enhanced interactivity. The reported pedagogical strategies align with Glover et al.’s (2007)
categories of visual didactic, interaction, and enhanced interactivity. In addition, findings
from this study emphasize using IWBs for dynamic visual display as an effective
pedagogical strategy. The pedagogical strategies reported in this study were employed by
teachers teaching in different content areas at different grade levels and reflected teachers’
technology knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, TPK and TPACK
under the TPACK framework (Mishra, Koehler, & Shi, 2009). Such pedagogical strategies
of using IWBs provide good examples for effective implementation of IWBs in schools.
They also provide references for teacher professional development to engage students in
active learning using IWBs.

23
References
Armstrong, V., Barnes, S., Sutherland, R., Curran, S., Mills, S., & Thompson, I. (2005).
Collaborative research methodology for investigating teaching and learning: the use of
interactive whiteboard technology. Educational Review, 57(4), 455-467.
Beauchamp, G., & Parkinson, J. (2005). Beyond the “wow” factor: developing interactivity
with the interactive whiteboard. School Science Review, 86(316), 97-103.
Beauchamp, G., & Kennewell, S. (2008). The influence of ICT on the interactivity of
teaching. Education and Information Technologies, 13(4), 305-315.
Glover, D., Miller, D., Averis, D., & Door, V. (2007). The evolution of an effective
pedagogy for teachers using the interactive whiteboard in mathematics and modern
languages: an empirical analysis from the secondary sector. Learning, Media, and
Technology, 32 (1), 5-20.
Kennewell, S., & Beauchamp, G. (2007). The features of interactive whiteboards and their
influence on learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 32(3), 227-241.
Kennewell, S., Tanner, H., Jones, S., & Beauchamp, G. (2008). Analyzing the use of
interactive technology to implement interactive teaching. Journal of Computer Assisted
Learning, 24, 61-73.
Lisenbee, P. (2009). Whiteboards and web sites: Digital tools for the early childhood
curriculum. Young Children (November), 92-95.
Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Shin, T. S. (2009). Technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPAK): The development and validation of an assessment instrument for
preservice teachers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(4), 123-149.
24
Exploring a Self-generated Drawings

Environment to Facilitate Children’s Writing
and Storytelling
Calvin C. Y. LIAO* & Tak-Wai CHAN

Graduate Institute of Network Learning Technology, National Central University, Taiwan
*
Calvin@cl.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: This study developed a self-generated drawings environment to support young

children writing and storytelling. We implemented a drawing, writing, and storytelling
activity. An experiment was conducted in primary school for 116 1st grade students from
four classes (EG, n = 87; CG, n = 29) and 3 teachers during a semester in order to understand
the influence of students’ writing and storytelling. Students participated in four rounds of
experimental activity; each round consists of drawing, writing, and storytelling session. The
findings indicated that 1) the length of writing increased gradually; 2) the quantity and
quality of storytelling of students in EG were significantly different from CG. Besides, some
implications about the experimental results were also discussed.
Keywords: self-generated drawings, writing, storytelling, language learning
1. Introduction
In the last three decade, the relationship between drawing and writing has been explored in
relation to children’s literacy development (Norris, Mokhtari, & Reichard, 1998). Some
studies have suggested that student-generated drawings can supported for a variety of
learning activities (van Meter, & Garner, 2005). In particularly, these suggestions included
construction of knowledge representation (van Meter, & Garner, 2005), preparation for
narrative writing (Moore, & Caldwell, 1993), and pre-writing strategy (Norris, Mokhtari, &
Reichard, 1998). On the other hand, for a long time, oral narrative is considered important
for interpersonal interaction and social communication. Some studies considered that the
oral narrative about the drawing and writing could scaffold children’s topical understanding,
such as using drawings to planning and discussion (van Meter, & Garner, 2005). That means
that oral narrative about the drawing and writing allow children to share more detailed and
accurate information with each other; they become acutely aware of the contrast between
25
the pre-drawing-and-writing and the post-drawing-and-writing. In particularly, children
determine whether modify their original illustrations, recreate new drawings, or add new
text that more accurately reflects their drawing and writing. Hence, this study attempts to
support students drawing, writing, and telling their products in order to improve the writing
skills and storytelling abilities of children. Currently, this study focuses on the research
question: how are the influences of self-generated drawings strategy on children’s language
learning in terms of writing and storytelling. To answer this question, a semester
experiment was conducted in primary grade of an elementary school in Taiwan.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants and Research Design
The study employed a between subjects design with each student creating and telling their
stories. The participants were 116 seven-year-old first-grade students from four classes of
elementary school and 3 teachers in rural Taiwan. These students were assigned to one of
two conditions: guided story creating and telling by Crazy Brush system (EG: experimental
group, n = 87), and conventional teaching (CG: control group, n = 29). All students and
teachers participated in experiment during a semester (during 6 months) in order to
understand the influence of students’ writing and storytelling.
2.2 Self-generated Drawings Environment
Previous study developed a self-generated drawing environment to support young children
writing and to share their products, entitled Crazy Brush (Liao, Lee, Wu, & Chan, 2012).
We implemented a drawing, writing, and storytelling activity. The learning activity includes
3 steps. Step 1: students need to think and organize the ideas in mind, and then draw pictures.
Step 2: students need to describe and explain these pictures, and then write down some
26
scripts according to previous ideas. Step 3: students need to share and present these scripts
and pictures with others.
2.3 Instruments
2.3.1 Oral Narrative Task
The oral narrative task conducted for this study contained two steps: 1) students need to read
the frog story in 5 minutes to understand the content of the story, and 2) students have to tell
the story with the story book in 10 minutes.
2.4 Procedure
The experiments were divided into three phases: before, during, and after. First phase: to
familiarize students with the use of the Crazy Brush, the students participated in 3
forty-minute training sessions: operating the system, understanding the story structure, and
practicing the storytelling skills. This was done to avoid any influence or effect of
unfamiliarity with the system and activity. In addition, a pretest of oral narrative task was
conducted in order to establish a baseline of storytelling ability. Second phase: the
experimental activity totally conducted 12 forty-minute sessions in class. Each student used
a tablet PC to draw, type, and speak their works through using Crazy Brush system. Students
participated in four rounds of experimental activity from drawing to typing and speaking;
each round consists of painting, writing, and storytelling session. Third phase: when the
students finished the experimental activity, which was followed by the posttest of oral
narrative task.
2.5 Data Analysis
The Chinese Latent Semantic Analysis (CLSA) can create a Chinese semantic space by
using database of corpus with math vector to create a word net. Previously study (Chen,
27
Wang, & Ko, 2009) indicated that two different sentences or documents could be estimated
through the Chinese semantic relationship of calculation. Hence, this study adopted CLSA
website to parse out the students’ transcripts from pre/post oral narrative task, such as,
narrative length and richness of vocabulary.
The students’ narrative ability for story grammars was measured by the oral narrative task.
The story grammars analysis (SGA) in this study was developed based on the definition of
story schema (Stein, & Glenn, 1975), and the story grammars checklist. Stein and Glenn
(1975) indicated the five main types of episodes to represent the story schemas: major
setting and minor setting (Max: 6), initiating event (Max: 4), internal response (Max: 4),
plan/attempt (Max: 26), and consequence (Max: 28). This study developed and adopted
SGA to analysis the students’ transcripts form pre/post oral narrative task, such as, story
grammars, and coherence. In particular, three educational background experts (including
the authors) validated the scores of students’ story grammars according to a table of
specifications for the SGA of instruction. The internal consistencies of the pre/post oral
narrative task were .95 and .91 (Cronbach’s Alpha), respectively.
3. Findings
3.1 The Length of Writing
This study collected 348 products of students during the activities of four rounds. All
students’ the length of writing is increase gradually between product 1 and product 4. In
particular, the average length of writing are product 1 (M = 46.08, SD = 18.52), product 2 (M
= 66.51, SD = 49.56), product 3 (M = 70.21, SD = 45.10), product 4 (M = 72.33, SD = 44.20),
respectively. The results revealed that the length difference between product 1 and product 4
was statistically significant (t = 5.68, p < .001). It means that all students in Crazy Brush
system had improved their length of writing in product. That presented that the length of
individual student’s product was different. In particular, the distribution of individual

28
student’s the length of writing was in A class (from 45.95 to 98.96), B class (from 46.85 to
65.14), and C class (from 45.43 to 52.88), respectively. The results showed that the
difference of students’ the length of writing was increased gradually. According to
classroom observation and system records, we conjecture three possible reasons: 1)
student's typing at different rates; 2) the teacher’s participation in story making and
demonstration forms; 3) the teacher’s comment forms which gave to students’ productions.
Because of limited space and time, currently this paper presented partial results of writing,
excluding the quality of writing.
3.2 The Narrative Ability of Storytelling
3.2.1 The Quantity of Storytelling: Narrative Length and Richness of Vocabulary
That shows the pre-test narrative length in EG (M = 353.43, SD = 138.86) and CG (M =
382.17, SD = 126.33), and presents the post-test narrative length in EG (M = 391.09, SD =
136.62) and CG (M = 396.03, SD = 189.73). This result indicated EG increase of 36.66
spoken words and CG increase of 13.86 spoken words. In order to understand the statistical
significance of increased degree at narrative length, we further compared EG with CG. The
correlation coefficient between pretest scores (covariate) of narrative length and posttest
scores of narrative length was significantly high. The one-way ANCOVA was conducted on
narrative length scores showed a no significant difference for the treatments, F(1, 114) = 0.04,
MSE = 527.75, p = .84 > .05, partial η2= 0.001. There was not a significant difference for
narrative length (EG (M = 391.09, SD = 136.62) and CG (M = 396.03, SD = 189.73)).
That shows the pre-test richness of vocabulary in EG (M = 53.63, SD = 13.30) and CG (M =
53.45, SD = 12.85), and presents the post-test richness of vocabulary in EG (M = 59.70, SD
= 14.76) and CG (M = 57.59, SD = 18.45). This result indicated EG increase of 6.07 spoken
vocabularies and CG increase of 4.14 spoken vocabularies. In order to understand the
statistical significance of increased degree at richness of vocabulary, we further compared

29
EG with CG. The correlation coefficient between pretest scores (covariate) of richness of
vocabulary and posttest scores of richness of vocabulary was significantly high. The
one-way ANCOVA conducted on richness of vocabulary scores revealed a significant
difference for the treatments, F(1, 114) = 5.57, MSE = 871.80, p = .02 < .05, partial η2= 0.048.
The pairwise comparison procedures revealed that students in EG (M = 59.70, SD = 14.76)
showed higher richness of vocabulary than those CG (M = 57.59, SD = 18.45).
3.2.2 The Quality of Storytelling: Story Grammars
That shows the pre-test story grammars in EG (M = 32.08, SD = 9.05) and CG (M = 37.24,
SD = 10.26), and presents the post-test story grammars in EG (M = 39.59, SD = 8.30) and
CG (M = 38.33, SD = 10.55). This result indicated EG increase of 7.51 spoken grammars
and CG increase of 1.09 spoken grammars. In order to understand the statistical significance
of increased degree at story grammars, we further compared EG with CG. The correlation
coefficient between pretest scores (covariate) of story grammars and posttest scores of story
grammars was significantly high. The one-way ANCOVA conducted on story grammars
scores revealed a significant difference for the treatments, F(1, 114) = 8.43, MSE = 358.93, p
= .00 <.001, partial η2= 0.072. The pairwise comparison procedures revealed that students
in EG (M = 39.59, SD = 8.30) showed higher story grammars than those CG (M =38.33, SD
= 10.55).
4. Discussions and Conclusions
This study developed a self-generated drawings environment to support young children’s
writing and storytelling. We implemented a drawing, writing, and storytelling activity. The
findings indicated that 1) the length of writing increased gradually; 2) the quantity (richness
of vocabulary) and quality (story structure) of storytelling of students in EG were
significantly different from CG.

30
4.1 Improving Writing and Storytelling of Children form Emergent to Conventional Phase
In this study, we contributed children’s emergent literacy form emergent to conventional
phase by implementing the creativity and productive activities about primary children’s
drawing, writing, and storytelling experiences. We looked specifically at two improvements
of children: writing and storytelling, when children were allowed to explore and create a
digital product on their own versus peer interaction. A meaningful activity of drawing,
writing, and storytelling enables children’s to compile these skills into practice form
emergency to conventional phase.
4.2 Supporting Children’s Multiple Representations form Drawings to Writing and
Storytelling
This study tries to combine self-generated drawings, writing, and storytelling activities.
Through this self-generated drawings strategy we want to improve students’ writing and to
let students taking the initiative writing. Students used multiple representations to converge
the idea of products, including a series of creation, modification, and representation, such as
to draw the picture, to write the description, and to talk the story. These products presented
students’ favorite, thought, and experience. Cox (1999) indicated that multiple
representations can enhance students’ externalized cognition. This means that three
processes of multiple representations can enhance students’ capability of drawing, writing,
and storytelling. In process of drawing and writing, we provided two scaffolding: story
paragraphs and story elements.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China,
Taiwan, for financial support (NSC-101-2631-S-011-002,
NSC-101-2511-S-008-016-MY3, NSC-101-2811-S-008-009, NSC-101-2811-S-008-010,

31
NSC-99-2511-S-008-002-MY3), and Research Center for Science and Technology for
Learning, National Central University, Taiwan.
References
Chen, M. L., Wang, H. C.,& Ko, H. W. (2009). The Construction and Validation of Chinese
Semantic Space by Using Latent Semantic Analysis. Chinese Journal of Psychology,
51(4), 415-435.
Cox, R. (1999). Representation construction, externalised cognition and individual
differences. Learning and Instruction, 9(4), 343–363.
doi:10.1016/S0959-4752(98)00051-6
Liao, C. C. Y., Lee, Y. C., Wu, M., & Chan, T. W. (2012).Using Self-generated Drawings to
Support Writing and Storytelling in Language Learning, Proceedings of the 20th
International Conference on Computers in Education. Singapore: Asia-Pacific Society
for Computers in Education.
Moore, B. H., & Caldwell, H. (1993). Drama and Drawing for Narrative Writing in Primary
Grades. Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 100–110.
Norris, E., Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (1998). Children’s use of drawing as a pre-writing
strategy. Journal of Research in Reading, 21(1), 69–74. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.00043
Stein, N. L., & Glenn, C. G. (1975). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary
school children: A test of a schema. Retrieved from ERIC database.
van Meter, P., & Garner, J. (2005). The Promise and Practice of Learner-Generated
Drawing: Literature Review and Synthesis. Educational Psychology Review, 17(4),
285–325. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-8136-3
32
Facebook or Moodle?
From Students’ Perspective: A Study of
Learning Primary-level English for Freshman
in a Technology University in Northern
Taiwan
Ru Ling CHENa, Ming Hsiu TSAIb & Ru-Jen CHENGc
JinWen University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
National Taipei University of Technology, Taiwan
Vanung University, Taiwan
*
ajulingceeng@gmail.com
Abstract: While Facebook has been investigated, its use on academic English learning is
still unexplored. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design:eighty students were
randomly selected to be in an experimental (40) and a control group (40). A descriptive
statistic and qualitative data were analyzed in order to understand students’ opinions. The
findings suggest that seventy percent of the students showed the positive attitude about
learning English on Facebook and regarded Facebook is a useful informal English learning
platform. However, 65% students have negative opinions by using Moodle to learn English
and expressed Moodle is only a teaching material website. The result of the study suggest
that students favor Facebook for English learning, however, further study could be done to
find out whether a longer period of Facebook use or whether studying a different subject
would generate the same result.
Keywords: Facebook, Moodle, technology university students, primary-level English
1. Introduction
The role of informal learning becomes more important because, with Internet, learning can
happen anywhere at any time. Formal learning has turned out, that many believed, to be a
small fraction of human learning experiences.(Bank,2007)[1]. Now with popularity of
Facebook as a social media, educators are tempted to take their classrooms to where their
students log on at a regular basis, with recent information from Facebook suggesting that its
users with smartphone check their Facebook 14 times a day. Hence, the purpose of this
study is to understand technology university students’ perceptions of using Facebook, an
informal learning setting, for a primary-level freshmen English class in northern Taiwan.
The research questions are as follows:
33
(1) Is Facebook a useful informal learning website for technological university students?
(2)Does Facebook promote more interactions, as compared to the traditional classroom
management platform: Moodle?
(3)What are university students’ opinions about what attracts them when using Facebook as
for informal English learning?
2. Literature Review
While a traditional face-to-face instruction provides numerous advantages for learning, it is
constrained by time and space. Informal learning experiences occur outside the context of
formal education settings and offer ways of engaging students in academic content without
time constraints(Cain& Policastri,2011)[2].
Whether Facebook can be used for educational objectives or not remains a research
question. Joy(2008) found the use of Facebook may improve low self-efficacy and
self-regulated learning by increasing chances of connecting with instructors who provide
guidance for students through Facebook[3]. With the positivity in mind, however, informal
learning scenarios is criticized to be unstructured and an unintentional
(Knapper&Cropley,2000)[4].Facebook may thus have very little educational use. Moodle,
on the other hand, is a powerful learning Management System(LMS)for administration,
tracking, and delivery of educational courses.Today, Moodle offers tools that allow learners
to do assignments, surveys and discussion .Therefore, students’ preference over the two
systems has become an issue that may be the key to learning success.
3. Research Design
This study adopted a quasi-experimental design. Two groups of students were randomly
selected as experimental group (Facebook) and as the control group (Moodle).The same set
of English materials were posted on both Facebook page and on a Moodle site. Students
34
were asked to view the materials and discuss for a duration of eight weeks. All students were
given a survey and an interview at the end of the treatment.
4. Results
The results of the study showed that students are prone onto login on Facebook (52%)
than on onto Moodle (15%); Questionnaire results indicated that students in the
experimental group use Facebook on daily basis. The control group students, however, only
used Moodle once a week. As for students’ feedback towards the English learning contents
posted, the Facebook group posted 323 more postings than the Moodle group.
After the experiment, Subject A said “Facebook provided a joyful and easy learning
environment”. Subject B indicated “I would interact with my instructor and classmates
without any embarrassment on Facebook”. However, in the Moodle group, Subject C said
“There is too much extra boring material for him to learn on Moodle”. Subject D, expressed
that” She couldn’t get help immediately from the instructor on Moodle. ”
5. Discussion
For research question one, the results showed students in the experimental group had
several benefits by using Facebook such as improving listening, reading, grammar and
vocabulary. Most students agreed with using Facebook as an informal English learning
medium helped extend their learning time; they had more chance to practice English. On
Facebook, they won’t feel embarrassed even when their answer is wrong. Students think
Facebook is a useful informal learning platform for them.
For research question two. Facebook generated 323 more postings than Moodle.
Students shared their opinions and ideas to peers and also interacted with the professor after
class on Facebook. Students in the Moodle group, on the other hand, indicated that they
cannot get the answers on Moodle at once. There was not a high level of student-to-student
35
interaction beyond what was required by the assigned tasks. The findings indicated that
interaction on Facebook is more an d sometimes better than in Moodle.
For research question three. The main finding indicates that students had a lot of fun
learning English on Facebook while students learning on Moodle easily feel bored.
6. Conclusion
As discussed earlier, Facebook is a useful informal English learning platform. It is used
not just for entertainment but also for academic learning. In additions, Facebook can
provide more interaction: they are willing to interact with their instructor where they
normally do not on Moodle. Moodle, as powerful as a LMS can be, is a formal learning
setting platform and thus the enjoyable atmosphere may not be easily created.
References
Banks, J., Au, K., Ball, A., Bell, P., Gordon, E., Gutierrez, K., Heath, S. (2007). Learning in
and out of school in diverse environments learning in Informal and Formal
Environment.
Cain, J., Policastri, A.(2011)."Instructional Design and Assessment Using Facebook as an
Informal Learning Environment.” American Journal of Pharmaceutical
Education,75(10).
Joy, B.-C. (2008)."Cyber "Pokes": motivational antidote for developmental college
readers." Journal of College Reading and Learning,39(1).
Knapper, C., Cropley, A. (2000). Lifelong Learning in Higher Education. London.
36
Designing Knowledge Building Classrooms

Seng Chee TAN*
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
*sengchee.tan@nie.edu.sg
Abstract: In the 21st Century, knowledge creation metaphor of learning begins to receive
attention among educational researchers and practitioners. Knowledge building pedagogy
has been studied in K-12 classrooms in many countries. To avoid being overly prescriptive,
Scardamalia proposed a principle-based approach to the design of knowledge building
classroom. Such approach, however, could be perplexing to some instructors who need
more scaffolding. This paper is an attempt to analyze the key features of knowledge building
pedagogy so as to propose corresponding broad phases of instruction.
Keywords: Knowledge building pedagogy, instructional design
Introduction
The term e-learning means learning supported by or mediated through electronic means.
While much attention has been devoted to the use of new technologies, we should not
neglect the development in perspectives about learning. A recent development in learning
sciences suggests viewing learning from the knowledge-creation perspective. One such
knowledge creation e-learning approach is the knowledge building pedagogy proposed by
Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006). However, designing and implementing knowledge
building pedagogy has been challenging for many teachers as it involves changes to cultural
beliefs and instructional practices. Although principles of knowledge building have been
proposed (Scardamalia, 2002), there is a need to provide a framework to guide the design
and a need to translate these principles to concrete tactics.
1. Key aspects of knowledge building pedagogy
There are four key aspects of knowledge building pedagogy: Idea-centredness, knowledge
building practices, knowledge building culture, and knowledge building trajectory.
37
Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) suggest investigation surrounding the problem of
understanding the world. This means using triggering activity to help students to put forth
their questions about a phenomenon. If made accessible in a public platform (e.g.,
Knowledge Forum), these ideas can be worked on and improved. Thus, a critical feature of
knowledge building is the mediating roles of knowledge artifacts, which are created by
students and made accessible to all members in a community. Collaborative technologies
such as an online forum play a critical role in knowledge building because they afford a tool
for creation of knowledge artifacts and a tool to facilitate and record collaborative
advancement of ideas.
1.1 The improvement of reified ideas in a public space (e.g., notes in an online forum),
requires appropriate knowledge building practices. In a collaborative setting, this
necessitates learners to engage in productive knowledge building discourse that
applies epistemic criteria to improve the quality of the ideas. In addition, the learners
need to be aware and able to apply epistemic criteria to assess the quality of their
ideas. Such assessment practices are an integral part of the knowledge building
(assessment for learning and assessment as learning), rather than a separate
end-of-learning activity (assessment of learning).
Knowledge building practices are different from prevalent classroom practices that focus on
individual cognitive gains and demonstration of knowledge or skills in separate assessment
activities. Such classroom practices require different cultural beliefs. For example, the
learners need to assume epistemic agency, show volition and capacity to engage in
knowledge building work; the knowledge building practices become habitual practices that
endure and pervade through different subject and grade levels.
Finally, the knowledge building process follows a spiral trajectory with three broad phases:
production of knowledge artifacts, collaborative improvement of knowledge artifacts, and
development of knowledge building culture. It is spiral because new ideas are often
38
generated in the process, which follows the trajectory of the three broad phases. The
arbitrary end point of knowledge building is normally imposed by curriculum hours or when
the level of understanding is challenging learner’s limit of zone of proximal development.
2. Designing knowledge building environment
The trajectory of knowledge building processes suggests that instructional design of such a
learning environment could be anchored on three broad phases: (1) elicitation and
organization of learners’ ideas related to a topic resulting in the production of artifacts that
represent their ideas; (2) instructional support to engage learners in knowledge building
practices, leading to improved ideas reified through knowledge artifacts; (3) development of
knowledge building culture and identity through sustained knowledge building practices,
leading to development of epistemic agency among learners and the identity of a knowledge
builder. The above rationalization of the instructional intervention to support the knowledge
building trajectory provides an anchoring framework to apply various instructional tactics
that could enact the principles of knowledge building. Below is an example of instructional
approach that can be implemented in three broad phases, focusing on the topic of
environmental pollution.
First, a teacher could elicit ideas from students and engage them in the production of
knowledge artifacts. A field trip to a polluted beach could act as a trigger activity and the
teacher could start with a big question “what causes pollution and why should we reduce
pollution?” The students could take photos of what they observe and post a note in an online
forum, which become the focal point for discussion. As diverse ideas are proposed, these
ideas could be organized into various key questions for further investigation. The ultimate
goal is scaffold the students to move toward deeper understanding of the topic. This
necessary invokes the next phase of knowledge building practices.
39
Instructional support for knowledge building could take several forms. For example,
relevant authoritative sources of knowledge, like textbook chapter on environmental
pollution or a web-based report could be provided. More importantly, students could
develop competency in knowledge building discourse that focuses on idea improvement,
manifested in their artifacts. To engage in knowledge building discourse necessitates the
development of epistemic awareness about what counts as good knowledge. Thus, the
teacher could help students identify and apply epistemic criteria to assess their ideas.
Finally, knowledge building involves cultural change and identity transformation. This
means helping the students to view collaborative knowledge building as their collective
responsibilities and to view themselves as legitimate knowledge builders. Empowering
students in the learning process is critical. For example, giving the students the authority to
design and conduct necessary experiments that could support their claims.
This paper initiates the first step to move toward practice-based research by translating the
theoretical description of knowledge building into concrete instructional design phases and
tactics. Subsequent research could iteratively assess the effectiveness and appropriateness
of these guidelines and improve on the design framework, principles and tactics that could
lead to positive impact in classrooms.
References
Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of
knowledge. In B. Smith (Ed.), Liberal education in a knowledge society (pp. 67-98).
Chicago: Open Court.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and
technology. In Sawyer, R. K. (Eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning
Sciences (pp. 97-118). NY: Cambridge University Press.
40
Online Participation in Digital Classroom

Poh Khoon THIAK* & Khe Foon HEW
National Institute of Education, Singapore
*thiakpk@yahoo.com.sg
Abstract: Online participation in digital classrooms is a common feature in many

educational institutes. This research explores working adult learners’ perceptions with
regard to the use of asynchronous online discussion (AOD). Findings suggest that
participants on the whole were receptive to the use of AOD. Moreover, findings also suggest
that many working adults preferred instructor to peer facilitation, and participants desired to
receive a response from other participants within 24 hours. However, a clearer guidance on
how AOD participation is assessed is needed. Participants suggested two possible areas by
which online participation may be assessed: (a) the number of thread (e.g., participation rate,
frequency of log-in and number of posts viewed), and (b) the content of discussion such as
the demonstration of knowledge on topic taught, depth of discussion, content of discussion,
relevancy of post, quality of comments, usefulness and constructive of the post.
Keywords: asynchronous online discussion, adult learners, facilitation
Introduction
Digital classrooms – in particular, Asynchronous Online Discussion (AOD) often form a
part of online instructional activities. Having AOD implemented, however, does not
necessary mean successful implementation. The benefits of AOD would not be reaped if
participants do not participate or participate well (Hew & Cheung, 2012). This research
attempts to examine full-time working adults’ perception of using AOD with respect to its
benefit for learning, the participants’ preference for instructor or peer facilitation,
participants’ response time, and the possible ways to assess AOD participation. The result
of this research study will be useful for curriculum designers of adult learning programs and
facilitators of AOD.
1. Methodology
1.1 Participants
41
16 Singapore full time working adults (81% male, 19% female) took part in this study. 31%
of the participants were of age between 25 - 30, 56% between 31 - 40 and 13% above 40
years. They participated in AOD when they took up part-time study. These participants
were selected on convenient basis.
1.2 Data Collection Design and Procedure
This study collected and analysis both the quantitative and qualitative data. The
questionnaire consisted of 9 closed and open-ended questions with quantitative data
collected from closed items, with a Likert-scale of 4 points and qualitative data collected
from open ended questions where participants explained their responds to the questions.
Due to page constraints, we highlight only 4 items (see Table 1)
2. Results and Discussion
Table 1. Survey results – working adults’ perception on the use of AOD
Item Remarks
a) AOD helps me better understand b) The online postings served as a self-reflection and reinforcement of
the lesson (81% - strongly agree the lesson.
& agree) (19% - strongly disagree c) Time flexibility made participants less anxious because they could
& disagree) take their time to think about an issue longer and deeper.
b) I prefer the instructor to facilitate a) Instructor had more knowledge and he would be able to provide
the discussion (69% - strongly better explanation and guidance so that participants could better
agree & agree) (31% - strongly understand the topic
disagree & disagree) b) Instructor was able to provide direction to discussion, keep
discussion focus and provide feedback when it went out of scope.
c) Instructor had the authority to get students to participate in an
asynchronous online discussion environment.
c) I prefer my peers to facilitate the a) It would be a more relax learning environment which might be
discussion (33% - strongly easier for non-communicative participants to participate.
agree & agree) (67% - strongly b) Peers shared similar experience during lesson and would be in
disagree & disagree) better position to appreciate the uncertainties with regard to the
topic. Therefore he would be in better position to generate
discussion.
d) I know how students are The following areas of assessment were suggested by
assessed in AOD (36% - participants:
strongly agree & agree) (64% - a) Number of thread submitted.
strongly disagree & disagree) b) Content of discussion.
e) I prefer to get a response when I 19% preferred to receive respond within half-a-day and 63%
post my comments preferred to receive reply within 1 day after they have
upload their post.
2.1 AOD in relation to understanding of lesson

42
A majority of participants believed that the use of AOD helped them better understand the
lesson taught in class. Detail explanations given by the participants could be broadly
grouped into three main reasons: (a) AOD served as a form of self-reflection, and
reinforcement of lesson, (b) AOD gave participants a chance to ask questions that were not
surfaced in class, and (c) AOD served as a platform to share perspectives about the lesson
without the pressure for an immediate reply.
2.2 Facilitation
A majority preferred instructor facilitation because they were used to “teacher centric”
teaching methodology and associate AOD as an extension of classroom teaching where
instructor still remain as the subject matter expert to provide correct answers. This could
also due to Asia cultural where teachers are viewed as main source of knowledge and an
authority figure in the learning environment. However, some participants preferred their
peers to facilitate because it could help to create a more relaxed discussion environment.
2.3 Assessment
Many participants were not aware of AOD assessment. The lack of awareness might lead to
them submitting comments that peers might not find constructive or engaging. Participants
suggested two possible areas by which AOD may be assessed: (a) number of thread (e.g.,
participation rate, frequency of log-in and number of posts viewed), and (b) content of
discussion such as the demonstration of knowledge on topic taught, depth of discussion,
content of discussion, relevancy of post, and usefulness of the post. Several participants
suggested that no repetitions of posts or comments be allowed. Other possible ways to
assess AOD involve examining participants’ social construction of knowledge and problem
solving process (Hew, Liu, Martinez, Bonk and Lee, 2004).
2.4 Desired response time

43
With the fast pace of working life in Singapore, many learners expected quick response and
answers to their posts. A majority of participants were willing to wait up to 24 hours for
someone to respond to their questions or comments. This would allow discussion to be more
engaging as enthusiasm about the topic would be higher when ideas were fresh and
responses to enquiries were faster.
3. Conclusion
In this study, the participants were asked about their perceptions on the use of AOD. It is
found that the participants in this study were receptive to AOD. They recognized that it
helped them to better understand their lesson. However, many still felt that they were not
active participants mainly due to a delay in response from peers. In term of facilitation,
many still preferred instructor facilitation as the instructor was deemed more knowledgeable
and would be able to keep discussion on track. It was also found that a majority of the
participants were not aware of the assessment criteria in AOD and many also feedback the
need for rapidity of response upon posting their online messages.
References
Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2012). Student Participation in Online Discussions:
Challenges, Solutions, and Future Research. Springer: New York.
Hew, K. F., Liu, S., Martinez, R., Bonk, C., & Lee, J. Y. (2004). Online education
evaluation: What should we evaluate? Proceedings of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology, USA, 27, 243-246.
44
Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills via a

Primary School Blog + Webquest Project
Kai-Ming LIa* & Yuen-Mei CHOWb

a
b
*kmli@ied.edu.hk
Abstract. Fifty-two primary school students completed a series of project-based learning

activities designed according to the proposed model (BlogQuest) for six weeks. The
development of students’ critical thinking skills were captured by a pre-test and a post-test
of a standardized Critical Thinking Test whereas student’s perceptions towards the
pedagogy were solicited through questionnaire survey and interviews. Results showed the
small effect in critical thinking development and favourable perceptions towards such
pedagogy. Though there were limitations, the teachers saw the education values of
BlogQuest especially for addressing the different needs for students with different abilities
and characters.
Keywords. Critical Thinking Skill; Web2.0 and Learning; WebQuest; e-Learning;

Technological Pedagogy; Social Constructivist Learning
Introduction
Nurturing students into independent learners and critical thinkers in this highly competitive
and information-rich society has become a major educational goal (Martin & Rader, 2003).
However, it is often unsatisfactory in achieving such goal by adopting a traditional
teacher-directed and knowledge-focused teaching approach. A paradigm shift, which
stresses students’ active engagement and the development of generic skills like critical
thinking, is deemed essential. One major attempt for achieving such shift has been to utilize
web technology within the framework of WebQuest lately for its positive impacts on
developing critical thinking skill (Dodge, 1997; Vidoni & Maddux, 2002). Furthermore, the
development of Web2.0 provides a stronger scaffold for communication and interaction
than merely websites like the ones deployed by WebQuest. Web users no longer obtain
information just from authoritative sources, but increasingly from their own social network.
This learning process is explained by the social constructivist learning theory, which
45
suggests that the learner is an active agent in constructing his/her own knowledge, and that
social interaction is important (Vygotsky, 1980). It seems that weblogs can provide a
stronger scaffold for independent learning as well as social interaction. By integarting the
social constructivist feature of weblog and scaffolding nature of WebQuest, this study had
developed a new pedagogy model and its impact on the development of primary students’
critical thinking skills was examined.
1. The Pedagogy Model
While the social constructivist learning framework and weblog tool may facilitate the
development of critical thinking skills, many studies show that the success relies heavily on
whether the learners are given the opportunity to practice their cognitive skills to solve
problems (Richardson, 2006). Furthermore, research shows that asking higher-order
thinking questions and providing reinforcement was effective in promoting students’
development of critical thinking ability (Cotton, 1991). Therefore, the inclusion of such
questions becomes a major component in the pedagogy model of this study. Moreover, the
effort made to maintain the students’ motivation and desire for participation in blogging
activities are also crucial factors for self-directed learning (Downes, 2004). To this end, it is
found that when proper scaffolding is combined with the use of avatar-based virtual
environments like Voki, a powerful, motivating, and educationally valuable learning
opportunity can be created for students (Falloon, 2010). Hence, given the above theoretical
framework, a new pedagogy model “BlogQuest”, was developed (Figure 1).
46
2. Methods
Fifty-two primary school students completed a series of project-based learning activities
designed according to the proposed model for six weeks. The learning tasks included
practices on thinking skills designed according to a Critical Thinking Framework (Yeh,
2003), a written speech on a social issue finally published via an avatar in a Voki Classroom
platform, and a visit to an education resource centre. The development of students’ critical
thinking skills were assessed by a pre-test and a post-test of a standardized Critical Thinking
Test (CTT) (Yeh, 2003) whereas student’s perceptions towards the pedagogy were solicited
through questionnaire survey and interviews.
The result of the average scores of the CTT showed an increase after the project (Pre-test =
10.53, Post-test = 11.15) and the effect is significant (α = 0.1) [t(51) = 1.842, p = 0.071 < 0.10,
Cohen’s d = 0.193]. This finding indicates that the new pedagogy model may contribute to
the development of critical thinking ability of students (with small effect). Detailed analysis
of the questionnaire survey and interview data is still undergoing. The general picture at
presence shows positive perceptions towards the pedagogy. The students expressed
immense interest in the learning activities with weblog and liked the mode of independent
47
learning enabled by this pedagogy. Teachers also reflected that it was beneficial especially
for addressing the different needs for students with different abilities and characters.
This study explored the potential of educational weblogs in a primary school environment.
The results despite limitations show that BlogQuest is a promising pedagogy model for
fostering students’ higher-order thinking. Detailed results of the qualitative analysis will be
reported in due course.
References
Cotton, K. (1991). Close-up#11: Teaching thinking skills. Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory's School Improvement Research Series.
Dodge, B. (1997). Some thoughts about webquests. Retrieved 05/03, 2012, from
http://webquest.sdsu.edu/about_webquests.html
Downes, S. (2004). Educational blogging. Educause Review, 39(5), 14-26.
Falloon, G. (2010). Using avatars and virtual environments in learning: What do they have
to offer? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 108-122.
Martin, A., & Rader, H. (2003). Information and IT literacy: Enabling learning in the 21st
century London: Facet.
Richardson, W. (2006). Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful web tools for classrooms.
Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press.
Vidoni, K. L., & Maddux, C. D. (2002). WebQuests: Can they be used to improve critical
thinking skills in students? Computers in the Schools, 19(1), 101-117.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Journal of Reading Behavior, 12, 161-162.
Yeh, Y. C. (2003). Critical thinking test -- level 1.
http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~ycyeh/instrument-english/2003%20CTT-I%20introduction
.pdf
48
Transforming Classroom Learning from

Conventional Teaching to iPad-enhanced
Learning
Yi-Hsuan WANGa*& Shelley Shwu-Ching YOUNGb

a
Institute of Information Systems and Applications, National TsingHua University, Taiwan,
b
Institute of Learning Sciences, National TsingHua University, Taiwan,
annywang12345@hotmail.com*
Abstract: This study is an ongoing research and the objective of this study is to investigate
how to integrate the uses of iPads into formal English classes to fulfill both instructors and
students’ learning requirement in Taiwan. From the preliminary survey, we found that
learners engaged themselves into learning activities and concentrated their attention on
practicing English writing and speaking with the iPads. Besides, adopting the iPads as
learning aids into the classroom learning helped students achieved self-directed learning.
The characteristic of immediate multimedia sharing of learners’ learning performance also
enhanced the interaction between peers and instructor; hence promoted the positive and
active learning in the classroom.
Keywords: English learning, iPad-enhanced learning, Elementary education
Introduction
The study is an exploratory study to integrate the uses of iPads into formal English classes
for a whole semester. The uses of iPads have been implemented into the educational
scenario and there is evidence showing that the integration of iPads facilitates students
learning by additional multimedia and interaction functions that are not offered by
traditional paper books (Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Colin& Leslie, 2012). In this study, the
researchers aimed to investigate how could the characteristics and affordances of the newly
devices affect Taiwanese learners learning and also to share the possible iPad-enhanced
pedagogy for fostering active learning. The research team got the support from an
elementary school in northern Taiwan and each intermediate student was provided with
one-on-one available devices, iPads, during their school time for formal learning for a
semester. We chose the English course as learning theme for exploring how these hand-held
49
learning devices could be applied into traditional classroom setting to help English
beginners learning.
1. Methodology
The qualitative approaches were mainly adopted and 52 students in the third grades
participated in the study. There was one English class a week adopted iPads as learning aids
for English learning activities, and the goal of English course aimed to teach students
learning the 26 English alphabets and to acquire the ability of writing as well as speaking of
the 26 vocabulary accordingly. Four scaffolding learning activities were designed in this
course including 1) Let’s read; 2) Let’ write; 3) Let’s draw; and 4) Let’s say. After students
finishing the four activities accordingly, each student was able to output their own learning
product, My Alphabet E-book, with iPads individually. Besides, a questionnaire was
administrated at the end of the experiment to collect learners’ perceptions of learning with
iPads in the English classes.
2. Findings
2.1 Overall classroom observation about iPad-enhanced learning
According to the classroom observation, we found that learners showed high expectation for
using iPads in learning and students displayed concentration with learning material during
the instruction time and they were engaged and highly interested in doing learning activities
on iPads during the classes. In addition, trial and error learning was also observed in the
practicing time. Learners not only show motivation in practicing writing and speaking
English with the iPads but they also tried to help each other who encountered difficult in
operating the devices. The functions of immediately sharing of iPads also promoted
anytime, anywhere learning where learners don’t have to sit in front of computers in a
laboratory classroom. This vivid atmosphere continued until the end of the semester.
50
2.2 Transforming classroom learning from traditional teaching to digital learning through
the affordances of iPad integration
2.3 In Taiwan, the main learning method in the classroom is paper-based worksheet.
Hence, the teachers adopted a paper-based worksheet to assist learners write down
their learning output firstly, and then students could follow their finished worksheet
to start activities on iPads (Figure 1). For example, learners were required to practice
the 26 English alphabets and spelled the vocabulary accordingly in the second and
third activity, Let’s write and Let’s draw. To begin with the activities, teacher asked
learners to practice writing and drawing the vocabulary on the paper-based alphabets
worksheet first (Figure 1-a). Then students were encouraged to transform the
paper-based contents into digital files progressively in the following classes
(Figure1-b). The paper-based learning mode was a key step in this study which
assisted learners completing self-directed learning on iPad-based environment
following learners’ previous learning experience. Students also reflected that they
were more impression on the targeted words though the opportunities of
transforming traditional worksheet to digital output.
Figure 1 The process of transforming paper-based worksheet to digital output

to enhance learning
2.4 Questionnaires and interviewer analyses
The results of the questionnaires indicated that learners were positive of using iPads for
English learning. They reflected that participating in the learning activities with the assistant
of iPads enhanced their motivation in both writing and speaking English. Some students
51
mentioned that the advantages of iPads such as immediate recording, playing learners’
learning processes and sharing their learning performance were the triggers that contributed
in active and engaged learning. Further, students also reflected that their information
literacy was promoted through practicing English and Chinese typing with the uses of iPads.
This study is an ongoing research and the results may inform a pioneering application on
ipad-enhanced learning implementation in formal education tailored to the needs of the
target learners in Taiwan. The researchers concluded from the current research results that
the learners had good motivation in learning the subject with the hand-held iPads they
concentrated on practicing English speaking with the iPads and peers. Besides, the
characteristics of immediate multimedia sharing of learners’ learning performance also
enhanced the interaction between peers and instructor; hence promoted the positive learning
atmosphere in the classroom. From the preliminary survey, we proposed that it is possible to
combine learners’ previous learning experience with the uses of hand-held devices for
create more interactive scenarios for joyful learning. The findings of this study may be
specific to learners in Taiwan education, but the implications may be significant to
educators in other areas who might interested in iPad-enhanced learning as well. Other
results yielded from this series of studies will be reported in the near future.
References
Colin F. M. & Leslie J. W. (2012). Effective Adoption of Tablets in Post-Secondary
Education: Recommendations Based on a Trial of iPads in University Classes. Journal
of Information Technology Education, 11, 301-317.
Melhuish, K., & Falloon, G. (2010). Looking to the future: m-learning with the iPad.
Computers in New Zealand Schools: Learning, Leading Technology, 22, 3, 1-16.
52
Gender Differences in Adopting Motion

Controller for Mental Rotation Training
Shih-Ching YEHa*, Jing-Liang WANGa & Chin-Yeh WANGb

a
Department of Computer Science and Information, National Central University, Taiwan
b
Research Center for Science and Technology for Learning, National Central University, Taiwan
Abstract: Men and women are different in tests of spatial ability. To understand how to
employ motion control to facilitate mental rotation training in different gender, a training
system was developed to examine the difference. When learners rotate and move the
controller, a 3D object on the screen rotates and moves simultaneously to facilitate them
comparing whether the two 3D objects on the screen had an exactly similar external shape.
Five factors of learner playfulness, ease of use, usefulness, behavioral intensions, and
training results were measured. An analysis regarding differences based on gender showed
that women scored higher than men did on perceived playfulness, perceived ease of use, and
training results, but the scores exhibited no significance regarding perceived usefulness and
behavioral intentions. Instructional design and training settings could be adjusted to increase
the impact on training according to the findings of this study.
Keywords: Mental rotation training, motion controller, gender difference
Introduction
Previous studies showed men and women are different in tests of spatial ability. Therefore,
training mechanism for men and women should be different as well. Comparing to the use
of keyboard and mouse, intuitive interfaces could provide a greater level of control.
Learning with these technologies is potentially more convenient and efficient such as
utilizing Nintendo Wii, Sony PS Move, or Microsoft Kinect. An investigation is required to
understand what the gender differences are while utilizing motion controller to facilitate
their spatial ability training.
1. Research Methodology and Results
To examine the gender difference, we employed an experimental method and administered
a quantitative questionnaire survey combined with an observation method to conduct the
experiment. Trainees used a hand-held motion-controller to rotate and move a 3D object on
53
the screen, while another static 3D object was on the same screen. They were required to
determine whether both 3D objects on the screen had the exact same geometrical shape.
1.1 Participants and Procedures
The 37 university students that participated in this study comprised 18 men and 19 women.
The experiments were conducted over two weeks, and included two training activities. The
weekly learning time totaled 90 min, and comprised an introductory film (10 min), as well
as two activities (40 min each).
The training comprised the following two learning activities: (1) users rotated or moved a
controllable object using motion controller until the object was superimposed over a target
object (i.e., position and orientation); and (2) users rotated a controllable object using the
abovementioned magnetic sensing controller, but this time the object could not be moved.
Users rotated the controllable objects to determine whether they matched the target objects
(see Fig. 1).
We define the difference between the pretest and posttest scores as “training results” - gain
scores. They were asked to complete a questionnaire, to understand participant reaction
regarding the following factors that influence learning behavior: playfulness, ease of use,
usefulness and behavioral intentions. The questionnaires included the questions from the
evaluation of playfulness (J.J. Martocchio, 1992) and technology acceptance (Davis,
Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989).
Figure 1. Snapshot of a trainee while using the system.

54
1.2 Results
Table 1 shows the differences in perceived playfulness, perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, and behavioral intentions between men and women in the experimental group
(with a motion interaction design). Compared to the men, the women expressed that the
motion interaction learning method fostered playfulness, and had an identical effect
regarding the perceived ease of use. The last factor is training results and it means the scores
of posttest minus pretest. The analysis results of the two-tailed t-test also exhibit a
significant difference between genders regarding the factor.
Table 1. Gender differences in the five aspects.
Gender N Mean SD T p
Female 19 41.21 5.329 3.169** 0.003
Playfulness
Male 18 34.67 7.146
Female 19 38.47 3.893
Ease of Use 2.132* 0.040
Male 18 34.89 6.144
Female 19 35.53 4.019
Usefulness 1.720 0.094
Male 18 32.50 6.465
Behavioral Female 19 12.89 1.410

2.011 0.052
Intentions Male 18 11.44 2.791
Training results Female 19 2.34 4.32

2.687* 0.011
(Gain scores) Male 18 2.14 2.33
** p<0.01, * p<0.05
1.3 Discussion
Female participants scored significantly lower than male participants on the pretest.
Comparing to male users, the subjective feelings of the female users show that the
mechanism can bring them much more happiness, as well as the feeling of ease of use. The
55
reason might because female participants scored lower than male participants on the pretest
and had much more improvement in posttest. Therefore, comparing to male users, they feel
the training mechanism is more playfulness and ease of use.
This may be women in two practical indicators, Usefulness and Behavioral Intensions, fill a
more conservative score; therefore, gender factors did not produce a significant difference
in the two indicators. But this might because female participants scored lower than male
participants on the pretest, they needed more help from the support of motion control
mechanism and therefore rated higher scores on the two subjective issues-Playfulness and
Ease of Use.
2. Conclusion
The experimental results indicate that users perceive motion control and stereovision as
appealing approaches to training. Women showed a greater degree of improvement in
training performance and expressed significantly higher perceived playfulness and ease of
use than men when using the motion control and stereovision system. Future studies could
consider learners with various academic backgrounds, experiences, and learning styles. This
would allow more effective improvements in mental rotation abilities for learners from
various backgrounds.
References
Davis, Fred D., Bagozzi, Richard P., & Warshaw, Paul R. (1989). User Acceptance of
Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models. Management
Science,, 35(8), 982-1003.
J.J. Martocchio, J. Webster. (1992). Effects of feedback and cognitive playfulness on
performance in microcomputer software training. Personnel Psychology, 45.
56
The Development of an Innovative E-book

Reading System to Enhance Students’ Reading
Comprehension and Reading Motivation
Ming-Hsiang SUa, Po-Jen CHENGa, Keui-Mi CHENb, Yu-Jen CHENa, Yuan-Hsun

LIAOa & Pao-Ta YUa
a
Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Chung Cheng
University, Taiwan
b
Min-Hwei College of Health Care Management, Taiwan
sumh@cs.ccu.edu.tw
Abstract: The advancement of technology and data digitization has changed the way people
read books. This study proposes an innovative e-book reading system to provide students
with opportunities to read and discuss with each other. The e-book reading have the
self-reading mode and teaching navigation mode in order to achieve the above purposes. In
self-reading mode, students can read e-books generally like other e-book reader. The flip
function is divided into single-page read, two-page reading and linear reading. In teaching
navigation mode, students can discuss the content of e-books together. Through discussion,
students can understand the problem and continue to read. Therefore, the cooperation
reading function provided by the system can help students in addition to solve the problem
of reading, but also to increase the motivation of reading.
Keywords: e-book, reading comprehension, reading motivation, cooperation reading
1. Introduction
Since Amazon introduced in 2007 with Kindle one of the most popular e-Incorporation
reading devices it seems clear that electronic books and magazines change the way we are
consuming media (Beer & Wagner, 2011). A good definition of the term e-book is given by
Zivcovic(Zivkovic, 2005): "An electronic book consists of one or more files of
monographic character available to the public online or in physical form (on CD-ROM,
diskette and the like physical carriers)". Today most e-book readers can interpret many input
formats, such as Plaintext (.txt), Adobe Portable Document Format (.pdf), HTML (.html),
Kindle (.azw), and Mobipocket (.mobi), (.lit) and (.epub). E-book have a good chance to
replace printed books in various application domains (Beer & Wagner, 2011).
57
By using e-books, the student has the advantage of the flexibility of navigation between the
different sections and bookmarks of an e-book. In the case of e-books, students can access
their books using tablets, smartphones, computers, or e-readers. Students can go through the
book in a linear fashion as they would a print book, or in a non-linear way - looking through
page thumbnails until they find a page of interest. They have choice and the ability to
explore the text at their own pace and in their own way(Anderson, 2012). However, students
often hold negative attitudes about reading because of dull textbooks or being forced to
read(Bean, 2000). How to enhance students' active learning motivation and to develop
cooperation reading behavior is an important issue.
2. The EBCR system architecture
2.1 Self-Reading Mode
Students can download the e-book project before the class starts, and then uses EBCR to
preview the e-book project. When the teacher is teaching the e-book project, the student can
open the e-book project and make his own notes in it to help himself understand what the
teacher is teaching.
After the class, the student could review the e-book project in his home. If s/he has a
question while reviewing, s/he could add an Ask Card. After adding an Ask Card, s/he can
click “export it as a project package” to export the e-book project and then upload the
package to Cloud Library Management System. And then, his notes and the question are
stored in the database of Cloud Library Management System.
The teacher notices a student has a question, and then s/he answers the question in Cloud
Bookcase. S/he downloads the e-book project to read the students’ notes, check their notes.
Then s/he adds Question Cards, uploads the e-book project, and the contents of Question
Cards is stored in the database.
58
2.2 Teaching Mode
The teaching mode is specifically designed for teachers. A teacher prepares a PowerPoint
file that the teaching content is about the convex. S/he uses EBCR to open the PowerPoint
file, and then starts to make an e-book project. The teacher uses the highlighter pens to
highlight what s/he wants to emphasize, and write some words to explain the object.
The teacher draws lines to explain that how a convex lens creates a real image when light is
located behind the second focal point, and uses Recording Tool to record above process.
And then, s/he draws lines to explain why there has no image when light is on the focal
point, Meanwhile, s/he also can explain why we see a virtual image when light is between
the focal point and the convex lens. Because the teacher uses Recording Tool to record
above drawing process, students can click the play button to play these ink strokes.
In the school, the teacher uses EBCR to open the package and then teaches the students. The
teacher clicks Media Player to play a film of “using convex lens to burn a piece of
newspaper”.
Furthermore, our eBook player not only can keep handwriting and notes but also can upload
those users’ reading data to the Cloud Library Management System which will be specified
in next section. Teachers can analyze the reading data through the statistic service of CLMS.
For example, teachers can understand each student spending how long reading on each page
of the eBook. If someone spends too much time on the specific page, it indicates that these
students may be difficult to understand the intellectual content of this page. Therefore,
teachers can give strengthen supplement for these students.
In addition, we will design a share mechanism of group handwriting in CLMS. Its main
function is that students in the same class can share their public handwritings with their
classmates through the CLMS. So, students in the same group can collect the shared
handwriting to refer as their personal handwriting.
59
3. Conclusion and Future Research
This study proposes the EBCR system, an e-book cooperation reading system, to provide
students with opportunities to read and discuss. With the EBCR system, students can
immediately share the experience of reading e-books with other students. Through reading
and discussions within the small group, students can share their knowledge, absorb the
knowledge of others and improve their reading skills and achieve meaningful learning.
This study will keep going to integrate interactive technology with user experience in
interactive learning and education applications.
References
Anderson, J. (2012). Explor-eBook: Explore, Read, Interact, Assess.
Bean, T. W. (2000). Reading in the content areas: Social constructivist dimensions.
Handbook of reading research, 3, 629-644.
Beer, W., & Wagner, A. (2011). Smart books: adding context-awareness and interaction to
electronic books. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on Advances in Mobile Computing and Multimedia.
Embong, A. M., Noor, A. M., Hashim, H. M., Ali, R. M., & Shaari, Z. H. (2012). E-Books
as Textbooks in the Classroom. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47,
1802-1809.
Zivkovic, D. (2005). The Electronic Book. Berlin: BibSpider.
60
The Effects of Self-directed Learning Ability

and Page Interface Design on Students'
Electronic Reading Performances
Pao-Nan CHOU & Wei-Fan CHEN
Department of Education, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University
pnchou@mail.nutn.edu.tw
weifan@psu.edu
Abstract: The purpose of the current study is to explore the effect of self-directed ability
and page interface design on students' electronic reading performances. This study adopts a
randomized-based experimental design. 100 Undergraduate students voluntarily
participated in this study. The findings show that self-directed learning ability and page
interface design are not major factors for influencing students' electronic reading
performances.
Keywords: Self-directed learning, interface design, electronic reading
Introduction
Due to the popularity of tablet computer adoption in classroom, emphasis on students'
electronic reading receives much attention (e.g. e-textbook ). The current study attempts to
understand how students' learning attitudes (self-directed learning) and reading page's
layout designs influence students' electronic reading performances. Theoretical foundations
bases on aesthetic design principles and adult learning theories.
Methodology
1. Research Design
This study adopts a randomized-based experimental design. A two (high and low levels of
self-directed learning ability) by two (good and bad interface design) factorial research
model is built. The independent variables are students' self-directed learning abilities and
page layout design; the dependent variables are the three criterion tests (identification,
terminology, and comprehension test) measuring participants’ electronic reading
performances.
61
2. Measurement Tool
The Chinese version of Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) is utilized to
measure students’ self-directed learning ability. The SDLRS uses a 55-item 5-point Likert
scale. Overall scores range from 55 to 275. Three criterion tests described earlier are used to
measure students’ electronic reading performances after students complete the experimental
treatments. Total scores yielded in these three tests range from 0 to 60.
3. Research Participant
Undergraduate students (n=100) voluntarily participated in this study. Based on the median
score (189) of the SDLRS measurement, student participants were divided into two levels
(high or low) of self-directed learning. Through stratified sampling, participants in each
group were randomly assigned into four experimental treatments.
4. Page Layout Design
A. Good page Design: The page design follows the rules of aesthetics (i.e. visualization
pleasure) and human and computer interface (i.e. ease of use).
B. Bad page Design: The objective of the page design is to distract learners' attention by not
sticking to the design theories.
5. Electronic Reading Platform
Two reading websites, which contain two different page designs, are created in the Xoops
learning system. The main topic of the learning materials in two websites is science
knowledge about human heart content. Although two websites present different styles of
webpage designs, the learning contents are the same.
Research Finding
The information shows that no statistically significant difference exists between the two
levels of self-directed learning groups (F=0.02, p>0.05), and no significant difference exists
between the two page designs (F=0.44, p>0.05). Furthermore, no significant interaction is
found between self-directed learning and page design (F=3.67, p>0.05).

62
Exploring the Principles of Constructing

Physical Classroom for Digital Learning
Chun-Min WANG
Department of Education, National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan (R.O.C)
cwang@mail.nhcue.edu.tw
Abstract: Integrating technologies into teaching and learning is becoming important issue
in educational institutions. Innovative technologies are being developed and the studies
about how to use these technologies in the classroom continue conducting by researchers.
However, to fully integrate technologies into teaching, the pedagogical change is needed.
The change requires not only the verbal encouragement, but also an environmental
invitation. In this paper, the author argues that the classroom layout is an important factor for
pedagogical change, and a good classroom layout can also prevent students from losing their
skills of social interaction. By analyzing the future classroom blueprints from 218 students
in six different classes in a university, the author summarizes seven factors of user-friendly
classroom. Along with the theoretical arguments, the author proposes several principles that
should be considered while constructing a classroom for promoting digital learning.
Keywords: Classroom layout, pedagogical change, digital learning, technology integration
Introduction
The rapid development of digital devices, web-based applications, and wireless
environment have created new learning opportunities and made innovative attempts
possible in the classroom. Foreseeing the potentials of these technologies, how to take
advantage and integrate new technologies into teaching and learning becomes an important
task in schools. Although technologies could be neutral, integrating new technologies into
traditional teaching usually requires pedagogical change. In addition to professional
development workshop or appropriate incentives, situating teachers in a classroom where
the environment encourages pedagogical change and use of technologies can be an
alternative strategy to make the change happen naturally. Additionally, the side effects of
using technologies such as physical isolation from peers or losing social interaction skills
should never be overlooked. When considering the challenges from teachers and students,
the meaningful task is to construct a classroom where the layout can encourage teachers to
63
use technologies but also prevent students from the side effects. By analyzing the future
classroom blueprints from 218 students along with the theoretical arguments, the purpose of
this study was to identify the principles of constructing physical classroom for digital
learning.
1. Research Design
The main approach in this study was to gather opinions about future classroom from
undergraduate students. The participants were in six different classes who were taking the
same course called “Introduction to Learning Technology” in a university in northern
Taiwan. Three-fourth of these participants were pre-service elementary school teachers, and
the majority of the participants were female. All participants were required to draw a
blueprint of their future classroom in a 800*600 pixels jpg file using Microsoft Paint
software at the end of the course. In addition to the layout of the classroom, students also
need to explain the reasons why they designed the classroom in this way. The study
collected the blueprints from 218 students. All blueprints were examined by some guiding
questions to identify the components in each classroom, and then the important expectations
were categorized for further discussion.
2. Conclusion
Severn general themes were identified in the study. These themes include: the broadcasting
function, panel computers, round tables for groups, innovative technologies, rearrange
classroom easily, small class size, and make the classroom green and comfortable. The
study serves as an important exploration about how to construct a classroom for digital
learning. Based on the themes identified in this study, further discussion along with the
theoretical arguments as well as a proposed classroom layout is presented.
64
Track 2: Insights from Distinguished Mobile
and Ubiquitous Learning Projects across the
World
Study on Nursing Students Acceptance of

Annotation System Based on Technology
Acceptance Model
Ying-Hung PUa, Ting-Ting WUb & Yueh-Min HUANGc*

a
Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
b
Department of Information Management, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science,
Tainan, Taiwan
c
Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
*
huang@mail.ncku.edu.tw
Abstract: Although there have been many studies that apply information technology to
nursing, most have focused on large-scale medical institutions, with few examining nursing
students who practice in regional medical units. Therefore, the participants in this pilot study
were nursing students using the proposed annotation system in order to better meet the goals
of a public health nursing practice course in regional public health center. This study took
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as the main theory structure and added task
characteristic to external variables for investigating whether the annotation system is fit
practice requirements. The results of the analysis show that a majority of the nursing
students had positive perceptions of the system and wanted to continue using it in other
nursing practice courses.
Keywords: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM); Annotation System; Mobile Devices;

Nursing Students; Nursing Practice Course
Introduction
Advances in information technology, wireless networks and mobile devices now enable
people to learn at any time and place, interacting with people or things in real time to better
experience specific learning contents and contexts (Kynaslahti, 2003). Learning is thus no
longer limited to the classroom, since learners with mobile devices and wireless network
access can receive guidance and feedback during learning activities based on their learning
status and environment (Hwang, Tsai, & Yang, 2008; Wu et al., 2011).
Recently, nursing education has changed greatly because of the development of information
technology. The presentation of teaching materials and methods of teaching are more
diversified than that in the past. Scholars thought, these applications of information
technology can also benefit the clinical practice of nursing education (Guadagno et al.,
65
2004). Gradually, more and more scholars had started to use portability, handiness,
immediateness and other advantages of mobile devices to support practice activities in
nursing education (Kynaslahti, 2003). For example, Dearnley and Fairhall (2008) carried
out a study in which nursing students used mobile devices to keep track of their learning
processes and receive feedback when needed, while Bernard (2006) used personal digital
assistants (PDAs) to support the learning activities associated with clinical practice
instruction, and the results showed that this lead to better learning outcomes. Students
interacted with the learning situation and learned actively to increase their experience in
clinical practice and to promote learning results. Moreover, the American Association of
Colleges of Nursing and the Institute of Medicine have both stated that information
technology should be introduced into nursing education. The Australian Nursing Federation
has also stated that information technology can enable nurses to engage in high quality
life-long learning (Wu, Huang, & Wang, 2010).
Therefore, the current study used small, lightweight, and highly portable tablet PCs as
devices to aid nurses in their home-visiting. An annotation system was developed for use
with these devices, so that the nursing students could keep appropriate and well-organized
to records to increase the efficacy of such activities.
1. Methodology
1.1 Annotation System for Health Education
In traditional health education activities, nurses have to carry a great amount paper files with
them. Moreover, they are not always able to definitively and clearly answer the questions
raised by some cases. In addition, they also need to organize their notes and records after
making home-visiting, with is laborious and time-consuming. In view of this, this study
develops an annotation system in which this information is digitized, and nurses thus are
able to store case and health education-related information, in the form of texts, pictures,
videos and audio files, to make their home-visiting more effective. After completing these
66
activities, the system can then help the nurses categorize and file the information thus
gathered. Figure 1 shows the structure of the annotation system presented in this work.
Fig. 1. The functional architecture of annotation system.

1.2 Research Model and Hypotheses
This study is based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that was proposed by
Davis (1989), and uses the concepts of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and
behavioral intention as the internal variables. The external variables examined in this study
are system quality, task characteristics, previous experience and system interaction. The
research model is presented in Figure 2, and thirteen research hypotheses are proposed
based on this, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Research Hypotheses

Items Hypotheses
H1 System Quality will positively affect Perceived Usefulness.
H2 System Quality will positively affect Perceived Ease of Use.
H3 System Quality will positively affect the interaction that nurses have with the system.
H4 Task Characteristics will positively affect Perceived Usefulness.
Task Characteristics will positively affect the interaction that nurses have with the
H5
system.
H6 Previous Experience will positively affect Perceived Usefulness.
H7 Previous Experience will positively affect Perceived Ease of Use.
H8 Previous Experience will positively affect the Intention to Use the system.
H9 Perceived Ease of Use will positively affect the Perceived Usefulness.
Perceived Ease of Use will positively affect the interaction that nurses have with the
H10
system.
H11 Perceived Usefulness will positively affect the Intention to Use the system.
H12 Perceived Ease of Use will positively affect the Intention to Use the system.
The interaction that nurses have with the system will positively affect their Intention
H13
to Use the system.
67
1.3 Questionnaire Design and Operational Definition
In this study is adopted a questionnaire to predict and explore user’s behavioral intention of
the annotation system for health education and referenced about scholars research to design
this questionnaire (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996; Liu, Chen, Sun, Wible, & Kuo,
2010). A total of 25 items are included in the questionnaire, which explore the seven
dimensions of system quality, task characteristics, previous experience, perceived
usefulness, and perceived ease of use, system interaction and intention. The operational
definitions of these dimensions are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 The operational definition of each dimension

Dimensions Operational Definitions
System Quality Nursing students’ evaluation of the health education annotation system.
Task
Whether the functions of the annotation system meet the work requirements of
Characteristic
nursing students.
s
Previous
How often the nursing students use information technology.
Experience
Perceived Nursing students think the health education annotation system is helpful to their
Usefulness work.
Perceived Ease of Nursing students think that the health education annotation system is easy to learn
Use and use.
System Nursing students think that the health education annotation system is appropriate for use
Interaction with the content of their work.
Nursing students’ attitude toward using the health education annotation system and
Intention to Use
whether they would recommend it to others.
2. Results
The experimental subjects in this study were nursing students in their fourth year at a
five-year junior college in Taoyuan County, Taiwan. The experiment was executed in two
sessions. Fifteen students and one teacher joined each session, and they were all volunteers.
In total, thirty-two questionnaires were retuned and thirty of them were valid. Therefore, in
statistic data analysis, this study used statistic package software, SmartPLS 2.0 M3, to
perform analysis. The analysis results are as follows.
2.1 Reliability and Validity Analysis
In reliability analysis, this study used the Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient to test the internal
consistency of the items in each dimension. The greater the α value is, the greater the
68
inter-correlations of an items’ dimensions is, which indicates higher internal consistency. In
the criteria of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, when α value is higher than 0.7, it indicates a
high level of reliability. When α is smaller than 0.35, it indicates a low level of reliability.
Table 3 shows that the Cronbach’s α range between 0.751 and 0.908, and thus the items used
in this study have good internal consistency.
In validity analysis, this study tested convergent validity which was the degree of
inter-correlation between theoretically related items in the measurement (Lee et al., 2007).
The dimension items of composite reliability is composed of all items, which indicates the
internal consistency of dimension items. Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggested that the
value of the composite reliability should be greater than 0.7. Table 3 shows that for the items
in this study this ranges between 0.853 and 0.935, indicating excellent internal consistency.
The average variance extracted of dimension items is used to compute the average variance
predictive power of a dimension item to every item in dimension items. Fornell and Larcker
(1981) suggested that the value of the average variance extracted should be greater than 0.5.
Table 3 shows that the results in this study this ranged between 0.545 and 0.800, and thus all
the items in this study had excellent convergent validity.
Table 3 The reliability and validity of each dimension

Composite
Cronbach’s Average Variance
Dimensions Reliab
α Extracted
ility
System Quality 0.797 0.880 0.712
Task
Characteristic 0.800 0.853 0.545
s
Previous
0.751 0.854 0.665
Experience
Perceived
0.838 0.893 0.677
Usefulness
Perceived Ease of
0.908 0.935 0.783
Use
System
0.876 0.923 0.800
Interaction
Intention to Use 0.769 0.867 0.689
69
2.2 Path Analysis
Figure 2 shows that the path coefficients were 0.091, 0.151, 0.310, 0.314, 0.466, 0.147,
0.247, 0.370, 0.317, -0.109, 0.534. Among all hypotheses, hypothesis H2 and H3 showed
negative influence that means did not reach a significant level. The overall predictive power
of the model was 67.5%, which meant that this study had good predictive power. Figure 2
shows the path analysis results of the study structure. The solid lines represent significant of
t-value while the dotted lines show insignificant of t-value.
0.091*
(1.676) Perceived
System Quality Usefulness
R2=0.375 0.317***
(7.566)
-0.026
(0.366)
-0.083
(1.380)
0.247***
(5.591)
0.151**
(2.523)
-0.109***
Perceived (2.547)
Task Intention to Use
Ease of Use
Characteristic R2=0.675
R2=0.206
0.310*** 0.370***
(4.438) (11.902)
**
0.314*** 66 *
0.4 .215)
(5.521) (8
0.534***
(12.460)
0.147*** System
Previous
(2.988) Interaction
Experience
R2=0.250
* p < 0.1，** p < 0.05，*** p < 0.01

Fig. 2. Path analysis of the research structure.
3. Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to develop an annotation system for health education for
nursing students and to use Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to investigate student’s
acceptance and willingness to use the system. The experiment analysis results showed that
hypothesis H1 and H4 to H13 of this study were confirmed. This indicated nursing students’
willingness to use the annotation system was positive. However, hypotheses H2 and H3,
which examined the relationship between system quality and perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use, were rejected. There were two inferences based on review and
discussion. First, the number of experimental subjects used in this study was rather small.
70
Second, the questionnaire showed that most subjects had no previous experience of using
information technology. Therefore, the data analysis results showed that there was no
significant relationship between system quality and perceived ease of use and system
interaction. On the whole, the annotation system developed in this study was examined
using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). According to the results showed that the
predictive power (R2 value) of the model was 67.5%, which meant nursing students'
positive attitudes toward and continuing to use the annotation system in nursing practice
course in the future.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported in part by the National Science Council (NSC), Taiwan, ROC,
under Grant NSC 102-2511-S-041 -002, NSC 101-2511-S-041-001-MY3 and NSC
100-2511-S-006-014-MY3.
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72
The Effects of Cognitive Styles on M-learning:

Adaptability vs. Adaptivity
Chen-Wei HSIEH, Sherry Y. CHEN*, Wu-Yuin HWANG
Graduate Institute of Network Learning Technology
National Central University
Jhongli, Taiwan
*
sherry@cl.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: M-learning, which has become widespread in educational settings, faces students
with diverse background, in terms of knowledge, skills and needs. Two approaches, i.e.,
adaptability and adaptivity, can be applied to sort out diversity. These two approaches have
different advantages and disadvantages. To this end, we conduct two experiments to
examine how students react differently to adaptability and adaptivity in the context
m-learning. More specifically, students’ reactions are investigated from a perspective of
cognitive styles, which affect students’ information processing. The results from two
experiments show that students with the adaptive m-learning system perform better than
those with the adaptable adaptive m-learning system, regardless of their cognitive styles.
Keywords: M-learning, Adaptability, Adaptivity, Cognitive styles
Introduction
Mobile learning (m-learning) has become widespread in educational settings. A major
reason is that m-learning utilizes portable size of mobile tools to overcome geographic
barriers (Ozdamlia & Cavusb, 2011). Thus, m-learning was generally considered as a useful
tool, which can improve learners’ performance (Yi, Liao, Huang & Hwang, 2009).
However, diversity exists among learners, who may have heterogeneous background (Chen
& Macredie, 2010). Thus, individual differences are essential issues.
There are two approaches to accommodate students’ individual differences. One is to
provide adaptability while the other is to offer adaptivity. The main difference between
adaptability and adaptivity is that the former provides a customized program where learners
are allowed to modify the content presentation and navigation facilities by themselves while
the latter offers a personalized program which automatically adapts to learners based on
observed behaviors (Stephanidis, Savidis & Akoumianakis, 1995). These two approaches
73
differ with respect to who takes the initiative: the learner or the system (Kay, 2001).
Adaptable systems are learner-controlled while adaptive systems are system-controlled
(Finlater & McGrenere, 2004). Giving the control to the learners can reduce the effect of
incorrect adaptation. However, the cost of the increased controllability is the additional
effort required from the learners. The learners may need to learn the adaptation component
before being able to manipulate it (Tsandilas & Schraefel, 2004). In brief, these two
approaches have different advantages and disadvantages.
Table 1. Differences between Holists and Serialists (Pask, 1976)
Holists Serialists
 Take a global approach and create  Take an analytical approach, examining
conceptual links between objects individual topics before forming
early on. conceptual links.
 Is able to move between theory and  Analyze theory or real world examples
real world examples from the separately, only joining together if
beginning. necessary.
 Broad focus: prefer to have more  Narrow focus: prefers to focus on
than one thing on the go at the same completing one task before moving onto
time. the next.
 Internally directed.  Externally directed.
Thus, researchers attempted to compare the effectiveness of these two approaches (e.g.,
Frias-Martinez, Chen, and Liu, 2009). However, there is a lack of studies that examine this
issue in the context of m-learning. To address this issue, we conducted two empirical
studies. In Experiment One, we developed an adaptable m-learning system (MLS), which
allowed learners to choose learning tools and arrange display formats based on their own
needs. Furthermore, we investigated how cognitive styles affect students’ reactions to
adaptability and adaptivity in Experiment Two. We decide to provide adaptability and
adaptivity based on cognitive styles because they affect an individual preferred and habitual
approach to organizing and representing information (Riding & Rayner, 1998). Among
various dimensions, recent research indicated that Holists and Serialists showed different
preferences (Table 1). The ultimate aim of this study is not only to develop adaptive and
74
adaptable MLSs, but also to get a complete understanding of how cognitive styles affect
students’ reactions to m-learning.
1. Experiment One
1.1 Development of an Adaptable MLS
The adaptable MLS gives an
introduction to Interaction
Design. 11 kinds of tools are
provided in this system because
they serve different purposes and
are complementary to each other. Figure 1. Customized M-learning System.
This system also allows learners to change the display formats and choose navigation tools
based on their own needs (Figure 1). In other words, the adaptable MLS offers flexibility to
allow learners to develop their own learning strategies based on their preferences.
1.2 Empirical Study
30 students from some universities in Taiwan participated in this experiment voluntarily.
Initially, learners were required to fill out the Study Preferences Questionnaire (SPQ),
which is a 17-item inventory for categorizing learners as Holists or Serialists. Subsequently,
all of the learners were required to take the pre-test to identify their prior knowledge about
the subject content before they interacted with the adaptable MLS. After they finished the
pre-test, they were required to interact with the adaptable MLS and complete the practical
tasks. The time that they spent for completing the task was recorded in a log file. Then,
learners needed to take a post-test, which was used to evaluate their learning performance.
(i.e., the differences between the scores of post-test and the scores of pre-test).
75
1.3 Results and Discussions
Learning Performance
After comparing the mean values of task time, we found that Serialists (Mean = 80.15; SD=
32.12) needed more time to complete the tasks than Holists (Mean = 71.29; SD= 26.52).
Thus, there is a need to create clusters for Serialists and Holists separately. Clusters were
produced for Serialists and Holists with the K-mean algorithm. Regarding Serialists, three
clusters were created and learners in the third cluster (C3) spent the least amount of time
completing the tasks (Figure 2). Regarding Holists, two clusters were created and learners in
the second cluster (C2) spent the least amount of time completing the tasks (Figure 3). In
other words, best achievers are Serailists in the third cluster and Holists in the second
cluster. Subsequently, the following two sections describe how these best achievers selected
navigation tools (Section 1.3.2) and arranged displayed formats (Section 1.3.3).
Selection of Navigation Tools

As showed in Figures 2 and 3, Serialists mainly used the main menu and the keyword
search. The main menu is useful for them to browse the content page by page while the
keyword search can help them find specific information for their own needs. This may be
because Serialists tend to take a sequential approach so they rely on the main menu to
examine the content step by step. On the other hand, they emphasized on procedural details
(Pask, 1976) so it is necessary for them to acquire the details with the keyword search.
Conversely, Holists majorly used the main menu and the previous/ next buttons. The main
menu is helpful for them to build an overview, which can help Holists see a global picture
and approach a task more holistically. On the other hand, the previous and next buttons are
useful for them to browse the content in a non-linear way, which is suitable for Holists to
jump from one point to another in pursuit of their goals (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981).
76
9%
Mainmenu Mainmenu
Index 28% Index
30%
60% Keyword 59% Keyword
5%
Pre & Next Pre & Next
1% 8%
Figure 2. Navigation Tools Used for Serialists Figure 3. Navigation Tools Used for Holists
Arrangement of Display Formats

Serialists and Holists favored different types of displayed formats. Serialists tend to put the
reading tools on the right side and the searching tools on the left side. Conversely, Holists
prefer to put the searching tools on the right side and the reading tools on the left side. More
specifically, the difference between these approaches lies within the fact that the former is a
format changed by learners while the latter is a format originally displayed in the adaptable
MLS. In other words, Holists tend to adjust themselves to use an existing format while
Serialists attempt to modify the format to match with their needs. This may be because
Holists are good at re-organizing information. Thus, they are comfortable to use the existing
format. Conversely, Serialists tend to approach a task sequentially so they need to use a
format which is useful for them to do the task one by one.
2. Experiment Two
2.1 Development of an Adaptive MLS
Table 2 presents a framework, which summarizes the differences between Holists and
Serialists based on the results obtained in Experiment One. This framework was further
applied to develop the adaptive MLS, which included two versions: Serialist version (Figure
4) and Holist version (Figure 5). The same content was used for both Versions without
incurring the practice and fatigue effects in the study.
Table 2. Summary of Preferences of Holists and Serialists
Serialists Holists
77
Navigation Tools The main menu and keyword The main menu and previous/ next
search buttons.
Display Formats The reading tools on the right The searching tools on the right
side and the searching tools on side and the reading tools on the
the left side. left side.
Figure 4. Serialist Version Figure 5. Holist Version
2.2 Empirical Study
In order to identify students’ reactions to the adaptive MLS, a between-subjects design was
used. In other words, each student used either the Holist Version or the Serialist Version
based on their cognitive styles. Thus, each participant was initially provided with the SPQ to
determine whether s/he was Holists or Serialsts. Subsequently, the right version of the
adaptive MLS was presented based on the results of the SPQ. Subsequently, the participants
were then asked to take a pre-test to measure their initial levels of knowledge. When the
participants finished studying the material, they followed a link to do the post-test. Finally,
they were provided with a questionnaire to identify their reactions to the adaptive MLS.
2.3 Results and Discussions
Students in the adaptive MLS and those in the adaptable MLS gained similar pre-test scores.
this, they had a similar level of prior knowledge. After analyzing the results of Experiment
Two, we, however, found that students in the adaptive MLS performed better than those in
the adaptable version, in terms of post-test scores (Figure 6), task scores (Figure 7) , gain
scores (Figure 8), and task time (Figure 9), regardless of their cognitive styles
78
Post- Task
Post-test Scores test Task Scores Scores,
Post- Scores, Task Adaptiv
test Adap… Scores, e,…
Scores, Adaptab
Adap… le,…
Figure 6. Post-test scores Figure 7. Task scores
Task
Gain Scores Gain Time,Task Time Task
Gain Scores Time,
Adaptab
Scores ,… le,… Adaptiv
,… e,…
Figure 8. Gain scores Figure 9. Task time
3. Concluding remarks
We conducted two empirical studies to examine how students reacted to adaptive
m-learning and adaptable m-learning. It seems that adaptive m-learning is more beneficial
to adaptable m-learning because students with the former demonstrate better performance,
regardless of their cognitive styles. However, this study only considered cognitive styles.
There is a need to conduct further works to examine other human factors, such as prior
knowledge and gender differences.
Acknowledgements
This work is funded by National Science Council, ROC (NSC 102-2420-H-008 -004 and
NSC 101-2511-S-008 -010 -MY3).
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Kay, J. (2001) Learner Control. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction 11(1/2),
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Contrasting the Study and People Survey on

Mobile Assisted Language Learning
Gloria Shu Mei CHWO

Applied English Dept., HungKuang University, Taiwan
schwo@hk.edu.tw
Abstract: The study reports the results on contrasting two parts of the mobile assisted
language learning (MALL) survey in order to gauge whether the proportion of studies that
evidence classroom related activities with MALL is significantly smaller than the
proportion of people surveyed who report classroom related activity with MALL. Moreover,
the findings will present how far the survey of studies matches the survey of
teachers/researchers with respect to the reported proportions of work on different targeted
language areas, different languages being studied, L1 vs L2, educational levels, and finally,
involving different MALL devices.
Keywords: MALL, study survey, people survey
1. Introduction
With the advent of educational technology, ubiquitous learning centered on mobile assisted
learning has been acknowledged for its potential for making learning seamless across
different contexts. Not only does it bridge in-class formal and out-of-class informal
learning, but also provides a scenario where learning can be endorsed through constant
usage in the learners’ daily life by convenient access (Wong et al., 2011). The study reports
the initial findings of an online survey of MALL studies contrasting people and study
categorical surveys in order to provide an overview of the MALL implementation on
different targeted language areas, different languages being studied, the works on L1 versus
L2, different educational levels, and the involving of different MALL devices. Most
importantly, the factors markedly related positively or negatively to the degree of
curriculum integration of MALL.
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2. Research Questions
1) Is the proportion of studies that evidence classroom related activity with MALL
significantly smaller than the proportion of people surveyed who report classroom
related activity with MALL?
2) How far does the survey of studies match the survey of teachers/researchers with
respect to the reported proportions of work on different targeted language areas?
respect to the reported proportions of work on different languages being studied?
respect to the reported proportions of work on L1 vs L2?
respect to the reported proportions of work at different educational levels?
respect to the reported proportions of work on involving different MALL devices?
3. Methodology
3.1 Participants
A list of MALL studies were collected from 1994 to 2012 with the principal author’s e-mail
information verified. They are either research students, university full time staff or project
leaders. A total of seventy online surveys were collected with followed up reminders.
3.2 Instruments
The MALL survey was drafted by an MALL expert, followed by three external experts’
review providing feedback for revision. An online survey was adopted to invite feedback
from the MALL study researchers around the world.
3.3 Procedure
82
An individualized invitation note was drafted for each MALL study principal researcher
specifying the nature of their study together with their contribution to the MALL
development. A website online survey address was attached with the e-mail message to
invite follow up feedback regarding their MALL study. Analysis was based on categorized
surveys, which are study survey and people survey for matching analysis. The division can
be illustrated as follows:
1. Study survey: (lab) research, class ( or field) complement, class experiment, design
(parameters or development), prototype(testing) and others
2. People survey: primary project orientation (from idea focus to integrate
application): lab trialing, class trialing, curricular integration, system design, prototype
development,
In order to compare these two surveys in answering to the research questions(RQs), the
label design, prototype and others are in both sets, so we have taken them as matching.
Research has taken class complement along with class experiment figures, combined them
in the study survey, and compared them with total figures for class trialing and curricular
integration in the people survey, i.e. this study just compares whatever figures seem to
reflect something going on in the classroom in both surveys.
4. Results and Conclusion
In response to RQ1, we found some tendency for the proportion of cases reporting research
to be higher in the studies than among the people responding, and the MALL classroom
related activity to be greater in the people survey than the study survey. However, the
ignificant difference between the two surveys is just the ‘classroom related activity’
category(chi squared = 4.948, exact p=.033). So in relation to the RQ1, it is found that here
is more reports in the people survey than in the study survey.
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In response to RQ2, the studies seem to over-represent vocabulary and under-represent most
other areas, compared with the survey of people. This could be a function of when the
studies were conducted. Most early studies used SMS for vocabulary acquisition. More
recent technology supports a wider range of language areas and those who responded to the
survey may over represent recent implementation as opposed to earlier studies.
In response to RQ 3, there is not much disagreement there.
In response to RQ4, again they seem to agree on that. This study divided second language
from foreign language in the people survey but not in the study survey, so here we had to
treat them as one. This study also grouped SL and FL into L2. Incidentally, if the study had
added a number of recent Singapore studies with Chinese L1 to the study summary, it would
have probably raised the proportion of L1 to about 10%.
In response to RQ 5, again there seems to be a remarkably close agreement.
In response to RQ 6, it seems that the studies perhaps focused more on phones while the
survey of people represents tablets/iPads more, which may be due to recent availability.
Notice we divided phones into two categories in the people survey but not in the study
survey, as a result we had to amalgamate them. If this study provides a separate phone and
smartphone data in the updated study summary, it might clarify whether the bias is due to
the availability of the product in the survey. If so, the respondents are responsible for the
increase in tablet usage. In this study, our findings include that mobile phones are the main
devices used, English is the main language being learnt, and vocabulary is the main area of
language targeted. The main features hindering the greater integration of MALL into taught
programs appear to be lack of funding, lack of staff time, and unavailability of suitable
language learning software/ apps for the devices.
Reference
Wong, H-L (2011).Putting Language Learning in Their Hands. Research in Education at
the National Institute of Education, NIE/NTU, Singapore Reed.Vol. (2).

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Designing an Online Mobile Learning Course

for Hawaii’s Public Schools Teachers’
Professional Development
Meng-Fen Grace LIN, Ritsuko IYODA, Catherine P. FULFORD & Curtis HO

University of Hawai’i at Manoa, USA
gracelin@hawaii.edu
Abstract: An online professional development course for using mobile applications in the
classroom for the Hawai‘i State Department of Education teachers was designed and
implemented. A combination of asynchronous modules and optional synchronous sessions
were delivered in a four-month course through Blackboard. This paper discusses course
design features using Desimone’s (2009) five core elements and implications for an
advanced course based on preliminary data from participants over three course offerings.
Keywords: Mobile learning, professional development for teachers
Introduction
To meet the needs of digital-age learners, teachers must make a fundamental shift in what
and how to teach in classrooms (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Groff &
Mouza, 2008; King, 2002). While “teachers are necessarily at the center of reform” (Garet
et al., 2001, p. 916), simply implementing new technology does not directly change
teachers’ behaviors or student learning. For sustainable changes, it is critical to have
powerful mechanisms where teachers can develop new beliefs, knowledge, and skills
(Desimone, 2009). Literature on impact studies shows a consensus that carefully designed
professional development (PD) is more likely to improve teacher knowledge, classroom
instruction, and student learning. Here the authors describe an online PD course designed
using Desimone’s (2009) five features of effective PD and discuss implementation data.
85
1. Desimone’s Professional Development Framework and Path Model
Desimone’s (2009) seminal research on how best to measure PD’s impact, proposed a
conceptual framework on five core elements of effective PD design: content focus, active
learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. Desimone then proposed a path
model on how to measure the effects of PD suggesting a sequence of events; from teachers
participating in PD activities, to increased knowledge and skills, to changes in attitudes and
beliefs, to changes in classroom teaching practice, and ultimately to student achievement
improvement. Much of this paper is based on Desimone’s research.
2. Design of the Online PD Course
In the Hawai‘i Department of Education’s (HIDOE) effort to advance technology
integration, teachers taking PD courses are given pay raises. To encourage participation
from all islands, these are offered as four-month asynchronous online evening courses,
using Blackboard. The first author was commissioned to design “Mobile Apps in
Education.” Modules were constructed with Blackboard’s functions and assignments, and
interaction was prompted through use of the discussion tool. To encourage active learning,
community building, and social interaction, six optional live web conferencing sessions on
Blackboard Collaborate were designed. Comprised of five components, the course aims to
help teachers gain knowledge in using mobile devices and apps, and promote an
advancement of the level of mobile technology integration in their teaching practice. Part I -
Mobile Learning (My Journey) includes an inventory of attitude, beliefs and inspirations
toward mobile learning and a survey of their current environment for support, infrastructure,
and resources. Part II - Mobile Apps Search and Evaluation includes searching for apps,
creating grading rubrics, and compiling annotated online resources. Part III - Mobile
Learning Design includes creating three mobile integrated lesson ideas with peer review and
revision. Part IV - Implementation and Reflection includes implementing a lesson plan,

86
collecting student examples, and reflecting on implementation. Part V - Mobile Learning
Moving Forward includes creating a plan for moving beyond the course. Table 1 shows
alignment with Desimone’s (2009) framework.
Table 1
Five Core Features of “Mobile Apps in Education”
Features Course Elements

Content Teachers are free to design lesson ideas based on the content and grade they
Focus will be teaching during the later portion of the course so they can implement
and evaluate it.
Active Six live, interactive sessions are designed for sharing progress and receiving
Learning immediate instructor and peer feedback. Six module reflections are designed to
include critical peer feedback. Guest speakers are invited to share best practices
and interact with teachers.
Coherence Continuous feedback following modules encourages teachers to examine their
learning and beliefs. For example, in “Locus of Control” teachers take a survey
of their environment and system about policies and support.
Duration The course spans four months and teachers are expected to spend about 30-40
hours for assignments and activities.
Collective All participants teach in Hawai‘i’s public schools, and they are placed into
Participation critical friends groups based primarily on grade levels to review lesson plans.
3. Discussion
The data were collected from 35 teachers in three course offerings. Early implications show
four primary results over the three semesters: 1. Social learning aspects were highly
appreciated. Teacher’s most enjoyed interacting with other teachers, seeing how they
implemented their lessons, and appreciated teacher’s as guest speakers. 2. Live online
interactive sessions were amongst the most valuable course elements and should not be
removed. In an asynchronous class, these synchronous sessions encouraged and facilitated
social learning. 3. To achieve a higher level of adoption, a follow-up course is needed.
Examining Desimone’s path model, it is clear that most teachers did not make major
changes in their practice. Adding elements of teaching strategies, change agents, grant
writing, and action research in a second course, may help. 4. Teacher interviews and
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classroom observation in the next phase of research should improve measurement of
change. Since much of the current course is asynchronous, it is difficult to truly measure
how much change is occurring. Since, only self-report and discussion were possible for this
phase of the research, adding interviews and observations in future studies will help
improve the validity of the results.
4. Discussion
Desimone’s PD framework of five core course features (content focus, active learning,
coherence, duration and collective participation) is helpful in organizing an effective online
learning environment and course activities. The teachers particularly appreciated the social
learning aspects and the live, interactive sessions. A follow-up course to address a higher
level of change, adoption of teaching strategies and self-evaluation for improved practices
will be designed using Desimone’s framework and evaluated with her path model to guide
formative data collection and analysis.
References
Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development:
Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3),
181–199.
Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. F., & Yoon, K. S. (2001). What makes
professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers.
American educational research journal, 38(4), 915–945.
Groff, J., & Mouza, C. (2008). A framework for addressing challenges to classroom
technology use. AACE Journal, 16(1), 21–46.
King, K. P. (2002). Educational technology professional development as transformative
learning opportunities. Computers & Education, 39(3), 283–297.
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Generic Learning Outcomes for

Mobile-enhanced Learning in Children: A
Case Study of the National Museum of Natural
Science in Taiwan
Tien-Yu HSUa, Ying-Chun CHOUa* & Pi-Hsiang LIb

a
Department of Marketing, Collection and Information Management,
b
Graduate Institute of Industrial Education and Technology,
National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan
*gaussjoy@gmail.com
Abstract: The use of mobile applications and devices to augment the effectiveness of
traditional learning techniques is a new trend in museum-related education. This study
developed a novel system to enhance the educational benefits of museum visits for children
by linking online and on-site learning services. The children first visited the National
Museum of Natural Science web-site, where they played games and viewed educational
animations; afterwards, they experienced on-site visits to the museum where they used
mobile devices to enhance interactions with museum exhibits. We then employed a survey
based on the framework of Generic Learning Outcomes (GLOs) to evaluate learning
outcomes. The research included a sample of 204 Taichung City elementary school students.
Results indicated that the students were actively engaged in the exhibits and learned a great
deal during the online and on-site learning activities. Our results also demonstrated that five
categories of GLO measurements can be successfully adopted to evaluate mobile learning
experiences in museums.
Keywords: Generic Learning Outcomes, mobile learning, mobile application, museum,

integrated online and on-site
Introduction
Using mobile devices and applications to enhance learning is a growing trend that is soon
expected to enter K-12 education. In particular, some research focuses on the effectiveness
of exhibits in the learning process during on-site museum visits (Chiou et al., 2010),
however, few of these studies have examined the effects of integrating a virtual visit to the
museum prior to experiencing on-site learning activities at the museum. In order to evaluate
student learning, this study developed a unique application that integrated a game-based
educational website for the students to visit before the actual museum visit, followed by
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both virtual and physical learning resources at the National Museum of Natural Science
(NMNS) during on-site exploration. The authors of the study then applied the principles of
GLOs to evaluate the learning outcomes of these visitors as a means to assess the
effectiveness of mobile learning experiences in the museum.
1.1 Integrated Online and On-site Learning with Mobile Devices in Museums
Owing to the proliferation of mobile devices, some research has examined the effect of
combining resources from both the physical world and the digital world for mobile learning
in museums (Chu et al, 2010).
1.2 Principles of Generic Learning Outcomes
The Museum, Libraries, and Archives Council (MLA) in the UK offered the following five
GLO categories: (1) knowledge and understanding; (2) skills; (3) attitudes and values; (4)
enjoyment, inspiration, and creativity; and (5) action, behavior, and progression (MLA,
2008). Some museums have applied GLOs to measure the learning outcomes of visitors
attending educational activities or visiting the exhibitions. But they have seldom been
applied to the evaluation of museum mobile learning.
2. Learning Model and Procedures
The procedures of the mobile museum learning system from pre-visit to on-site visit were as
follows:
(1) Pre-visit: The museum has designed web animations and games that introduce various
ecosystems and the species inhabiting them. Students visit the museum’s web-site to access
these web resources and complete specific learning tasks.
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(2) On-site visit: After gaining prior knowledge on-line, on-site visitors to the NMNS can
interact with the “Life of Earth” exhibit with a museum-provided tablet computer, called the
COBO M-exploration Pack. The visitors proceed to watch animations, take photographs,
draw pictures, or play educational games on the tablet.
3. Methodology and Results of Experimental Research
We applied survey research methodology based on the framework of GLOs developed by
the MLA. Our questionnaires included questions in the scaled-response format, a 5-point
Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Participants in this study
included Taiwanese elementary school students (98 female and 106 male) ages nine to
eleven. All participants answered a questionnaire following the completion of the
above-mentioned on-line learning activities as well as a 60-minute on-site exploration of the
“Life of Earth” exhibit. Data from the questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS 18.0. To
ensure both external and internal validity, questions in the survey were reviewed by a group
of experts in education and survey methodology. Based on a minimum coefficient criterion
of .50, five factors were identified. The KMO of factorial analysis was .902.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
The results demonstrate that the experience of the museum visitors fit the five GLOs, as
follows:
(1) Enjoyment, inspiration, and creativity: Most of the students reported that the activities
were fun, and felt inspired to create their own stories.
(2) Knowledge and understanding: The visitors gained knowledge regardless of whether or
not they had previous experience using tablet computers, indicating that the COBO
M-exploration Pack will be easy to implement for many general visitors.
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(3) Attitudes and values: The visitors felt free to express their feelings about their visits not
only in traditional speech or writing but also in drawings and other digital formats.
(4) Skills: During the learning activity, the children learned how to use tablet computers,
and found solutions to the tasks they were given by observing and comparing specimens in
the “Life on Earth” exhibit.
(5) Action, behavior, and progression: The children actively employed the skills they
learned to explore nearby exhibits.
This paper presented an innovative learning method to augment museum visits by linking
physical and virtual spaces. The visitors engaged in mobile education in two ways by a
pre-visit game-based learning website and on-site mobile exploration via the COBO
M-exploration Pack. The results also demonstrate that the five categories of GLOs can be
successfully adopted to evaluate mobile learning experiences in museums.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the National Science Council in Taiwan for financial
support of this research under Contract Number NSC100-2631-H-178-005.
References
Chiou, C. K., Tseng, Judy C. R., Hwang, G. J., & Heller, S. (2010). An adaptive navigation
support system for conducting context-aware ubiquitous learning in museums.
Computers & Education, 55(2), 834-845.
Chu, H. C., Hwang, G. J., Tsai, C. C., Tseng, C.R. (2010). A two-tier test approach to
developing location-aware mobile learning systems for natural science courses.
Computers & Education, 55(4), 1618–1627.
MLA (2008). Generic Learning Outcome. Retrieved from
http://www.inspiringlearningforall.gov.uk/toolstemplates/genericlearning/
92
Educators Making Mobile Apps in an Online

Course
Yu-Chang HSU & Yu-Hui CHING
Department of Educational Technology, Boise State University, U.S.A.
hsu@boisestate.edu
Abstract: This research explored how educators with limited programming experiences
learned to design mobile apps through peer support and instructor guidance. The findings of
the study showed that educators had positive experiences of mobile programming in an
online community as revealed from their perceptions about the course activities. Peer
support in the community had positive influences on educators’ learning experiences of
mobile app design. Both qualitative and quantitative data also showed educators have a
strong sense of community.
Keywords: Mobile app design; App Inventor; visual programming; online learning
community; application development
Introduction
The major affordances of mobile computing technologies for learning include user mobility
resulted from device portability, relative strong computing power in small devices,
always-on connectivity (Hsu & Ching, 2012), and the availability of various types and
easy-to-use mobile software applications (“mobile apps” hereafter). As relevant and
appropriate apps are not always available or freely accessible, empowering educators to
create their own mobile apps for teaching and learning is likely to lead to advantageous use
of mobile technology that benefits students’ learning. However, designing educational
mobile applications remains a challenge for educators who are often non-programmers
without pervious programming experiences and who may find learning programming
intimidating. Through this study, we aim to: 1) depict educators’ experiences of learning
mobile app design in an online course; 2) explore the practices and challenges in learning
mobile app programming online; 3) provide useful design suggestions for educators
interested in incorporating mobile app design in developing students’ creative
problem-solving through programming.
App Inventor (AI) is a web-based visual programming tool that allows users to develop
mobile apps running on Android devices. In general, visual programming tools enable
93
people to see and test what they build immediately after putting together the pieces of
different components. These tools also create a more enjoyable programming experience by
reducing the frustration of getting lost in textual codes and debugging since novices do not
need to remember exact textual codes (Turbak, Sandu, Kotsopoulos, Erdman, Davis, &
Chadha, 2012). Using AI, one can drag, drop, and arrange various interface components and
non-visible components, and behavior logic blocks to create fully functioning and useful
mobile apps (Hsu, Rice, & Dawley, 2012).
1. Methods
1.1 Context and Learning Environments
This study was implemented in a fully online graduate course on mobile app design in a
mid-size state university in the northwestern United States. The thirteen students enrolled in
this course are mostly educators, including K-12 teachers, school technology specialists,
and corporate personnel from education industries. This course used Moodle Learning
Management System for instruction and feedback, and a Google Site where students posted
their mobile app files and create QR (quick response) codes of their apps for review and
testing.
1.2 Research Design and Data Sources
This study applied a mixed-method design. The researchers collected both quantitative and
qualitative data to depict a picture of students’ mobile app design experiences in this online
course. A survey was implemented at the end of app design course (Week 16), which
collected students’ demographics information, perceptions toward sense of community
(Rovai, 2002), time on participation in class activities, perceptions toward learning
activities, and perceptions toward App Inventor as a tool to create mobile apps. Also,
students’ artifacts, which include customized practice apps and final project apps, were
examined to reveal their learning growth. In addition, students’ ten weeks of design journal
(blog) entries were analyzed to help triangulate and interpret their responses in the survey.
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2. Results and Discussions
2.1 Engagement in Mobile App Programming Activities
The majority of students (70%) spent between 2 to 4 hours each week creating practice apps
by following the tutorials in the textbook. Also, sixty percent of all students spent about 4
hours each week on customizing the practice apps. Most students (80%) spent one hour
reviewing peers’ apps each week. Sixty percent of students spent 4 to 5 hours developing
their app design proposals and the time spent on the final project apps varied to a great
extent, from 10 hours to more than 80 hours. Overall, time-on-task data shows that students
were engaged and immersed in the mobile app programming activities.
2.2 Positive Experiences of Learning Mobile Programming in an Online Course
Different aspects of positive mobile app design experiences emerged from students’
open-ended responses and design journal entries. They commented on the fun, potential,
and educational value of app design activities using App Inventor:
It was so much fun to be creative and imagine the possibilities of using a program like this
with students, and to develop apps for the classroom….What a great feeling to have a
completed, original app developed.
Students also commented on how their mobile programming experiences can transfer to
other programming contexts:
[it] influenced my understanding of logic and programming in other areas, especially in
Excel and MySQL statements and formulas.
Many students felt a sense of empowerment and achievement because they can handle a tool
that allows them to use their creativity and develop something that might not have existed
before. For example,
I feel more empowered by being able to develop an idea and actually make it real, and have
others run my app. There is a strong feeling of success. Also, knowing I now have the ability
to make something that may not exist yet is a great feeling.

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An examination of responses to the Sense of Community subscales (Rovai, 2002) shows
that participants mostly felt positive regarding their connectedness with their peers (M =
2.99; on a 4-point scale) and their learning in the community (M = 3.26; on a 4-point scale).
This finding echoes the positive impacts of peer support revealed from the qualitative data.
3. Conclusion
We found the students were overall positive about their experiences. They also appreciated
the rich peer support in the online learning community. In addition, they recognized the
great sense of empowerment and achievement for being able to use a programming tool to
create something useful and might not have existed before, or even use the tool or apps in
their own daily personal or professional settings. We hope the study presented here showed
a promising example of teaching non-programmers mobile app design in an online learning
environment supported by a helpful learning community.
References
Hsu, Y. -C., & Ching, Y. -H. (2012). Mobile microblogging: Using Twitter and mobile
devices in an online course to promote learning in authentic contexts. The International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(4), 211-227.
Hsu, Y. -C., Rice, K., & Dawley, L. (2012). Empowering educators with Google’s Android
App Inventor: An online workshop in mobile app design. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 43(1), E1-E5. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01241.x
Rovai, A. P. (2002). Development of an instrument to measure classroom community. The
Internet and Higher Education, 5, 197-211.
Turbak, F., Sandu, S., Kotsopoulos, O., Erdman, E., Davis, E., & Chadha, K. Blocks
languages for creating tangible artifacts. The proceedings of IEEE Symposium on
Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VLHCC 2012), September 30 -
October 4, 2012, Innsbruck, Austria. Retrieve from
http://cs.wellesley.edu/~fturbak/pubs/VLHCC-2012-paper-turbak.pdf.
96
Preliminary Investigation of Integrating Social

Community Website into Pervasive game for
Learning Local History
Jyun-Fong GUO*, Cheng-Ping CHEN, Ju-Ling SHIH & Chang-Hsin LIN

Department of Information and Learning Technology,
National University of Tainan, Taiwan
*zyi850103@hotmail.com
Abstract: The improving of mobile technology has turned m-learning into a new era by
integrating game mechanism to encourage team work and enhance learning motivation,
which is called pervasive game. It emphasizes on the combination of real world and virtual
world, with technology, culture, and game to make players to have more interactions with
the environment and technology. In this research, Tainan Historical Monuments are used to
be the activity sites of the game. In the structure of pervasive game, this research designed
group contests about territory defenses with question Q&A confrontations. The use of social
community website is to form group cooperation. Questionnaires are analyzed in
comparison of players’ gaming experience and information literacy to investigate the
influence and effectiveness of pervasive game in learning Tainan culture.
Keywords: Pervasive game, Collaborative Learning, Mobile Learning, Social Community

Website
1. Introduction
Compared with mobile learning, pervasive game emphasizes more on the interaction
between virtual and real world. We designed a game of exploring Tainan monuments. With
smart phones as assistance tools, we investigate and analyze players’ game experience
according to the interview, questionnaire, and output of the game finally.
Pervasive Game is a mobile learning style integrated with game mechanism to enhance
learners’ interaction with both virtual and real environments (Laine, Sedano, Joy, &
Sutinen, 2010). Walther (2005) gave a constructional framework that he called “four axes of
PG”. He illustrated the four axes as “Distribution”, “Mobility”, “Persistence” &
“Transmediality”. Gentes, Guyot-Mbodji, and Demeure (2010) raised an important issue

97
that local culture recognition should be one of the key goals for PG, especially IPG’s. They
suggested that for a cultural-rich PG, Collaborative contents, Team exploration and Cultural
narrative should be included. There is always first narrative that sufficiently describes the
culture of the city therefore game players are able to have a clear idea of the fashionable
places, the living or working areas, and the cultural spots.
3. Research Methods
This research aims to enhance students’ learning motivation to Tainan cultural monuments
using pervasive games. Besides understand students’ knowledge to cultural history and their
satisfaction about pervasive game, students are also place in the historical spots in the real
environments. The game rules are used to guide students’ investigation, and also used social
community website Facebook to share their knowledge and discoveries. The messages
about the game would make the game more exciting. Their discussions are evaluated
through the interactions with the real environment.
This research designs the pervasive game in technology, culture, and gameplay aspects.
Cultural history knowledge pretest and a survey about mobile tools and resources were
conducted. Then the students choose their own group members, and start the game. Group
scores are counted to determine the winner of the game. Last, posttest and questionnaire are
conducted to evaluate learning effectiveness.
The game chooses Tainan historical monuments such as Five Concubines Temple, Yenpin
Prefectural Temple, and Tainan Confucius Temple. According to the monument grade, the
host of the spots would get 4, 7, and 10 points respectively for the game score. On the
Facebook, every historic spot has a group space for discussion. All posts are monitored and
maintained by the game master to ensure the quality of the posts. Through questions and
answers, groups try to get the highest score to win the spots. The total score also assessed by
their level of participations.

98
4. Research Findings
Twenty-six students participated in this research. They are divided into A, B, C, and D four
working groups. Pretest and posttest scores were analyzed by paired t-tests, and found no
significant differences of all groups.
Cross-analysis of the statistics and focus group interviews, some reasons that caused the
insignificant improvement of the learning achievements were found. Technically, Group A
and D are more active in the discussion on the Facebook. More than half of the group
members in both groups have smart phones with 3G Internet access. In comparison, Group
B and C only have 2 people with the same technology. The Internet coverage between the
groups was uneven. Also, since the Internet uplink was shared between group members,
battery power of the Group B and C could not last until the end of the game. Their
participation in the discussions are much less than the other two groups.
Content wise, the quality of questions posted by the students on the board are uneven. They
would post questions about the number of rocks, colors of clothes of the statues, or missing
words on the trash bins that are unrelated to the cultural topics. Since other players disregard
meaningless or unrelated questions, they gradually lost motivations to continue playing the
game.
In terms of gaming strategies, some groups aimed to gain high scores that they only visited
the historical spots that reward high points. However, the distances of the spots were much
farther that they need to spend more time to get there. Therefore, other groups work the
other way around and chose locations that are closer to the start point.
Interviewing the students about their gaming strategies, they were all similar in teamwork.
Some members were responsible to making questions, and some members were responsible
for answering. All players agreed that teamwork is an important and necessary factor to the
game.
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5. Conclusion
Although the students’ learning achievement test scores did not improve significantly, their
interests to historical monuments and motivation to learn about the monuments were much
stronger when they explore the locations in pervasive games. With careful instructional
design, good game mechanism, as well as high quality learning content, pervasive game can
be a valuable learning model.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of China,
under NSC 100-2628-S-024 -002 -MY3 and NSC 101-2511-S-024 -009 -MY3.
References
Gentes, A., Guyot-Mbodji, A., & Demeure, I. (2010). Gaming on the move: urban
experience as a new paradigm for mobile Pervasive game design. Multimedia Systems,
16(1), 43-55. doi: 10.1007/s00530-009-0172-2
Laine, T. H., Sedano, C. A. I., Joy, M., & Sutinen, E. (2010). Critical Factors for
Technology Integration in Game-Based Pervasive Learning Spaces. Ieee Transactions
on Learning Technologies, 3(4), 294-306. doi: 10.1109/tlt.2010.16
Walther, B. K. (2005). Notes on the methodology of pervasive gaming. In F. Kishino, Y.
Kitamura, H. Kato & N. Nagata (eds.), Entertainment Computing - Ichc 3711, 388-495.
100
A Holistic Point of View in U-learning: An

Initial Review
Leonor A. CÁRDENAS-R.a* & Alejandro PEÑA-AYALAb

a
Esime-Zacatenco, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México
b
Esime-Zacatenco, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México
*adriposgrado@gmail.com
Abstract: This document presents a partial review of related works about holistic
viewpoints within the context of Ubiquitous Learning. The holistic approach in different
domain of knowledge has become useful specially to tackle problems that require emphasize
them as a whole. Ubiquitous learning involves diverse aspects such as teaching-learning
process, physical devices and technology, people, knowledge, etc. Therefore a holistic
approach seems to meet the challenge.
Keywords: Ubiquitous learning, ubiquitous learning model, holistic approach.
Introduction
Nowadays users employ a considerable amount of time in communication, entertainment
and information search, using devices such as intelligent telephones, ultra-laptops, tablets or
interactive devices. This time can be seized to exploit these technologies for educational
purposes in order to acquire knowledge about certain topic or theme of interest.
In addition, u-learning has become a trend topic in research. Hsu et al. (2012) have found
that “…the more recent technology based learning researchers were inclined to focus on
personalized learning experiences by integrating the latest innovations into pedagogical
practices (e.g. game-based learning, m-learning, and u-learning)…”.
Moreover, modern society and the advances in technology have become so complex that the
traditional means of solving problems are not enough. Hence, it is necessary to take a
perspective from systems science or a holistic approach in an interdisciplinary manner
(Bertalanffy, 1976).
This review is oriented to explore u-learning environments/models based on a holistic point
of view. The document is organized as follows: In section 1 a general explanation of the
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holistic point of view is given. In section 2, several related works are presented. Finally, the
conclusions and future work are outlined.
1. Holistic Point of View
Holism highlights the importance of the whole, the behavior of a system as a whole is
different from the addition of its parts. A definition of holism states as follows:
The theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they
cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be understood without
reference to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts
(Holism, n.d.).
Learning is a holistic process of adaptation involving person-thinking, feeling, perceiving
and behaving according to Experiential Learning Theory. Kolb and Kolb (2008) stated that
“…the holistic nature of the learning process means that it operates at all levels of human
society from the individual, to the group, to organizations and to society as a whole” (p. 4).
2. Related Work
In this section, works present a holistic viewpoint within u-learning context. Systems
science is an approach that tackles a problem from the perspective of several domains of
knowledge. In this context Brevern and Synytsya (2005) introduced a Systemic-Structural
Theory of Activity (SSTA) with a holistic standpoint by means of teaching-learning
technology. The SSTA offers ways to integrate holistic, conceptual, strategic, semantic,
heuristic, algorithmic, logic and computational points of view of teaching learning activity.
Glavinic, Ljubic, and Kukee (2008) have proposed a holistic approach to personalize the
mobile human-computer interaction, supporting and improving usability in e-learning
systems. They analyzed the possibilities of e-learning concerning to mobiles devices
capabilities, student knowledge level and interaction style and skills.

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An introduction of a holistic notion and a model of a ubiquitous learning environment are
presented by Zhan and Yuan (2009). This learning model with a holistic perspective
includes five key components: physical environment, informational environment,
technological environment, interactive environment and learning community.
Ktorido and Eteokleous (2005) emphasize the importance of being proactive and apply a
systemic, holistic approach to mobile technology integration. They have suggested that a
systemic approach to an innovation implies the involvement and participation of different
parties such as educators, students, engineers and computer scientists.
In addition, it is essential to consider aspects related to context-aware in a U-learning
environment. Hwang, Tsai, and Yang (2008) have taken into account situation parameters to
propose twelve context-aware u-learning models. The models are useful to conduct learning
activities and to assess the learning performance in real-world and online behaviors.
Conclusion
This paper presents a small sample of works based on a holistic point of view. A holistic
perspective is a suitable approach to support and provide a framework for building
educational ubiquitous systems. As future work an extensive review of literature must be
conducted to obtain a wider landscape. The aforesaid serves as a basis for the development
of an intelligent and adaptive ubiquitous learning model. This model will comprise a holistic
approach oriented to deliver personalized teaching-learning services and content.
References
Bertalanffy, L. (1976). Teorí

a general de los sistemas: Fundamentos, desarrollo y
aplicaciones. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
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Brevern, H., & Synytsya, K. (2005). Systemic-structural theory of activity: A model for
holistic learning technology systems. Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International
Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT’05). 745-749.
Glavinic, V., Ljubic, S., & Kukee M. (2008). A holistic approach to enhance universal
usability in m-learning. The Second International Conference on Mobile Ubiquitous
Computing, Systems, Services and Technologies. IEEE. 305-310.
Holism. (n.d). In Oxford Online Dictionary. Retrieved from
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holism
Hsu, Y.-C., Ho, H. N. J., Tsai, C.-C., Hwang, G.-J., Chu, H.-C., Wang, C.-Y., & Chen, N.-S.
(2012). Research trends in technology-based learning from 2000 to 2009: a content
analysis of publications in selected journals. Educational Technology & Society, 15 (2),
354–370.
Hwang, G. J., Tsai, C. C., & Yang, S. J. H. (2008). Criteria, Strategies and Research Issues
of Context-Aware Ubiquitous Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (2),
81-91.
Kolb, Y., & Kolb, D. (2008). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to
management learning, education and development. Armstrong, S.J., & Fukami, C.
(Eds.) Handbook of Management Learning, Education and Development. London:
Sage Publications.
Ktorido, D., & Eteokleous, N. (2005). Adaptive m-learning: technological and pedagogical
aspects to be considered in Cyprus tertiary education. Recent Research Developments
in Learning Technologies. In proceedings of Formatex 2005, pp. 676-683.
Zhan, Q., & Yuan, M. (2009). The design of a ubiquitous learning environment from the
holistic view. Proceeding of The International Conference on Networking and Digital
Society. IEEE. 53-56. doi: 10.1109/ICNDS.2009.20
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Design of a Ubiquitous Travel-English

Learning System for Middle-aged People for
Use on Small-screen Displays
Yea-Lih CHIANGa, Chia-yun WUb & Hong-Ren CHENb*

a
Department of Operation, Visitor Service, Collection and Information Management,
b
Department of Digital Content and Technology, National Taichung University of
Education, Taiwan
*hrchen@mail.ntcu.edu.tw
Abstract: As technology has advanced, products have shrunk in size even as their functions
have become more diverse, and issues of interface design for users of small screens have
become more important. In this technological era with an aging population, it has become
necessary for older people to learn new things to adapt to new lifestyles, thus avoiding social
exclusion and enabling full enjoyment of their retirement. This study implemented a
ubiquitous travel-English learning system for middle-aged people for use on small-screen
displays, which provided different three learning interfaces (matrix, tree, and middle-aged
interfaces). Middle-aged learners are able to achieve their learning goals by accessing the
ubiquitous learning environment through an adaptive learning interface. The ubiquitous
travel English learning system developed by this study is accepted by middle-aged people.
Keywords: travel English learning, ubiquitous learning, small-screen displays
1. Introduction
Cell phones are a new tool that can be used in learning, and an important issue is whether the
design of the user interface of small screens can satisfy learning demands. Current cell
phone user-interface design is usually directed toward general users. Studies have shown
that when older people use new technology, they not only have cognitive processing
difficulties but they also tend to have problems operating the equipment (Zajicek, 2001). It
is therefore essential to consider the interface design of small screens and their use in
ubiquitous learning and to take older users into account. In this day of technological
advances and with the advent of an aging population, lifelong learning and mobile
technology should be combined to help older people to use mobile devices to continue
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learning during their retirement and thereby increase their sense of self-worth. The purpose
of this study was to construct a ubiquitous learning system for learning travel English that is
aimed primarily at middle-aged people
2. Design of a Ubiquitous Travel-English Learning System for Middle-aged People
Within the context of a ubiquitous learning environment, this study constructs a
travel-English learning system suited to the learning needs of older people, with a system
framework as shown in Figure 1. The function menus and guidance information for the
system are all displayed in English and Chinese, making it easier for users to learn and
operate. The main system functions are divided into two sections: the learner section and the
page-management section. The learner section provides three types of learning menu
interfaces: the matrix interface, the tree interface, and the learning interface for the older
user. It uses a wireless network for data transmission of learning content with a webpage
management section. The webpage management section transmits the travel-English
learning materials back to the learner’s handheld device via a wireless network. These are
stored in databases and are transmitted according to the needs of the learner.
Figure 1. The framework of the ubiquitous travel-English learning system suited to the
learning needs of middle-age people
A common problem among older users is that they become confused by the function menus
when using handheld devices for learning, which means that they tend to be unable to find
106
the functions they need. Therefore, this paper describes the design of a learning interface for
middle-aged people based on past literature and suggests improvements to the matrix and
tree interfaces that avoid common problems (Fowler & Stanwick, 1995; Kurniawan, 2008;
Väyrynen, Törmänen, Tornberg, & Prykäri, 2001; Ziefle & Bay, 2006). For the learning
content, combined icon-style menus and tag-style menus are used for content management.
At the top of the screen, tags are used to display the current learning topic and other topics
available in the same unit so that the learner can switch between learning topics at any time.
In the top left corner of the screen is a button that allows the user to return to the home
screen, and a help button is located at the bottom left. The middle of the screen is dedicated
to the instructional material, and the learner can use the icon buttons on the left to switch
between the learning items, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Design of mixed interface for middle-aged learners
4. Conclusion
With the trend of global aging societies and the development of functions of mobile devices,
when facing the applications of new technological products, suitable learning interface
design can lower the difficulties and obstacles in operation by middle-aged people, who can
then focus on learning. This study focused on middle-aged users to develop a ubiquitous
travel English learning system, and provided a middle-aged learning interface for using
handheld devices for ubiquitous learning, which is used to explore the effect of different
learning interfaces in the ubiquitous travel English learning system on the travel English
learning perceptions of middle-aged users.

107
References
Fowler, S. & Stanwick, V. (1995). The GUI Style Guide. Chestnut Hill, MA: Academic
Press Professional.
Kurniawan, Sri (2008). Older people and mobile phones: A multi-method investigation.
International Journal of Human-computer Studies, 66(12), 889-901.
Väyrynen, S., Törmänen, M., Tornberg, V., & Prykäri, T. (2001). User interface and other
features of a videotelephone set aimed at the elderly – A pilot assessment of depth and
breadth trade-off of screen menus. Usability Evaluation and Interface Design:
Cognitive Engineering, Intelligent Agents and Virtual Reality, 1, 1217-1221.
Zajicek, M. (2004). Successful and available: Interface design exemplars for older user.
Interacting with Computers, 16(3), 411-430.
Ziefle, M. & Bay, S. (2006). How to overcome disorientation in mobile phone menus: A
comparison of two different types of navigation aids. Human-Computer Interaction,
21(4), 393-432.
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Mobile Learning Activities Design based on

Conceptual Learning
Wei-en CHOUa, Chin-Yun LINa,Wan-Chun LEEa,

Fei-Chun CHENGa,Yuan-Chen LIUa & Te-Yu WANGb
a
Dept. Computer Science, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
b
Ren-Ai Elementary School, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
*s8409303@hotmail.com
Abstract: The study aims to examine how digital learning activities based on conceptual
learning would affect the fifth grader’s learning yield to the “Campus Vegetation” unit in
primary school, through which to analyze the student’s conceptual changes, and to examine
the students’ attitude toward digital learning activities that would serve as references in
developing digital learning activities. The study shows that the experiment group’s
learning yield is ominous superior than that of the control group.
Keywords: Guidelines, formatting instructions, author's kit, conference publications
Introduction
The purpose of the present study is to use conceptual learning as a foundation in order to
explore the impact of designing of digital learning activities on primary schools’ “campus
vegetation conceptual learning” learning. Meantime, researchers try to understand
students’ learning process when using information internet technology as an auxiliary
learning tool and their vegetation conception and knowledge in campuses. Third, the study
tries to explore the possibilities of using e-learning websites to help with science teaching in
primary schools.
1. Results
1.1 Resulting Performance of Learning Achievement
The study adopts its self-edit achievement test to check learning performance of the students
of the e-learning team while they receive campus vegetation e-learning teaching.
a. Pre-test Performance of Achievement Test

109
The study divides e-learning of receiving “campus vegetation” teaching into two: one is an
experimental group of 26 persons; the other is a contrast group of 29 persons. The result of
t-test for independent samples doesn’t reach the standard significance level.
b. Post-test Performance of Achievement Test
It is found that after the experimental group’s students and the contrast group’s underwent a
t-test for independent samples. There is an obvious difference in the learning performance
of post-test scores between the experimental group’s students and the contrast group’s
students. The resulting performances between male students and female are different.
1.2 Students’ General Performance in Learning Achievement
According to the study results, it is observed that the experimental group’s students have
obvious improvement in an aspect of learning achievement after receiving “campus
vegetation unit” teaching. It is found that the result of male students’ pretest also reaches
significance.
Generally speaking, it is observed that the experimental group’s students have obvious
improvement in an aspect of learning achievement after receiving “campus vegetation unit”
teaching. It is also found that both male and female students have obvious improvement in
an aspect of learning achievement after receiving “campus vegetation unit” E-teaching.
References
Dam, N. V. (2004). The e-learning fieldbook: implementation lessons and case studies from
companies that are making e-learning work. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, c2004.
Xu, Xin-yi (2004). “Discussion on E-Learning Knowledge Types and Messages Design” in
Education Research, 125, 5-16. Li, Xi-jin (2002). “Education Reformation and
Teaching Innovation” in Association of Teachers, 121, 4～70.
110
Track 3: Transforming the Classrooms:
Innovative Digital Game-based Learning
Designs and Applications
Digital Adventure Education Game for

Cooperative Learning
Chang-Hsin LIN*, Yu-Jen HSU, Ju-Ling SHIH & Jyun-Fong GUO
Department of Information and Learning Technology,
arthur1379@hotmail.com
Abstract: Adventure education has been practiced for a long time, but sometimes the effect
of cooperative learning are reduced due to practical limitations. This research attempts to
design a digital game with the integration of the five elements of cooperative learning and
team development factors of adventure education. Digital games can help to record the
gaming processes which are not easily done in traditional activities. The gaming records are
analyzed to understand the development of teams, and to guide students to make reflections.
Questionnaire is also designed to explore the effectiveness of cooperative learning in digital
adventure education game.
Keywords: Digital Game, Adventure Education, Cooperative Learning, Interpersonal

Interaction
1. Introduction
Adventure education is an activity that emphasizes learning by experiencing. It can cultivate
the students’ self-confidence, the interaction of interpersonal relationship, and development
of mind. The activities are often designed with rules to limit participants’ communication,
but sometimes the situation would go out of control and the effect of game would be
decreased. The guidance teacher would guide the participants to reflect on the
problem-solving process to reveal the theme of the activities. The observation duty of the
guidance teacher is heavy since one teacher would probably lead to up to thirty participants.
Key actions, communication processes, or events need to be recorded in a short time.
Consequently, this research attempts to use digital games to solve the problems, and in the
meantime to integrate the five elements of cooperative learning and team development
factors of adventure education to ensure the games’ effectiveness. With digital games, not
only students can enjoy and experience the content of adventure education, teachers can
111
operate the activities more efficiently. The gaming records can be used to guide students’
reflections, and for the teachers to conduct further reviews of team developments.
2.1 Adventure Education
Adventure education is a kind of group activities which consisted of adventure and
challenge. It was originated from Outward Bound School in American and Europe, and was
started in the field activities of boy-scout courses. In 1970, Jerry Pieh and Gary Baker used
many kinds of easy and portable tools in their “project adventure” course, and made outdoor
activities possible to be integrated into general courses for the students to learn team work,
communication, leadership, and self-introspection (Dick Prouty, 1990).
Bruce Tuckman (1965) mentioned that team development had four stages: Forming,
Storming, Norming, and Performing. A team starts out from the gathering of many
individuals. In the team-building process, the members would have various conflicts such as
values, cognition, attitude, and so forth. The conflicts would resolve when members
communicate, accommodate, coordinate, and cooperate. Members learn to interact with
each other and form common goals. To a point, members would lack dynamics, and it is
time for the guidance teacher to provide initiatives and give encouragements. In every stage
of team development, the role of guidance teacher change (Figure 1).
(a). Forming: Everyone feels strange for everything, and does not know his role in team.
Members finish work alone, and get to know other members through activities.
(b). Storming: Members start to find the patterns of the team. Everyone would have different
opinions. When disagreements occur, members learn to accept suggestions. They might
want to use power to control or affect others.
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(c). Norming: Members start to understand the goals of the team, and can cooperate to finish
tasks. Individuals can accept suggestions, would change, and make adjustments. The team
members start to have tacit agreements, and know their roles in the team.
(d). Performing: Members have great interaction and social skills. They esteem team’s
goals, have ideal expectations, and respond to situations actively.
Forming Storming Norming Performing
Figure 1.The flowcharting of team development
2.2 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a systematic teaching strategy. In the teaching environment,
teachers have to guide the group to cooperate with each other and reach the common goal. It
emphasizes members’ self-responsibilities and interdependences. It takes
self-achievements, authorities, resources, and reciprocal rewards. With five elements,
cooperative learning can help to increase members’ learning motivations and learning
effects (Johnson & Johnson, 1994):
(a). Positive Interdependence: The team is a community. Successes depend on team
achievements. If teams fail, so does every member. Team members should strive to finish
the goals together.
(b). Individual Accountability: Team success was built on the performance of every
member. Every member need to be responsible for learning.
(c) Face-to-face Interaction: Team members have face-to-face interactions, group
discussions, help each other, exchange information, and give encouragements to each other.
(d). Interpersonal and Group Skills: Team members need to learn social interaction and
communication skills so that they know how to share and adopt in the interpersonal
interactions.
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(e). Group Process: Groups must review their team conditions regularly to analyze the
reason for failure, and discuss for improvement strategies.
Overall, effective cooperative learning is based on active heterogeneous group. Members
observe, interact, and learn from each other. Through individual effort and support from
each other, the group can exert the most effective achievements.
3. Research Methods
The research was evaluated by pre-test and post-test of both experimental group and control
group. The experimental group used digital games for the adventure education activities,
and the control group took the traditional activities in person. Both were led by the guidance
teachers who are certified by the Asia Association for Experiential Education. The guidance
teachers used different means for the reflection sessions. Then the post-test questionnaire
was collected after the adventure education activities.
Figure 2.Research Process
The content of research questionnaires includes participants’ opinions regarding the design
issues and user satisfaction of the game. Also, the five elements of cooperative learning
integrated in the design of the game are investigated. The effectiveness of the quality of
adventure education and the differences between traditional activities and digital game
activities are analyzed.
114
4. Adventure Education Activity Design
4.1 Activity Design with Team Development Stages
This research selected four adventure education activities from up to a hundred activities
(e.g. Hsieh, Wang, Chuang, 2008; Kuo, Liao, Shih, 2009) to be transformed into digital
games. The selection criteria are mainly based on the four stages of team development of
adventure education.
(a). Forming: Polar Bear and Hole (Figure 3) is chosen as the warm-up activity to allow
team members to share and express opinions and get to know the differences and values
between each other. It is an ice-breaking activity which requires participants to use logical
thinking to reason out the answers of the puzzle. It allows team members to establish
relationships and manage group knowledge in the process.
(b). Storming: Cooperation Puzzle (Figure 4) is chosen to build the team trust by enhancing
empathy to others. The activity forbids verbal communications between members. The goal
is to collaborately put up five equal-size squares with the puzzle pieces owned by each
player. One can only give out puzzle piece and cannot ask from others. Therefore, all
members need to pay attention to the needs of others, discover the values of giving and
sharing, and adjust their personal goals to fulfill the common goal.
(c). Norming: Moon Ball (Figure 5) is chosen to enhance the communication between team
members. All five members join the game, and the goal of the game is to prevent the ball
falling to the ground until reaching the targeted scores within the time frame. Everyone has
to participate the ball playing without making conversations. Scores will be recounted when
the ball falls onto the floor. The process requires the team to generate leaders, and others
need to comply as a team.
(d). Performing: Group Balance (Figure 6) is chosen to create the peak experience of the
team. Three members participate the game as one balance the board and the other two push
115
the board on two sides to move the board to a higher point until reaching the goal. It requires
full communications, observations, discussion of strategies, and offer supports to others.
All four games are developed by Unity3D because it has quality 3D graphics, complete
systems, which can generate very decent simulations. It has Graphical User Interface that
has high degree of production freedom. It supports many kinds of media format, and can be
published to various platforms, such as smart phones, tablets, laptops, and desktop
computers.
Figure 3.Polar Bear and Hole Figure 4.Cooperation Puzzle
Figure 5.Moon Ball Figure 6.Group Balance
4.2 Activity Design with Cooperative Learning Elements
(a). Positive Interdependence: All the games require all members in the team to work
together and to cooperate with each other to finish. In Cooperation Puzzle, all five members
need to complete their own squares; in Moon Ball, all five members need to take turns to
play ball and prevent its falling. Everyone has to take his or her own responsibility, and
116
complement to each other. They are interdependent to each other as they all play different
roles and take up a different part of the task.
(b). Individual Accountability: All the games require close team works that depend on
individual endeavors. In Group Balance, there should be somebody gives commands,
somebody make controls, and somebody offer labors. Everyone needs to make
contributions to move the game forward.
(c). Face-to-face Interaction: All the games require a lot of communications to complete,
verbally or nonverbally. At the reflection sessions after the game, everyone has to contribute
their thoughts, understand the strengths and weaknesses of team members, so that they can
hold up a well-rounded team.
(d). Interpersonal and Group Skills: All the games require appropriate strategies to complete.
Through communications, members need to trust each other, rationally exchange thoughts,
coordinate with each other with good social skills.
(e). Group Process: All the games have post-game reflections in which participants would
review their own roles in the team, their inadequacies, and team work strategies. Through
discussions, team cooperation would improve, and mistakes minimized.
5. Conclusion
The game developed in this research is different from many commercial games since it
emphasizes more on the learning purposes, and potent to create ability transfer and cultivate
cooperation skills. The design of the game environment is new and attractive that avoids the
participants to have stereotypes to boring learning games.
Based on theories and traditional adventure education principles, this research developed a
series of digital games. Not only participants can play the game in safe environments, they
learn cooperation and communication strategies from the games. Guidance teachers can
more accurately control the game rules and monitor processes, at the same time document
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participants’ behaviors and responses to problems. At the end, constructive and meaningful
reflections can be offered according to system records. Digital games are proved to be
useful to be standalone and supplement tools for adventure education.
Acknowledgements
under NSC 100-2628-S-024 -002 -MY3 and NSC 101-2511-S-024 -009 -MY3.
References
Hsieh, C. M., Wang, J. Y., Chuang, H. W. (2008). Experiential education-learning from
150 games. Taiwan, Taoyuan: AAEE
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Holubec, E. J., & Roy, P. (1984). Circles of learning.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Kuo, T. Y., Laio, S. H., Shih, H. Y. (2009). Experiential education: theory and practice.
Taiwan, Taichung: Far Du
Prouty, D. (1990). Project Adventure: A brief history. State College, PA: Venture.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin,
63, 384-399.
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Characterizing the Design Process of a

Game-based Learning Program: A
Design-based Research Approach
Mingfong JAN* & Ek Ming TAN

Learning Sciences Lab, NIE, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
*mingfongjan@gmail.com
Abstract: This paper unpacks the design process framed by a design-based research (DBR)
approach. Using a qualitative case study approach, we delineate the design process of a
game-based learning (GBL) program for science inquiry. Our findings suggest that the
design process involves three key design components: (1) alignment of the major learning
constructs, (2) mapping affordances of ICT tools with learning constructs, and (3) reframing
the concept of knowing. Researchers who wish to design games or ICT tools informed by
learning theories may benefit from our articulation about the design process.
Keywords: game-based learning; design-based research; design process; DBR
Introduction
How may we design game-based learning (GBL) programs based on learning theories? This
inquiry question motivates us to unpack the design process of a GBL program for science
inquiry. Specifically, we delineate how the design can be achieved via a design-based
research (DBR) approach (Barab & Squire, 2004). In the following, we review how DBR
conceptualizes design and articulate why it is critical to unpack the design processes in order
to advance DBR as a research methodology. We conduct a qualitative case study (Stake,
2005) to unpack the design process of a GBL program.
1. Design in design-based research: A Critical Review
1.1 Design-based Research
In designing a GBL program for science inquiry, our approach is informed by a design
oriented research methodology often named as design-based research or DBR (Barab &
119
Squire, 2004). Jan (2009) synthesizes DBR as consisting of the following characteristics:
(1) the design is informed by theoretical constructs of learning; (2) DBR researchers
orchestrate authentic learning contexts in order to reform or transform the status quo of
learning; (3) DBR researchers study learning in situ rather than in a controlled environment
(4) DBR develop context-laden design theories, pedagogies and learning tools via iterative
design cycles.
1.2 The Role of Design in Design-based Research
What differentiates the design in a DBR from many other design-related frameworks may
be its commitment to conduct theory-informed designs. It ensures that the design of ICT
tools or learning programs is informed by deep understanding of learning. In the past two
decades, researchers have designed and reported the results of many theory-informed design
cases (e.g., Jan, Chee, & Tan, 2010). However, most researches report the learning
processes and outcomes rather than the design process. In order to advance DBR as a
rigorous methodology, characterizing the design process is an indispensable step.
1.3 Designs Process in a Design-based Research:
Pioneer researchers mostly attempt to theorize the role of design in DBR (e.g., Edelson,
2002), and few have tackled the design process. diSessa and Cobb (2004) provide one of the
more compelling arguments about how four kinds of theories may inform design. Grand
theories (e.g., constructivism) inform design at the epistemological and ontological level;
therefore they are often too abstract to inform concrete design decisions. Orienting
frameworks, (e.g., constructivist theory) pinpoints more concrete design directions.
However, they do not inform pedagogical strategies. Frameworks for action refer to those
prescribed pedagogical strategies such as “fostering a community of learners” (Brown,
1997), but oftentimes there is a lack of theoretical clarity. We argue that they are also
120
limited in informing the design of innovative tools, such as games, for learning.
Domain-specific instructional theories are theories that explicate the concepts of a
disciplinary idea and the means for supporting them. Such theories are most applicable to
DBR because they provide specific means for taking design actions.
diSessa and Cobb (2004) provide a useful but limited framework for design. Identifying and
applying learning constructs is essential, but only partial to the design process. There is a
need to identify and characterize key design components beyond identifying the learning
constructs. To unpack the design process, we conduct a case study that involves the design
of a GBL program for science inquiry. In unpacking the design process that lasted more than
eighteen months, our research questions are: (1) what constitute the major design
components in designing a GBL program for science inquiry with a DBR approach and (2)
how may the design process be characterized?
2. Research Methodology
A qualitative case-study approach (Stake, 1995) enables us to gain a holistic view of the
design process while remaining responsive to emerging themes. A team of researchers and
game designers are involved in a project that designs a role-playing computer game and
activities for science inquiry. Two lead researchers have been involved in more than eight
DBR projects, most of them pertinent to designing games for learning.
We follow an open-coding approach informed by grounded theory to code the following
data: (1) major design documents such as design narratives; (2) game development products
at different stages, and (3) a reflective account of the design process among key project
members, especially the game designer and the two researchers. They enable us to
reconstruct a design process shared by the design team. We pay specific attentions to key
design decisions as they communicate backwards to our beliefs and theoretical constructs,
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and forwards to concrete design features in the game and activities. Afterwards, we identify
the major design challenges and how they might be better tackled.
3. Findings: The game-based learning program and its design process
3.1 The Product: An 8-session science inquiry program and a 6-level role-playing game
We have designed an 8-session science inquiry program with a six-level role-playing game
for Secondary Two students (eighth graders) science inquiry (Jan, Chee & Tan, 2010). In
the learning program, students role-play as junior scientists who face six challenges
presented via the role-playing game. A typical class session would include the following
steps: (1) a briefing from the teacher as an opening, (2) game play session for about 30
minutes, (3) post-game discussion among the team members, and (4) a whole-class
discussion about the in-game challenges. In a typical 30-minute game play session (step 2),
students, now role-playing as a team of three science apprentices, face an in-game challenge
(such as the need to break a door made of unknown substances) at the beginning of the level.
To solve the in-game challenge, students must identify the causes of the problem, attempt to
solve the problem by conducting experiments in an in-game virtual lab, and test their
hypotheses (such as using the substances produced in the virtual lab to break the door) until
the challenge is resolved. In a nutshell, the learning program is designed as six levels of
mini-inquiry cycles driven by the role-playing game.
3.2 The Process: Major design challenges that emerge in the design process
3.2.1. Conceptualizing theoretical constructs for learning with games

The belief that learning should be driven by learner-centered inquiries instead of content
mastery guides this design research. We believe a learning process simultaneously engage a
learner at epistemological, ontological, methodological and ideological levels. The
challenge of bringing in this belief system into design is that they are hard to boil down to
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concrete design features in the learning program composed of a game and learning
activities. Shaffer’s (2006) SKIVE (skill, knowledge, identity, value and epistemology)
model provides a bridge from our beliefs and values to concrete design directions. However,
issues such as how contents can be presented for inquiry remain uncharted.
3.2.2. From designing content to designing context

In a science curriculum framed by content mastery, students learn to master the ready-made
scientific content constructed by scientists rather than involving in inquiry, or
science-in-the-making processes. There is a rich history on how to design science learning
as content delivery, and in recent years lessons about designing inquiry (e.g., White &
Frederiksen, 1998) have increased, but methods regarding how the affordances of video
games can be leveraged to design science inquiry are inadequate. Making the design even
more challenging is how we may infuse our beliefs about learning through the design of the
game and activities. White and Frederikson’s (1998) research on inquiry process provides a
high-level heuristic for design, and is pertinent to how we enact our beliefs and values in the
design. However, how we may redirect ready-made science contents (as documented in
textbooks) as a science-in-the-making process with a digital game remains a critical
challenge. In a way, our design can only be partially informed by a cluster of
domain-specific instructional theories related to science inquiry. We decided to design the
role-playing game to engage players in iterative in-game inquiry cycles: generating
questions, proposing hypotheses, conducting investigations and evaluating performance.
The decision, however, does not directly address questions regarding the role of learning
from or without ready-made science content.
3.2.3 Mapping theoretical constructs and game design features into a game and learning
activities
The third major challenge pertains to how learning constructs and tools (e.g., video games)
can be interwoven into designing learning tools (e.g., learning games). In framing this
design challenge we ask how epistemologically authentic inquiry experience can be
123
constructed with a role-playing game and activities? Questions regarding how the
affordances of digital games, such as role-playing, award system, and challenges, can be
utilized to inform our learning beliefs emerge. The Saving Lake Wingra role-playing
program and situated argumentation design framework (Jan, 2009) provide the major design
inspiration for our design questions. Drawing on Jan (2009), we conceive (1) role-playing as
a way to shift classroom discourse patterns, (2) in-game and out-of-game challenge as a
mechanism for fostering epistemologically authentic inquiry.
4. Discussion: Critical considerations about the design process
The following themes emerge as the major design components/challenges in the design
process: (1) alignment of the major learning constructs, (2) mapping affordances of ICT
tools with learning constructs, and (3) reframing the concept of knowing.
4.1 Alignment of the major learning constructs
In our study, higher-level theories, such as grand theories and orienting frameworks, do not
inform the design directly, but they help the researchers to examine the epistemological
alignment among different levels of theoretical constructs and the outcome of
design—games and activities. Lower-level theories, such as domain-specific instructional
theories, may inform the design more directly, but there is a risk of causing “lethal
mutations” without a firm grasp at the grand theory level. We maintain that identifying the
epistemological and ontological commitments of the research team constitutes the first step
in the design process. From there, the research team converses for theoretical support at
each level of design and theoretical alignment.
4.2 Mapping affordances of ICT tools with learning constructs
In designing ICT tools (e.g., games) for learning, researchers often highlight the importance
of design affordances (Gibson, 1977). Affordances, however, are not neutral to learning as
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the affordances and constraints of a tool may be social, cognitive, or cultural. As the
researchers identify the theoretical constructs for design, there is a need to also consider
how the affordances of the chosen technology may be leveraged to foster the desired
learning process and outcome. For example, when drawing on Gee’s (2003) GBL design
principles, the learning program designer must consider how the chosen design principles
match the proposed learning constructs. In this case, mapping game design features with
multiple levels of learning constructs is the most challenging part of design. This is one of
the critical research areas that require further investigation.
4.3 Reframing the concept of knowing
In designing a science inquiry program, there is a need to go beyond a traditional framing of
science learning—content mastery. Knowing content and knowing how to inquire in the
domain of science are two different skill sets that require different tools and activities. We
foreground the design of inquiry context—a radical shift from designing content. Such
reframing requires the designers to reconsider the underlying epistemology of tools and
activities being designed into the learning context.
5. Conclusion and implications
In this paper, we characterize the design process in a GBL program designed with a DBR
approach. We maintain that the design process involves three key design components: (1)
alignment of the major learning constructs, (2) mapping affordances of ICT tools with
learning constructs and (3) reframing the concept of knowing. We argue it is critical to
identify these key design components at the inception stage because a misleading direction
may lead to the point of no return in a project’s life cycle. Due to the limitation of length, we
have purposefully bypassed the sociocultural aspects of design as well as a more
comprehensive discussion, which will be elaborated later via a journal paper.

125
References
Barab, S.A. & Squire, K.D. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground.
Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14.
Brown, A. L. (1997). Transforming schools into communities of thinking and learning about
serious matters. American Psychologist, 52(4), 399–413.
diSessa, A. A., & Cobb, P. (2004). Ontological innovation and the role of theory in design
experiments. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 77-103.
Edelson, D.C. (2002). Design research: What we learn when we engage in design. Journal
of the Learning Sciences, 11(1), 105-121.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy? New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gibson, J.J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (eds.), Perceiving,
Acting and Knowing. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jan, M. (2009). Designing an augmented reality game-based curriculum for argumentation.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Jan, M., Chee, Y. S., & Tan, E. M. (2010). Learning science via a science-in-the-making
process: The design of a game-based learning curriculum. In S. Martin (Ed.), iVERG
2010 Proceedings (pp. 13–25). Stockton: Iverg Publishing.
Shaffer, D. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R. (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making
science accessible to all students. Cognition and instruction, 16(1), 3-118.
126
Learner Attitudes towards an English

Learning Multiplayer Online Role-playing
Game
Jie Chi YANG & Hui Fen HSU
Center for Science and Technology for Learning, National Central University, Taiwan
yang@cl.ncu.edu.tw, hfh205@yahoo.com.tw
Abstract: Playing massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) has

increasingly become a typical activity among young people. A new interest of applying
MMORPGs into language learning has emerged. Claims have been made that MMORPGs
could promote learners’ learning motivation, which is the key for any learning to take place,
particularly for learning a foreign language. Although studies have pointed out the inherent
potential of foreign language learning in digital gaming, empirical studies focused on
learner attitudes, particularly on young learners, are limited. In this vein, this study
developed an English learning online role-playing game, and conducted an experimental
study of 55 aged 12 sixth-grade students using this game to investigate learner attitudes
towards the system in relation to their English levels. By analyzing the data collected from a
questionnaire and interviews, it was found that the learners expressed an overall positive
user experience even though the low-English-level learners experienced a higher level of
anxiety than the high-English-level learners. The findings suggest that the system can
succeed in promoting learners’ positive attitudes towards learning English in an MMORPG
context, which may lead to effective learning.
Keywords: English language learning, game-based learning, learner attitude, massively

multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG)
1. Introduction
The teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) was mainly delivered by a
teacher-centered mode, which has been indicated in relevant studies that might demotivate
students’ learning (Gee, 2004). Motivation, however, is the key to succeed in learning a
foreign language (Dörnyei, 2009). Claims have been made that digital games could promote
students’ learning motivation, and there have been a number of studies applying
game-based learning supported by technology into English language learning (Peterson,
2012; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012).
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) – online computer games
that draw together players from all over the world – have increasingly become the dominant
127
form of entertainment, particularly for children and adolescents (Gee & Hayes, 2011). The
main features of MMORPGs are active, explorative, problem-solving, strategic, social, and
creative (Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012; Vandercruysse, Vandewaetere, & Clarebout, 2012).
Studies have indicated that the features are suitable to be applied into educational learning
contexts (Peterson, 2012; Rama, Black, van Es, & Warschauer, 2012).
While educational learning involved media, individual factors affected system preferences
(Cairncross & Mannion, 2001) and individual attitudes, and further impacted on learning
effectiveness (Hsu, Wen, & Wu, 2009). Learner characteristics and attitudes towards the
learning system have been identified as the key factors in research on the implementation of
games in educational settings (Vandercruysse, Vandewaetere, & Clarebout, 2012).
Although previous studies have examined the potential of applying MMORPGs into
educational settings (Peterson, 2012; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), to date, a small number of
in-depth studies of learner attitudes in relation to learner prior knowledge are reported in the
literature regarding English language learning, leaving this potentially important area
partially explored. This study, therefore, proposes an English learning multiplayer online
role-playing game (ELMORPG). A questionnaire along with interviews were conducted to
examine how the learners’ prior knowledge, naming different levels of English ability,
affected learners’ attitudes as they learn with the game.
2. Research venue
The scenario of the designed ELMORPG is based on a traditional Chinese New Year story.
It presents a monster, which the player is supposed to fight against to save a village. The
learning contents are presented with tasks displayed by a non-player character, who gives a
question the player is required to solve in order to go to the next task. Upon success players
are rewarded with items encouraging them to continue with the game. If the answer is
128
incorrect, the system gives a feedback to the player. After completing all tasks and
collecting all items, the player is able to make a more powerful weapon for fighting.
Interactions between players logged in to the game employed the strategy of chatting to help
each other grow within the game and build friendship. Because the players were placed in a
classroom to play the game, differing from playing in distance, the sense of community is
also created through classroom interactions in addition to online chatting and teamwork.
The players were able to discuss face-to-face, which minimized the misunderstanding
caused by written texts.
It was believed that the designed ELMORPG could facilitate participants’ second language
proficiency by requiring them to exclusively use in-game text to proceed with tasks and use
written texts to interact with others in the virtual environment. In addition to the written
communication, the ELMORPG leverage sophisticated graphics to generate images,
sounds, gestures, and objects that take on different contextual meanings relative to context
of the game. Visual information becomes a critical part of communicative competence as
players interpret meaning and respond accordingly. Games not only furnish motivation for
players in that players desire to advance tasks by purposefully developing their selected
character’s skills and completing various tasks, but also have become the panacea to
learning (Gee & Hayes, 2011; Peterson, 2012; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012).
3. Methodology
The participants were 55 sixth-grade students from two different English classes at a
small-sized elementary school located in northern Taiwan. They were further classified into
two groups according to their final English examination results in the previous semester. In
sum, 27 students were classified as with high English level, whereas 28 students were
classified as with low English level. A learning questionnaire and interviews were
129
conducted to compare the participants’ perceptions, opinions and suggestions of the
ELMORPG between the two groups.
The experiment of this study was conducted over two weeks. A 90-minute class was given
once a week to students for the duration of the study. At the beginning of the 90-minute
class at the first week, a brief tutorial session on the basics of game play was hosted,
conducted in students’ native language – Mandarin – to ensure students’ fully understanding
of game operations, and English was used for the content of the gaming system.
Subsequently, the students were asked to log on to the ELMORPG, followed the
instructions given in the game, and were required to play the game within 55 minutes. There
was no direct instruction from the teacher, and the classes were conducted by the researcher
in order to remove any concerns of teacher variable. At the beginning of the 90-minute class
at the second week, the students also did the activities of the ELMORPG for 55 minutes.
Finally, the students filled out an online questionnaire evaluating their perceptions of the
ELMORPG as a learning tool. Selections of the students were interviewed face-to-face after
the completion of the study.
The data collected from the questionnaire were coded for quantitative analyses. In order to
account for the differences between the high-English-level and low-English-level learners, a
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. Results were analyzed for a
significant difference between the English levels and the learner attitudes. The data of
face-to-face interviews were analyzed qualitatively to explore the breadth and range of
views presented by the participants on the topic of learning in an MMORPG environment.
A questionnaire was used to explore the learners’ attitudes towards the ELMORPG in
relation to the individual factor concerning English language levels. Table 1 shows that the
students displayed an overall positive learning experience via the ELMORPG. The
130
ELMORPG stimulated the learners’ learning motivation, confidence, satisfaction, and flow
experience, and the learners experienced low anxiety.
Table 1 Experience with the ELMORPG

Variables Mean SD
Motivation 4.275 .859
Confidence 4.156 .764
Anxiety 2.011 .803
Satisfaction 4.224 .786
Flow experience 4.184 .735
By cross-comparing quantitative and qualitative data, the results showed that the
participants had a great confidence on the ELMORPG learning contents. The participants
who were interviewed mentioned that the ELMORPG could stimulate English learning.
They also displayed a high level of learning motivation that they would like to use the
system for learning in the future. The learners expressed that they got great satisfaction with
the system overall. As to flow experience, the participants said they felt a high degree of
pleasure and time passed by quickly. They did not want to leave the game even though the
class time was up. They enjoyed immersing in the ELMORPG. It is inferred that the
ELMORPG could attract learners’ attentions for long and produce flow experience.
Table 2 Relations between English levels and ELMORPG experience

Source Dependent Variables SS df MS F Sig.
English levels Motivation .676 1 .676 .914 .343
Confidence 1.532 1 1.532 2.704 .106
Anxiety 3.183 1 3.183 5.333 .025*
Satisfaction .216 1 .216 .345 .868
Flow experience .015 1 .015 .028 .560
*p =< .05
131
As to the impacts of individual factor regarding English levels on learners’ learning
motivation, confidence, anxiety, satisfaction, and flow experience, Table 2 shows that there
was a significant difference in learning anxiety in relation to English levels. An inspection
of the mean scores indicated that the low-English-level students reported higher degrees of
anxiety (M=2.25, SD=.926) than the high-English-level students (M=1.77, SD=.570) while
learning with the ELMORPG. It was expressed in the interviews that for the
low-English-level students the sentence descriptions in the game were beyond their
comprehension level. Even with a higher level of anxiety, the low-English-level students’
learning motivation was also improved like their counterparts. In addition, they were
confident on the learning contents, and they were immersed in the game and then had flow
experience as well. Overall, the low-English-level students were satisfied with the
ELMORPG and the attitudes towards learning via the ELMORPG were positive.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, an English learning multiplayer online role-playing game was designed and
implemented to explore learner attitudes towards learning English in an MMORPG-based
system. The results of the empirical study indicate that the learners perceived positive
learning motivation, great confidence and satisfaction, and experienced a state of flow
overall. There was a significant difference in anxiety in which low-English-level students
perceived higher degree of anxiety than high-English-level students because the task
descriptions were written in English of which some contents are far beyond their
comprehension level. The findings demonstrate that the application of the proposed
MMORPG system into an English learning classroom context is both feasible and
beneficial.
The empirical study described in this paper has shown the importance of implementing a
virtual learning environment in a classroom setting for English learning. However, more
132
long-term and exploratory studies are necessary to provide additional evidences. It is
believed that the application of MMORPGs for English language learning can facilitate
positive learning outcomes for students who learn English as a foreign language.
References
Cairncross, S., & Mannion, M. (2001). Interactive multimedia and learning: Realizing the
benefits. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 38(2), 156-164.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei, & E. Ushioda (Eds.),
Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling:
Psychology Press.
Gee, J. P., & Hayes, E. (2011). Language and learning in the digital age. London:
Routledge.
Hsu, S. H., Wen, M. H., & Wu, M. C. (2009). Exploring user experiences as predictors of
MMORPG addiction. Computers & Education, 53(3), 990-999.
Peterson, M. (2012). Language learner interaction in a massively multiplayer online
role-playing game. In H. Reinders (Ed.), Digital games in language learning and
teaching (pp. 70-92). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rama, P. S., Black, R. W., van Es, E., & Warschauer, M. (2012). Affordances for second
language learning in World of Warcraft. ReCALL, 24(3), 322-338.
Sylvén, L. K., & Sundqvist, P. (2012). Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2
proficiency among young learners. ReCALL, 24(3), 302-321.
Vandercruysse, S., Vandewaetere, M., & Clarebout, G. (2012). Game-based learning: A
review on the effectiveness of educational games. In M. M. Cruz-Cunha (Ed.),
Handbook of research on serious games as educational, business, and research tools
(pp. 628-647). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

133
Developing an Educational Computer Game

for Migratory Bird Identification based on a
Two-tier Test Approach
Hui-Chun CHUa*& Shao-Chen ZHANGb

a
Department of Computer Science and Information Management
Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan
b
*carolhcchu@gmail.com
Abstract: In recent years, researchers have been attracted in the development of educational
computer games; however, previous studies have indicated that, without supportive models
that guide students to classification and engage them to involve in the virtual learning
environment, students might only show temporary interest during the learning process, and
their learning performance is often not as good as expected. In this paper, a two-tier test
approach has been proposed for developing educational computer games. To evaluate the
performance of the proposed approach, an experiment has been conducted on the “migratory
bird identification” of an elementary school natural science course. The experimental results
showed that the proposed approach significantly improved their learning achievements.
Accordingly, it is concluded that developing educational computer games with the two-tier
test approach is promising.
Keywords: two-tier test, game-based learning, knowledge grid, social science course
1. Background and objectives
Educational computer games have become one indispensable part of current environments
in society and culture (Oblinger, 2004). In addition to developing educational computer
games, researchers have tried to investigate the effects of the games on student’s learning
performances. Several scholars have further indicated the need of integrating learning
guidance strategies or learning- supporting mechanisms into educational computer games if
improving students’ learning performance is one of the major objectives (Chu, Hwang, &
Tsai, 2010; Hwang, Sung, Hung, & Huang, 2012). Among various learning guidance
strategies or learning- supporting mechanisms, the two-tier test approach has been
134
recognized as being a systematical and effective way of guiding students to learn (Treagust,
1988).
In the learning process guided by the two-tier test approach, the learning system presents
learning content or learning tasks in two tiers, that is, basic and advanced knowledge levels.
In the first tier, the system guides students’ to learn via assessing them with descriptive or
factual knowledge. In the second-tier, the system guides the students’ to think in-depth for
finding the reasons for making the choices in the first tier via asking them inferring or
analytic questions (Chou et al., 2007; Tsai & Chou, 2002).
In this study, a two-tier test approach is proposed for developing educational computer
games for guiding students to identify and differentiate a set of learning targets. For
example, in the learning activity of “identifying migrant birds,” questions about the basic
knowledge of migrant birds are asked to guide the students to acquire relevant information
via playing the game. In the second tier, advanced questions are asked to guide the students
to explain their answers via reasoning or deeply thinking. For instance, the learning system
might ask the students a question about the correlations of the front lobed toe shape of
Chroicocephalus Ridibundus and its swimming habits on the water.
2. Development of an educational computer game based on a two-tier test approach
In this study, a two-tier test-based educational game is developed. Figure 1 shows the
learning flow of the educational computer game. After the students log in the gaming
system, the background story of the game and the gaming missions are presented to them.
The story is related to a treasure hunter, who needs to find 10 keys to open the
corresponding gates of a castle. To obtain the keys, the gamer needs to answer a series of
questions for setting free a fairy cursed by a demon.
135
Show the background Guide the

Start story and gaming gamer to find a
missions learning target
Ask first-tier question

about the target Incorrect
Guide the student to observe a

Correct comparative target and
compare the two
Correct
Ask the student to answer the
Present the reward
question again
Incorrect
Ask follow-up (second-tier) Provide supplemental
question of the students’ answer materials
Incorrect
Correct
Provide supplemental materials
Figure 1. Flow chart of the two tier test-based game-based learning approach
To correctly answer the questions, the gamer need to find the relevant information of the
learning targets (i.e., different kinds of birds) in the game, as shown in Figure 2.
Guiding the gamer to

find the location of
“Little Tern”
Figure 2. Snapshot of the gaming scenario-guiding the gamer to find one of the
learning targets
When the gamer find a learning target, the system asks a first-tier question about the target
to guide the gamer make observations and collect related information in the game. If the
gamer correctly answer the question, the system then asks the second-tier question, which is
a follow-up question related to the answer of the first-tier question.
On the other hand, if the gamer fails to correctly answer the first-tier question, the system
guides the students to find a comparative target that has the same feature with the incorrect
136
answer, as shown in Figure 3. The system then asks the gamer to observe the comparative
target and compares it with the original target. The gamer can then answer the question
again. If the gamer fails to answer the same question twice, a further guidance is provided to
help him/her find the clues hidden in the game.
The migratory bird

Greater Crested
Tern
The clues for a first-

tier question of
Greater Crested Tern
Figure 3. Snapshot of the gaming scenario-the clues for a first-tier question
3. Experiment Design
3.1 Participants
The subjects included two classes of fifth graders of an elementary school in Taipei City in
Taiwan. A total of fifty-three students voluntarily participated in the study. One class was
assigned to be the experimental group and the other was the control group.
3. 2 Research Tools
The research tools in this study included the learning achievement tests. The test sheets were
developed by two experienced teachers. The pre-test aimed to evaluate the students' prior
knowledge of learning the course unit "knowing the migrant appear in Taiwan". It contained
twenty multiple-choice items and two matching items, with a perfect score of 100. The
post-test contained twenty multiple-choice items, one matching items and three
fill-in-the-blank items for assessing the students' knowledge in identifying and
differentiating the gulls and the migrant. The perfect score of the post-test was 100.
137
3.3 Experiment Procedures
Before the experiment, the two groups of students took a week course about the basic
knowledge of the migrant, which is a part of the existing social science course. Figure 4
shows the flow chart of the experiment. At the beginning of the learning activity, the
students took the pre-test, the learning attitude and learning motivation questionnaires.
During the learning activity, the students in the experimental group learned with the two-tier
test-based game, while those in the control group learned with the conventional e-learning
approach. It should be noted that, both the educational computer game and the e-learning
system provided the same content, including text, images and animations, to the students.
The time for the students to complete their learning tasks was sixty minutes. After the
learning activity, the students took the post-test and the learning attitude, motivation,
satisfaction toward the learning model questionnaires for measuring their learning
achievements and any change in their learning attitude, motivation and other perspective of
learning.
Experiment group control group

(No.=26) (No.=27)
Learning the basic knowledge of the migrants 50 mins
Taking the pre-test and the learning attitude and 20 mins

motivation questionnaires
Learning with the Learning with the e-

educational computer learning system
game 60 mins
Taking the post-test and the learning attitude and

50 mins
motivation questionnaires
Figure 4. Diagram of experiment design
138
4. Results
4.1 Analysis of Learning Achievement
The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the personalized educational
computer game in improving the learning achievement of the students. The mean values and
standard deviations of the pre-test scores were 54.85 and 15.61 for the control group, and
56.41 and 18.04 for the experimental group. The t-test result (t=-.336, p >.05) shows that
there was no significant difference between the two groups; consequently, it is evident that
the two groups of students had equivalent prior knowledge before the learning activity, as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. t-test results of the pre-test scores

N Mean S.D. t
Pre-test experimental group 26 54.85 15.61 -.336
control group 27 56.41 18.04
After the learning activity, the analysis of independent t-test was used to test the difference
between the two groups. The mean value and standard deviations of the post-test scores
were 54.15 and 17.69 for the control group, and 41.11 and 14.05 for the experimental group.
According to the results (t=3.00, p<.05), there was a significant difference between the two
groups; that is, the students who learned with the educational computer game showed
significant better learning achievements than those who learned with thee-learning system
with no T3 knowledge engineering guidance.
Table 2. Descriptive data and independent t-test of the post-test results

Variable Group N Mean S.D. t
Experimental
Post-test 26 54.15 17.69 3.00**
group
Control group 27 41.11 14.05
** ***
p<.01 , p<.001
139
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a two-tier test approach is proposed for developing educational computer
games. Based on the proposed approach, a role playing game is developed; moreover, an
experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. From the
experimental results on an elementary school natural science courses, it was found the two
tier test-based game not only improved the students’ learning motivation, but also enhanced
their learning achievements.
In the future, we plan to apply the approach to the development of educational computer
games for other applications, such as social science courses, language courses and other
science courses. In the meantime, we plan to investigate the effect of the approach on the
students with different personal factors, such as their learning styles, genders, or prior
knowledge. Moreover, an extended version of the game is going to be implemented by
taking more learning strategies, such as peer collaborations and competitions, into account.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of China
under contract numbers NSC 101-2628-S-031 -001 -MY2.
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internet literacy. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 369-372.
Chou, C., Chan, P. S., & Wu, H. C. (2007). Using a two-tier test to assess students’
understanding and alternative conceptions of cyber copyright laws. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 38(6), 1072-1084.

140
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Personalized Educational Computer Game based on Students’ Learning Styles.
Educational Technology Research & Development, 60(4), 623-638.
Jonassen, D. H., Carr, C., & Yueh, H. P. (1998). Computers as mindtools for engaging
learners in critical thinking. TechTrends, 43(2), 24-32.
Oblinger, D. (2004). The Next Generation of Educational Engagement. Journal of
Interactive Media in Education, 2004(8). Special Issue on the Educational Semantic
Web. ISSN:1365-893X [www-jime.open.ac.uk/2004/8]
Sung, H. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2013). A collaborative game-based learning approach to
improving students’ learning performance in science courses. Computers & Education,
63(1), 43-51.
Treagust, David F. (1988). Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students
misconceptions in science. International Journal of Science Education, 10(2), 159-169.
Tsai, C. C., & Chou, C. (2002). Diagnosing students’ alternative conceptions in science
through a networked two-tier test system. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning,
18(2), 157–165.
141
Effects of Digital Game-Based Learning on

Students’ Academic Achievement in Taiwan: A
Meta-analysis
Yuen-Kuang Cliff LIAOa & Szu-Han WANGb
a
Center for Teacher Education, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan, R. O. C
b
New Taipei City Xiu Lang Elementary School, Taiwan, R. O. C
yliao2009@gmail.com
Abstract: A meta-analysis was performed to synthesize existing research comparing the

effects of digital game-based learning (DGBL) versus non- digital game-based learning
(non-DGBL) on students’ achievement in Taiwan. Fifty-one studies were located from four
sources, and their quantitative data were transformed into Effect Size (ES). The overall
grand mean of the study-weighted ES for all 51 studies was 0.4. The results suggest that
DGBL is more effective than non-DGBL in Taiwan. In addition, 6 of the 17 study features
selected for this study had a statistically significant impact on the mean ES. The results from
this study suggest that the effects of DGBL are positive over non-DGBL. Several moderate
variables were also analyzed to verify the effects while implementing DGBL in educational
environments.
Keywords: academic achievement, digital game-based learning, game-based learning,

game design, meta-analysis
Introduction
The educational potential of games has been claimed by researchers and educators for quite
a long time. Piaget (1962), for instance, stated that the process of playing games could help
children master the environments that they live in and create their worlds of imagination.
Others also claimed that games could support, reinforce and accelerate the learning process,
and support higher-order cognitive development (Green & Bavelier 2003; Klabbers 2003;
de Freitas 2005; de Freitas & Oliver 2006). Walliser (1998) believed that game-based
learning stimulated critical thinking, information gathering, and sharing and collective
problem solving. In fact, there was a fairly wide consensus in the game study literature that
the values of discovery and achievement were fundamental to the nature of games (Juul
2002). As more researchers investigated the effects of digital games on students’ learning,
Kiili (2007) indicated that most studies did not provide sufficient information about how to
142
utilize GBL in practice. Therefore, how digital games bring about better learning outcomes
and how digital games can be meaningfully utilized in educational settings needs to be
further investigated.
1. Purposes of Study
In spite of claims regarding the potential benefits of using DGBL in education, research
results comparing the effects of DGBL and non-DGBL instruction in Taiwan are
conflicting. In an effort to lend data to this debate, this study provides the first meta-analysis
of DGBL versus non-DGBL in Taiwanese schools. More specifically, the questions that this
study addresses are
(1) How does the effectiveness of digital game-based learning (DGBL) compare with that
of non-DGBL instruction on student academic achievement in Taiwan?
(2) What study features moderate the effectiveness of digital game-based learning in
Taiwan?
2. Procedures
The research method used in this study is a meta-analytic approach similar to that suggested
by Hedges and Olkin (1985). The purpose of this study was to synthesize and analyze the
research on the effects of two instructional approaches. It is important to define these
approaches so as to provide for selection of appropriate studies:
digital game-based learning (DGBL): a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place
by playing educational games in the pc computers. The learning activities can be taken place
synchronously or asynchronously and by individual or multiplayer.
non-DGBL Instruction: instructional/learning approaches that are other than digital
game-based learning.
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2.1 Data Sources
The studies considered for inclusion in this meta-analysis were located through a
comprehensive search of publicly available literature published between January 2003 and
December 2012 and came from four sources. One large group of studies came from
computer searches of the Chinese Periodical Index. A second group of studies came from
the Dissertation and Thesis Abstract System of Taiwan. A third group of studies was
retrieved from the Government Research Bulletin (GRB) of Taiwan. The last group of
studies was retrieved by branching from bibliographies of the documents located through
the review and computer searches. The keywords used in the search procedures included
“digital game-based learning”, “dgbl”, “game-based learning”, and “ditigal game*”.
Fifth-one studies were located through these search procedures; 39 studies came from the
Dissertation and Thesis Abstract System; 8 studies were retrieved from published journals;
3 studies were located from conference proceedings, and only 1 study were research project
from the Government Research Bulleti. Since this study retrieved more than 75% of its
studies from dissertations/theses, Rosenthal’s (1991) Fail-safe Number formula was
calculated to account for publication bias. The result shows that Fail-safe Number (3005)
was much larger than the Tolerance level (265). It is unlikely that there are that many
well-constructed studies sitting in file drawers that would negate our results.
Several criteria were established for the inclusion of studies in the present analysis:
(1) Studies had to compare the effects of DGBL versus non-DGBL on students’ academic
achievement.
(2) Studies had to provide adequate quantitative data from both DGBL and non-DGBL
classes so that the ES could be estimated.
(3) Studies had to be retrievable from university or college libraries by interlibrary loan,
from the GRB, or from the Dissertation and Thesis Abstract System of Taiwan.
(4) Studies had to use Taiwanese students as subjects.

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1.1. Study features coding
Seventeen study features were coded for each comparison. Each of these features was
grouped according to the following set of characteristics: (a) study characteristics, (b)
methodological characteristics, (c) program characteristics, and (d) game characteristics.
3.1 Overall Effects
In all, 51 studies representing 4376 students were analyzed in this meta-analysis. Of the 51
ESs included in the present synthesis, 40 (78%) of the study-weighted ESs were positive
and favored the DGBL classes, while 11(22%) of them were negative and favored the
non-DGBL classes. The range of the study-weighted ESs was from -0.53 to 1.37. The mean
weighted ES (d+) was 0.398 (95% CI is 0.34 to 0.46). The standard deviation of 0.41 reflects
the medium variability of ESs across studies. The results indicate that, on average, there was
a small to medium significant effect on student outcome; DGBL classes had a significantly
higher achievement than non-DGBL classes. However, homogeneity statistics ( QT =
215.75, df=50, p<.05) indicate that findings were significantly heterogeneous. A series of
subgroup moderator variable analyses were then conducted
3.2 Study Features Analyses
Among the 17 study features analyzed, 6 study features were significantly related to the
variability in the outcome. Each of the significant study features is described in the
following section.
3.2.1 Type of research design

About 84% of studies used nonequivalent control group design. The mean ES for studies
that employed a repeat measure design was significantly higher than studies that employed
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nonequivalent control group design (QB = 114.42, df = 1, p<.05). This result seems to
suggest that DGBL studies which employ weaker research designs may obtain a higher ES.
In addition, the mean ESs for studies that employed repeat measure design and
nonequivalent control group design were positive and significantly different from zero
(95% CI are .68 to .84 and .17 to .30, respectively), indicating that students’ achievement in
DGBL were significantly higher than in non-DGBL, regardless the type of research design.
3.2.2 Comparison group

The mean ES for studies with no comparison group (i.e., one group repeated measure) was
significantly higher than studies in which the comparison groups were traditional instruction
(TI) and other types of instruction (e.g., computer-assisted instruction) (QB = 115.28, df = 2,
p<.05). This result suggests that DGBL becomes more effective when there is no instruction
for the comparison group. In one sense, this is reasonable, because students in TI or other
types of instruction have more or less some learning activities, but in “no instruction”
classes, there is no learning activity for students.
3.2.3 Enhancement function

The mean ES for studies in which the game have enhancement functions (e.g., highest score
list and upgrade functions) was significantly higher than studies in which the game without
enhancement functions (QB = 31.99, df = 1, p<.05). The result suggests that learners can
obtain better academic achievement in games with enhancement functions.
3.2.4 Networking
The mean ES for studies using networking games was significantly higher than studies that
employed non-networking games (QB = 57.9, df = 1, p<.05). This result suggests that
students can achieve higher scores in networking games.
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3.2.5 Synchronous/asynchronous
Among 51 studies included in the present meta-analysis, only 13 studies reported this
feature. The mean ES for studies in which the games are synchronous (i.e., all game players
can play at the same time) was significantly higher than studies that were asynchronous (QB
= 78.69, df = 1, p<.05). This result suggests that learners can attain higher academic
achievement in synchronous games.
3.2.6 Video/animation-based game

Most studies employed animation-based games. The mean ES for studies used video-based
game was significantly higher than studies used animation-based games (QB = 59.43, df = 1,
p<.05). This result suggests that learners can accomplish higher academic achievement in
video-based games.
4. Conclusion
The results from this study suggest that the effects of DGBL are positive over non-DGBL in
Taiwan. Several moderate variables were also analyzed to verify the effects while
implement DGBL in the educational settings. As many researchers and educators devote
great endeavors with vast hope that technology will significantly improve students’
academic achievement, the results of this study provide to classroom teachers an
accumulated research-based evidence for positive outcomes by using technology in
instruction. The analyses of moderator variables also provided some valuable implications
to verify the effects while design and implement DGBL in the educational settings. Left
unanswered is the question of which factors truly contribute to the positive outcomes.
Studies of this question will require further clarification of the exact relationship between
digital educational games and learning. This meta-analysis points out only that
improvements of students’ academic achievement are possible. That information by itself is
useful.
147
Selected Reference
Green S.C. & Bavelier D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention.
Nature 423, 534–537.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL:
Academic Press.
Juul, J. (2002). The open and the closed: game of emergence and games of progression. In
Computer Game and Digital Cultures Conference Proceedings (ed. F. Mayra), pp.
323–329. Tampere University Press, Tampere,Finland.
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research (Rev.ed.). Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Walliser B. (1998). A spectrum of equilibration processes in games. Journal of
Evolutionary Economics 8, 67–87.
148
Career Guidance with a Life Simulation Game
Yen-Ru SHI & Ju-Ling SHIH

Department of Information and Learning Technology
yenru@moke.tw, juling@mail.nutn.edu.tw
Abstract: The aim of this study is to design a game-based career guidance system, Dream
Life, based on Holland's Personality-Job Fit Theory. Game-based Learning combines games
and education. The study schemed from the perspective of education to ensure the
performances of career game, and selected the life simulation game genre to implement. The
results can be a reference for future research on computer-assisted career guidance system.
Keywords: career decision making; computer-assisted career guidance systems;

game-based learning; simulation
Introduction
Career is referred to people' experiences and activities related with work or job in their life,
and it is an important issue for everyone. This study attempts to use games to recreate a
career-guidance system that is not only effective but also interesting to establish career
recognition and influence their future career choices. According to Holland (Holland, 1997)
and SCCT (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994; Lent, 2005), we know personality and
self-efficacy beliefs are the key factors affecting career goals and choices. Holland's theory
could be regarded the combination of personal characteristics and education level, and
provide good career planning. No matter how the time changes, the Holland's personality
types would not vary. The main point of career planning is self-understanding rather than
absorbing knowledge so it is suitable to implement games. The players have to maintain and
manage the virtual being like in real life in life simulation game. Therefore, it is favorable to
adopt the concepts of life simulation to produce the game-based career guidance systems.
149
1. Game Design
1.1 Game Development Process
The career game in this study is called "Dream Life". The game development process in this
study is shown in Figure 1. The theory and work-relevant abilities are the career guidance
rules in Dream Life, and they will transform into parameters which are the experiences of
avatars in the game. Game-based career guidance system attends to not only counseling
theories but also game elements. The entertainment must be repeated assessment in the
game development stage, and then revises it to make career game fun without losing the
learning objectives. It will make player feel having "entertainment" rather than "education".
Figure 1. Game Development Process
1.2 Relationship between work and ability
American College Testing (ACT) developed the Inventory of Work-Relevant Abilities
(IWRA) scale based on the theory of Prediger (1976). There are fifteen evaluation items of
work ability in IWRA which seem to correspond to Holland Codes. In Dream Life, the
players' abilities are demonstrated by the experiences of the avatar, which is called Personal
Occupational Values (POV). They are important indicators in the career guidance system.
There are several subgames of jobs in Dream Life. To develop a subgame, it is necessary to
analyze work items, the work-relevant abilities, and relations to Holland's personality types.
Therefore, Holland Code, jobs, work items, and work abilities can be drawn into an
associative map, called Personality-Job diagram (see Figure 2). The work items are selected
150
from Career & Competency Assessment Network (http://ucan.moe.edu.tw/), and analyzed
to identify work-relevant abilities and surroundings. A subgame is designed to include a
work item and its abilities. Thus, Personality-Job diagram combines the counseling theory
and occupation, as well as the work items in the job. Dream Life contents will be designed
based on it, and it is career guidance rules included in the game system.
Personal Occupational Values (POV)
Numerical Organization Mechanical Scientific
Jobs Works Subgames

Assessment &
Communication
Artistic
Database
System Analysis
normalization
Logical
Programming
operations
Investigative
Programmer Evaluation
Flow Control
performance
documents &
manual
Realistic
Maintenance &
Supports
Figure 2. Personality-Job diagram
1.3 Game System Design
There are three major scenes in the game: Home, Map, and Works. Players can check
personal achievements at Home such as Avatar, POV, and inventory. At Works, players can
earn the currency in Dream Life. When a Work was selected by players, various subgames
are used to assess their capabilities. Map provides modular functions to the players to
enhance the entertainment of Dream Life, such as shops, parks, and restaurants.
POV are changed by two variables; the achievements of subgames, and the interactive
dialogues of events. The former could be used to evaluate the work abilities of a player, and
the later allows the system to identify the interests, values, and self-efficacy of players. The
career guidance (Helper) is indicated in the Map in the form of virtual counseling room.
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Players should enter the room voluntarily to get the personal career guidance. Dream Life
launches players into the game by Events, and they can get the latest assessment at any time.
2. Conclusions
The aim of this study is to design a game-based career guidance system, Dream Life. The
core of Dream Life is Holland's Personality-Job Fit Theory to maintain the educational
value. The Personality-Job diagrams show the relation between work and abilities at a
glance, and game elements are added based on them to ensure the function of career
guidance. The category of game the study selected is life simulation game. It has a high
degree of flexibility to expand components to accomplish our goals. However, how to be
"fun" on career game must be discussed from game elements and related theories. The study
schemed from the perspective of education, and it can be a reference for future research.
Acknowledgements
under contract numbers NSC 101-2511-S-024-009-MY3.
References
Holland, J. L. (1997). Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities
and Work Environments. FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Lent, R. W. (2005). A social cognitive view of career development and counseling. In
Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work, S. D. Brown
and R. W. Lent, Eds., ed Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc, pp. 101-127.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a Unifying Social Cognitive
Theory of Career and Academic Interest, Choice, and Performance. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.

152
Creating Simulations in History Game that

Enhance Players’ Sense of Cultural Reality
Shun-Chien CHENG*, Ju-Ling SHIH & Yi-Han WANG

Department of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan,
Tainan, Taiwan
*
mobetak@hotmail.com
Abstract: With the rapid development of technology, digital games have been used to
provid all kinds of simulations. This research attempts to realize the historical context of
Southern Taiwan in the late 19th century based on the Wu-Xia novel “Xiao-Mao”(Pussy) by
designing a role-play digital game about the resistances against Japanese. Through digital
games, Taiwanese history, geography, and culture are presented to the public in an
innovated way with virtual scenarios, and the players can freely explore the game world and
experience the 19th century Taiwan’s social structure, cultural customs, and spirits through
the war time. Quantitative and qualitative research and evaluation methods will be used to
measure the learning outcomes and to analyze players’ sense of cultural reality.
Keywords: Digital Game, Xiao-Mao, Role-play Game, Simulation, Cultural Realism
1. Introduction
With the rapid development of technology, digital games have rapidly become daily life
entertainment. A small number of players are even deeply involved because digital games
have the strong power to attract and amaze the players. Due to this immersive characteristic,
the research uses Taiwan Wu-Xia novel “Xiao-Mao” (Pussy) (Shih, 2008) as the main story
structure, and transform it into a 3D Role-Playing Game. Players would take the heroic
character, Xiao-Mao, as their avatars. Players explore the simulated world of 19th century
Southern Taiwanese. As they are immersed in the virtual scenarios, thus enhance their sense
of cultural reality and learning motivations after they play the game.
2. Literature review
153
2.1 Historical Role-Playing Game
In this modern age, cultural reservation, delivery, and transfer have been through a lot of
innovations. Digital games can provide a space to present virtual reality which allows
players to observe the virtual world from any angle and experience various cultural
backgrounds (Gradeck, 1995). Therefore, more and more RPGs merge cultural and
historical themes into the games, such as “Princess Banenn”.
2.2 Cultural reality
Franz Boas (1904) mentions cultural relativism to point out the notion of the none-existence
of universal value of culture; in other word, one would bias his perception to the world since
his cultural cultivation has given him a certain taste and view to things about him.
Therefore, in order to know a culture, it is necessary to start out from that culture with its
standard and value. Margolis (2001) refers to cultural realism saying that although culture is
abstract and invisible, it is as real as nature, and comes from nature.Therefore, digital games
can create simulated situations in which the players are placed in the carefully crafted
environment where they can feel and experience the culture, and increase the sense of
cultural reality.
2.3 Simulation
As defined by Edwards (2001), “simulationist” refers to scenes, actions, and interactions
that follow the internal logic of the game world and consistent to the players’ experiences
and expectations. The experiences come from several factors of the making of the game,
include: a. Character: Allow players to internalize and identify with the characters or to
experience the characters in the process. b. Situation: Clearly define the rules and tasks of
the role-play. c. Setting: A strong focus on the game world’s detail outlooks and depth of
scenarios, which give vitality to the game elements. d. System: Set up all kinds of internal
causal relationships according to the nuances within the game world.
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3. Game Design
3.1 Character
In this RPG, players play the role of Xiao-Mao who in real person has a unique cat-look
face. The character appearance is especially designed according to the descriptions in the
historical materials. In terms of personality, Xiao-Mao specializes Taiwan traditional
martial arts, such as Songjiang Troupe. In order to be faithful to the reality, the martial art
actions are investigated exquisitely and categorized by names, types, and effects. Then, the
technique of each martial art action is analyzed by the kinetography and related movie clips.
3.2 Situation
All the story contents are investigated to check their historical accuracy. Stories for the
game are written into fourteen major game tasks according to the historical events. Different
tasks are assigned according to their backgrounds and personalities. For example, Xiao-Mao
has to follow Master Hou-Shi’s command to lead the Songjiang Troupe to participate the
Martial Art Parade in a temple celebration.
3.3 Setting
In order to allow the virtual environment of the game to approach the reality, 13 places and
24 scenes are selected from the novel including Wanjin Basilica, Pingtung Tsz Fung
Temple, Akauw market. The virtual game world is built to be alive and interactive as in the
real world that the all the objects and buildings have real functions. For example, the
residents in the game world have their own lifestyles with dynamic rule setting.
3.4 System
System design include natural and social settings. In the game world, the change of
environment would correspond to the natural and physical rules. Therefore, there would be
shadows, the game world has internal causality of social rules and laws. For example, when
there is attack, NPC’s blood level and sense of closeness would decrease.
155
4. Conclusion
In the future, after the testing of the game prototype, there will be learning evaluations. The
evaluation would be conducted in three phases. First, there will be pre-test questionnaire for
players’ sense of cultural reality. The purpose is to understand students’ consciousness to
the culture existed in the surroundings. Second, synchronized video taping and behavioral
observations would document students’ gaming process and behaviors. Last, post-test
questionnaire and semi-structured interviews would be conducted to collect quantitative
data which is to investigate the effects of the game, and how the simulations enhance
students’ learning motivations as well as their sense of cultural reality.
Acknowledgements
under NSC 98-2511-S-024-006-MY2 and NSC 100-2628-S-024-002 -MY3.
References
Boas, F. (1904). Some traits of primitive culture. Journal of American Folk-Lore
17(67):243-254.
Edwards, R. (2001). GNS and Other Matters of Role-playing Theory. Retrieved October 14,
2001 from http://www.indie-rpgs.com/articles/1/.
Gradeck, J. (1995). The Virtual Reality Programmers Kit. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Margolis, J. (2001). Selves and Other Texts: The Case for Cultural Realism. Penn State
University Press.
Shih, D. (2008). Pussy. Taipei: Inventec Tomorrow Studio.
156
Designing a Multi-dimensional Narrative

Structure Digital History Game
Yi-Han WANG*, Ju-Ling SHIH & Shun-Cian JHENG

Department of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan,
Tainan, Taiwan
*
cathy095135@hotmail.com
Abstract: This research use hypertext narrative structure to design a digital history game
named "Tales of Formosans" for cultivating players’ multiple perspectives. The research
goal is to rebuild and reproduce 19th century Taiwan’s multiethnic conflicts, confrontations
and unifications of different cultures, races and religions by creating interactive virtual
scenarios, and allow players to rebuild the history scenes and understand the positive
impacts of the characters to the game through qualitative methods. These results should
provide future developers valuable experiences and guidelines of development and
evaluation processes when doing relative projects.
Keywords: Digital Game, Narrative, Hypertext, Multiple Perspectives
1. Introduction
This research is to create a 3D adventure game “Tales of Formosans” using hypertext
narrative to plot a multi-directional interactive story. Players choose one of the characters in
the story as their avatar and walk through the history plot related to that specific character.
Therefore, players can experience the history from different perspectives and can increase
the understanding and respect to different cultures and cultural perspectives.
2.1 Narrative
The personal identity is the identity presupposed by the unity of the character which is what
the narrative requires (Foss, 1989). The secret to the narrative success of games lies in their
ability to exploit the most fundamental of the forces that move a plot forward: solving of
problems is the most successful in terms of turning users into characters (Ryan, 2004). Thus,
157
this research attempts to use interactive and multi-directional hypertext storytelling to
stimulate players’ interests.
2.2 Hypertext
Hypermedia is a style of building systems for information representation and management
around a network of multi-media nodes connected together by typed links (Halaxz, 1988).
Hypertext is generally used for multi-author, multi-perspective interactive writing. Thus, an
interactive narrative can be regarded as a big story structure which can also be referred to as
“super-narrative” to show multiple paths narrative form.
2.3 Multiple Perspectives
Facing the challenges of divertive social construct, the teaching of the historical events
described in the textbooks requires corresponding changes. Therefore, the teaching and
evaluation in terms of multiple perspectives include several aspects. The cognitive aspect
suggests students to understand and identify with their own cultures. The affective aspect
suggests students to form well-rounded self-concept, eliminate stereotypes and prejudices.
The psychomotor aspect requires students to have critical thinking ability to cultural issues,
generate different views to the same historical event.
3. Research Methods
3.1 Game Production Process
The game design of this research is divided into several stages. First, collect materials of
historical events, and arrange them into game stories. Then, set up the game story premise
and characters to depict the various ethnic groups. Last, hypertext narrative structure
encompasses four main characters with respective stories. Dialogues are created to form
inter-related paths between the main story, sub-stories, and hidden tasks.
158
3.2 Narrative and Multiple Perspectives
This research use hypertext narrative structure to design a digital history game for
cultivating players’ multiple perspectives. It is to allow players to rebuild the history scenes
and understand the positive impacts of the characters to the game. It allows players to
understand people’s thoughts, lives, major events, and local customs in that period of time.
This research uses quantitative and qualitative research methods to analyze students’ inner
thoughts and online behaviors.
4. Game Design
4.1 Game Design Concept
In the beginning, players select one character to enter the game, and choose historical events
to play in their own order. The four main characters meet and interact with each other in
some events in which they encounter language, interests, beliefs, and cultural conflicts. In
this process, players perceive cultural differences between each other.
4.2 The Multiple Story and Interconnected
The four characters in the story are inter-related sometime in the historical events, and
influence each other in the process. Players learn to accommodate with people in different
races, cultural backgrounds, religious beliefs, and individual personalities. The main
historical progress and results will remain the same, but the sub-plots that are experienced
by the players will be developed along as the players go through the various game situations.
When the characters meet others would intrigue sub-plot.
4.3 Four Characters Difference Perspectives
The four characters generate different perspectives and conflicts as follows: Because of
different culture backgrounds, jobs, beliefs, languages, they have different perspectives,
159
value and pursue different benefits, cognitive understandings, and communication methods.
Through these points of view, players approach their experiences with different value
systems and break stereotypes. This game is to allow players to immerse in the game which
is composed by human thoughts, life, major events, and customs.
5. Conclusion
This research combines hypertext narratives and multiple perspective concepts to let the
players to immerse in the stories by choosing the virtual characters and forming their own
teams. At the end of the game, quantitative evaluation, observations, and interviews, will be
analyzed to understand players’ learning attitudes and sense of multiple perspectives, and to
generate a model for designing historical game with hypertext narrative for multiple
perspectives. It is expected that this research can be extended to provide more
developmental and evaluation experiences for future developments.
Acknowledgement
This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of
China, under NSC 98-2511-S-024-006-MY2 and NSC 100-2628-S-024-002 -MY3.
References
Foss, S. K. (1989). Rhetorical criticism: exploration and practice. Prospect Heights, IL:
Waveland Press.
Halaxz, F. G. (1988). Reflections on note-cards: Seven issues for the next generation of
hypermedia systems. Communications of the ACM, 31(7):836-852.
Ryan, M. L. (2004). Will new media produce new narrative? In M. L. Ryan (Ed.), Narrative
across media: The language of storytelling (pp.337-359). London: University of
Nebraska Press.
160
A Survey Research on the Usage and Its

Influencing Factors of Game-based Learning
among Elementary Teachers in New Taipei
City
Yu-Wen LEE*, Hao-Ping CHU* & Chun-Yi SHEN*

*
University of Tamkang, Taiwan
Abstract: The purpose of this research is to understand the factors and current usage status
of game-based learning among elementary teachers in New Taipei City. The influencing
factors are divided into five dimensions for designing questions in the questionnaire to
understand the factors influencing game-based learning among elementary teachers. This
research adopts methods of survey to create tools based on literatures for measuring current
usage status and factors influencing elementary teachers. Finally, the primary research
discoveries are induced and made into conclusions as bases for proposing suggestions for
reference by teachers, policy decision-makers and future follow-up studies.
Keywords: digital game-based learning, Behavioral Engineering Model; IT-integrated

teaching
1. Research background
In an era of rapid technology development, prosperous networks and knowledge explosion,
the emergence of computer in the last two decades has accompanied G-generation
youngster in learning and living (Prensky, 2007). There are more and more teachers
integrating game-based learning into their teaching. Thus, the purpose of this research is to
understand the current usage status of digital game-based learning among elementary
teachers, as well as discuss the usage differences of digital game-based learning among
elementary teachers with different backgrounds.
2. Literature review
2.1 Definition of game-based learning
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Prenksy (2001) believed digital game-based learning was a close combination of any
teaching content with computer games, and it could also be defined as any educational game
on computers or online. This game would make an individual indulge in challenges, trigger
continuously a cycle of determination, execution and system feedback, and finally achieve a
certain learning target by being engaged in such game.
2.2 Factors influencing usage of digital game-based learning among elementary teachers
(1) Personal background factors: gender, education, college in university, years of teaching
experience, hours spent online per week for educational needs, and whether the teacher ever
attended seminars related to digital game-based learning.
(2) Factors influencing usage of digital game-based learning: according to the Performance
Pyramid proposed by Wedman and Graham (2003), there are several factors affecting
performance results, including tools, environment, procedure, expectation, feedback,
incentive system, motive, self actualization and personal traits.
3. Research methods and analysis
3.1 Research framework
The framework of this research is to use the relevant variables induced to explore the
differences in attitudes toward and usage influencing factors of digital game-based learning
of elementary teachers with different backgrounds, as well as discuss whether a correlation
exists between influencing factors and current usage status of digital game-based learning.
3.2 Research subjects
The study scope of this research was focused on elementary teachers in New Taipei City.
Samples were taken by purposive sampling for carrying out a questionnaire in a certain
elementary school in New Taipei City.
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3.3 Research instruments
This research mainly uses the method of questionnaire survey. The researcher analyzed
relevant literatures, compiled the “Survey on integration status and influencing factors of
digital game-based learning among elementary teachers” to conduct expert’s validity
review, discussed and completed the questionnaire with the advisor after expert’s review,
carried out tests and revised the questionnaire according to pretest results to created a formal
questionnaire.
4. Research results
The results showed over half of the research subjects had used digital game-based learning
in classes and the integrated courses were no longer limited to specific courses, particularly
as 32% of the teachers had integrated the method in mathematics. And the results also
showed the usage of digital game-based learning by elementary teachers varies with
different personal backgrounds. This is generally consistent with the results of literatures
(Vredenburg, k., Flett, G.L., Krames, L.,& Pliner, P.,1984; Cuban,2001; Russell et al,
2003;Watkins & Wedman, 2003), which stated different personal background was an
important factor influencing the usage of game-based learning. The results of standardized
residual method show that teachers who have applied digital game-based learning and
attended relevant seminars used the learning approach more than those who did not
participate in relevant seminars. The results of this research found a positive correlation
between the usage of digital game-based learning among elementary teachers and the
dimensions of knowledge and resource. In other words, if an elementary teacher has more
adequate knowledge and relevant resource regarding digital game-based learning, his
willingness to integrate the learning approach in courses will be increased respectively.
163
5. Conclusions
Research results show over half of the research subjects have used digital game-based
learning in classes. The current usage status of digital game-based learning among
elementary teachers varies with their different personal backgrounds .The results of this
research discovered that the factors of usage of the learning approach among elementary
teachers does not vary with differences in the teachers’ gender, education, number of years
in teaching and number of hours spent online per week for teaching needs. Furthermore, the
percentages of using the learning approach and successful integration experience of teacher
who have participated in relevant seminars are higher than those who never attended
relevant seminars. With this result, it may be inferred that provision of information resource
by schools for most teachers no longer causes any obstacles in integrating information into
teaching.
References
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Prensky, M. (2007). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Russell, M., Bebell, D., O'Dwyer, L., & O'Connor, K. (2003). Examining teacher
technology use. Implications for preservice and inservice teacher preparation. Journal
of Teacher Education, 54(4), 297-310.
Vredenburg, k., Flett, G.L., Krames, L.,& Pliner, P. (1984). Sex differences in attitudes,
fellings and bebaviors toward computer. Paper presented at the 92nd annual convention
of American psychology association, Toronto, Canada
Watkins, R. & Wedman, J. F. (2003). A process for aligning performance improvement
resources and strategies. Performance Improvement, 42, no. 7.
164
Promoting College Students’ Body Image

through Exergaming
Jie Chi YANG & Qiang MIAO

yang@cl.ncu.edu.tw, luke@cl.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: This paper conducted an empirical study to investigate the effect of exergaming
to body images among college students in Taiwan during a four-week exergaming
experiment. It also examined the effects of gender differences and player modes to the
changes of body images. The results show that exergaming improves body images among
the participants at various measurement points of the exergaming. However, no significant
differences can be attributed to genders and player modes.
Keywords: body image, exergaming, game-based learning
1. Introduction
In modern society, many people seek to build and maintain a good body image by
exercising. Yet long-term workout plans designed for fitness may be too laborious and
tedious to follow on a regular basis. The advent of exergaming offers opportunities to
resolve this dilemma by actively engaging players into body movements while garnering
fun from the gaming experience.
In spite of the numerous studies highlighting the benefits of exergaming (Mitre, Foster,
Lanningham-Foster, & Levine, 2011; O’Loughlin, Dugas, Sabiston, & O’Loughlin, 2012;
Seo et al., 2012), empirical evidence regarding whether exergaming helps enhance body
image remains insufficient. This study raised three questions to investigate whether
exergaming enhances college students’ body image, and whether other factors such as
gender and player-mode play a part in promoting players’ body images, as follows:
Q1. Are there any changes of players’ body image at various measurement points of the
exergaming?
Q2. Can the changes of body image be attributed to gender differences?

165
Q3. Can the changes of body image be attributed to player mode?
2. Research Methods
A pre-questionnaire consisting of 13 semi-open questions in four categories was devised.
An abridged version of the multidimensional body self-relations questionnaire (MBSRQ)
extracting three subscales from the MBSRQ initially designed by Cash and Pruzinsky
(1990) was used for measuring the body images.
A Kinect game named Adventures was selected for the four-week experiment, which
comprises a collection of mini sports games, allowing players to engage in an array of sport
activities. Players can play through three difficulty levels, each requiring various motor
skills and varying amounts of body movement.
Thirty-two students were enlisted from a university located in northern Taiwan to
participate into the four-week game-playing experiment, half of them males and the rest
females (average age = 22.7). The participants were divided into two groups, Group A that
was involved in single-player mode, and group B double-player gameplay.
During the four-week experiment, two sessions of gameplay were arranged each week, with
each session lasting for approximately 30 minutes. At the end of the second and fourth
week, an additional questionnaire was administered for data collection, respectively. The
gathered data were processed quantitatively using the statistical procedure of mixed analysis
of variance.
3. Results and Discussions
The analytical results indicated that the participants’ body images were significantly
increased over the four-week experiment. The body image score measured at the end of the
experiment (score=2.87, SD=.28) was significantly higher than the pre-questionnaire score
166
(score=2.79, SD=.28), but was only marginally higher than the score obtained from the
second measurement (score=2.86, SD=.29).
The effect of gender difference was examined through a procedure of mixed analysis of
variances. The results show no significant difference in body images between genders,
indicating that gender difference exercises little influences in promoting body image
through exergaming. No significant changes have been identified in the effect of
player-mode. A closer look at the scores obtained at the three measurement points reveals
that in spite of the insignificant difference of changes between single-player and
double-player mode, the two modes show a different tendency. In group A where single
player mode was employed, the highest score was obtained from the second measurement
point, while the score of the final measurement was only slightly higher than the initial
score. In group B where double-player mode was adopted, the scores increased in an
ascending order.
4. Conclusion
After the four-week gameplay experiment, the overall body images of the participants have
significantly improved as a whole. This study confirms that the Kinect-based exergame,
Adventures, contributes to the building up of a positive body image in general. As to the
effects of gender difference and player modes, little influences have been identified in the
results of body image scores measured during the four-week gameplay experiment.
References
Cash, T. A., & Brown, T. F. (1990). Attitudinal body-image assessment: factor analysis of
the body-self relation questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 135-144.
Mitre, N., Foster, R. C., Lanningham-Foster, L., & Levine, J. A. (2011). The energy
expenditure of an activity-promoting video game compared to sedentary video games

167
and TV watching. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, 24(9-10),
689-695.
O’Loughlin, E., Dugas, E., Sabiston, C, & O’Loughlin, J. (2012). Prevalence and Correlates
of Exergaming in Youth. Pediatrics. Originally published online October 1, 2012. DOI:
10.1542/peds.2012-0391.
Seo, D. C., Torabi, M. R., Chin, M. K., Huang, S. F., Chen, C. K., Mok, M. M., Wong, P.,
Chia, M., Lee, C.G., Wang, C. (2011). A comparison of factors associated with physical
inactivity among East Asian college students. International Journal of Behavioral
Medicine, DOI: 10.1007/s12529-011-9167-4.
168
Learning Areas of Parallelograms in a Multimedia

Environment: A Preliminary Report
Shyh-Chii TZENGa, Hui-Chuan HUANGa, Huei-Min WUb & Tai-Yih TSOc
a
Department of Applied Informatics, Fo Guang, University Taiwan
b
Department of Psychology, Fo Guang University, Taiwan
c
Department of Mathematics, National Normal University, Taiwan
sctzeng@mail.fgu.edu.tw
Abstract: Fifth graders were asked to solve problems in a digital game after learning from a
simulation designed to teach them about areas of parallelograms. Measurements of
cognitive load, motivation, and game performance indicated that students' cognitive load for
the game was moderately high, their motivation in the game was positive, and their game
performance could be improved.
Keywords: Educational games, Geometry learning, Cognitive load, Motivation
Introduction
Using simulations and games to enhance students' achievement in mathematics is nothing
new, challenges to the effective design of them remain. In particular, in interactive
environments such as games, novice players are likely to be overwhelmed by multimodal
presentation of information. The purpose of this preliminary report was to describe the
design and development of a game used to facilitate students' learning of areas of
parallelograms.
1. Theoretical Framework
Several theories have been proposed to explain characteristics of games that might increase
players' intrinsic motivation which consequently could lead to better learning. According to
Malone and Lepper (1987), intrinsic motivation in a game depends on an interplay among
four important factors: challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy. Similar gaming elements
are proposed by Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002). Moreover, as experiencing flow has a
positive impact on learning, flow inducing features such as optimal challenge, clear goals,
feedback, focused attention, sense of control, playability, frame story, and gamefulness
should be implemented in a game (Kiili, 2005). Other than the above suggestions, recent
169
research in pedagogical agents and avatars has indicated the potential of containing them in
games (e.g., Bailenson & Blascovich, 2004; Heidig & Clarebout, 2011; Mayer & DaPra,
2012; McLaren, DeLeeuw, & Mayer, 2011).
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
A total of 26 fifth graders (16 boys and 10 girls) from an elementary school located in
northeastern part of Taiwan participated in this study.
2.2 Instructional Materials
The instructional materials consisted of a simulation created in GeoGebra (GGB) and a
game created in Flash CS 5. The game, entitled "Museum of Geometric Art," contained five
problem-solving stages. Several features were incorporated into the game based on the
review of the literature. First, there was a match between game fantasy and the learning task.
Game problems in each stage were in line with game story and were stated in a way that
made them relevant to students' life experiences. Second, to increase engagement with the
game, a student was allowed to choose his or her own avatar icon (i.e., a cartoon figure). In
addition, the student's name was embedded in game dialogues. Third, to increase game
performance, a pedagogical agent was present before each stage to provide a quick review
of related concepts taught in the simulation. Fourth, game settings, characters, and screen
design were supposed to be attractive to students. Unnecessary details or decorations,
however, were excluded from the game to avoid overloading a student's working memory.
Fifth, to make the game optimally challenging, learning activities were arranged from easy
to difficult. Finally, to help learners visualize necessary processes while solving problems,
tools (e.g., digital rulers) were provided.
2.3 Instruments
Students' performance in the game was measured by 60 practice problems (32
170
multiple-choice, 4 matching, and 24 fill-in-the-blank problems) embedded in the game. The
Cognitive Load and Motivation Inventory (CLMI) (Tso et al., 2011) was used to measure
task difficulty, effort needed to complete a task, effort devoted to a task, willingness to
continue a task, and confidence level while working on a task.
2.4 Procedures
This study consisted of two sessions. Students in the first session were asked to learn from
the GGB simulation for about 30 minutes. In the second session, students were first asked to
play the Flash game and then to complete the CLMI. Approximately, 50 minutes were
needed to complete the second session of the study.
3. Results
Descriptive statistics regarding students' cognitive load and motivation for the game as well
as their game performance are displayed in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1 Mean Cognitive Load and Motivation Scores (and SDs) for the Game
M SD
Willingness to continue 4.96 1.51
Difficulty 4.50 .86
Effort needed 4.65 1.23
Confidence 4.12 .59
Effort invested 5.42 1.10
Note. A seven-point rating scale was used.
Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Game Performance and Time
M SD
Number correct 31.73 7.72
Note. Maximum score is 60.
In this preliminary study, features such as fantasy, a pedagogical agent, and engagement
devices were added to a digital game designed to teach fifth graders about areas of
parallelograms. The results showed that although students' cognitive load for the game was
moderately high, they put in a considerable amount of effort into the game and were quite
willing to play the game. To increase students' game performance, however, other
171
instructional features such as providing explanatory feedback in the game might be useful.
References
Bailenson, J. N., & Blascovich, J. (2004). Avatars. In W. S. Bainbridge (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of human-computer interaction (pp. 64-68). Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire
Publishing Group.
Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research
and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441–467.
Heidig, S., & Clarebout, G. (2011). Do pedagogical agents make a difference to student
motivation and learning? A review of empirical research. Educational Research
Review, 6(1), 27-54.
Kiili, K. (2005). Educational game design: Experiential gaming model revised. Retrieved April,
9, 2008 from http://amc.pori.tut.fi/publications/EducationalGameDesign.pdf
Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic
motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and
instruction: Vol. 3. Cognative and affective process analysis (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Mayer, R. E., & DaPra, S. C. (2012). An embodiment effect in computer-based learning
with animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3,
239-252.
McLaren, B. M., DeLeeuw, K. E., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). A politeness effect in learning
with web-based intelligent tutors. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,
69(1-2), 70-79.
Tso, T. Y., Lu, F. L., Tzeng, S. C., Wu, H. M., Chen, M. J., & Tan, N. C. (2011). Impact of
reducing task complexity on experts' and novices' reading geometric proof. Bulletin of
Educational Psychology, 43, 291-308.
172
Exploring Learners’ Flow and Cognitive Load

in an Educational Match Game
Ya-Hui HSIEHa, Yi-Chun LINa, Huei-Tse HOUa*, Yi-Shiuan CHOUa, Hui-Shi WUb,
& Hui-Jen LEEb
a
Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of
b
*hthou@mail.ntust.edu.tw
Abstract: This poster aims to explore the relationships between students’ game flow
experience and cognitive load (CL) in an educational match game. The analysis revealed
there were negative relationships between flow antecedents and CL.
Keyword: flow experience, cognitive load, game-based learning, match game
Introduction
Drill-based games were widely used in education recently, and some funny matching
mechanisms embedded in these games were popular with learners. Learning through games,
students may have more flow experiences and further improve their learning outcomes
(Kiili, 2006). However, learning context embedded with rich elements was likely to increase
CL (Sweller et al., 1998). Thus, this study aims to initially explore the correlations between
students’ flow and CL in an educational match game.
2. Methodology, Results and Discussions
The participants were 36 college students in Taiwan. Two questionnaires, flow experience
(Kiili, 2006) and CL (Sweller et al., 1998), were administered to them individually after
playing a match game Goodbye My Love© (Figure1) developed by this study. Players
needed to correctly classify resources following the matching rules.
173
Figure 1 The screenshot of Goodbye My Love©
As shown in Table 1, the negative relationships between the flow antecedents and both
mental effort and mental load were found (r=-0.47 and r=-0.48, respectively). Students who
experienced higher flow antecedents showed a lower degree of CL. Students who
experience flow elements such as a game with clear goals, feedback, a sense of control, etc,
should experience less CL. For educators, educational games may be developed with the
above flow elements to reduce CL.
Table 1 Correlation between flow and CL

Cognitive load
Mental
Mental Load
Effort
Flow Flow Antecedents -.47** -.48**
experie Indicators of Flow
-.22 -.16
nce experience
**p< .01
Acknowledgements
We thank and honor the memory of Hui-Jen Lee for her contribution on this project.
References
Kiili, K. (2006). Evaluations of an experiential gaming model. Human Technology, 2(2),
187-201.
Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture
and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-297.
174
Forming Cultural and Emotional Atmosphere

with 3D Simulations on the Stage to Create
Shared Experience
Wei-Chin CHEN
a
Tajen University Department of Digital Multimedia Design
*charles@mail.tajen.edu.tw
Abstract: 3D simulations are mostly used on personal computers to create scenarios for the
game players to be immersed in the virtual story world. In this research, creating cultural and
emotional atmosphere on the stage with the performance of a choreodrama can extend the
personal experience into a shared one. Mudan Village Incident was a Taiwanese historical
tragedy happened in 1874 which reminds people of the respect, peace, and love to others in
the multicultural society. The integration of digital motion graphics, visual effects
technology, and optical front projection, were used in the project to bring the cultural history
of Mudan Village Incident alive. Cinematographic production and game development
procedure were adopted in the creation. The live performance had gained much attention
and positive feedbacks. The results of the creation had provided valuable references for
future practices, especially for cross-fields research.
Keywords: visual effects, choreodrama, digital art, shared experience, informal education
Introduction
Visual effects technology has been developed for beyond a hundred year. With remarkable
advances of computer science, 3D simulation technology provides much more possibility to
extend people’s experience with sum total of all media. The research of this study focuses
on the creation of new media experience combine with live action performance to share
dramatic experience and deliver the idea of digitize stage atmosphere to benefit the story
telling. Mudan Village Incident is a choredrama performed by King of Dance which is an 8-
year-old dance theatre in Pingtung County on June 23, 2012 at Pingtung County
Auditorium. 3D particle simulation and 2D motion graphics support the idea of shared
experience. And furthermore, visually enhance message in the story. In the early19 century,
French visual artist Georges Méliès successfully used delicated visual tricks with live action
175
performance to capture people’s attention. After hundred years, digital technology gives
more possibility in creating multimedia content for entertainment, media broadcasting and
education. In this study, we combined 3D particle simulation motion graphic with
choredrama to create shared experience to bring the Taiwanese historical story alive.
References
Charles Finance, Susan Zwerman,(2010), The Visual Effects Producer-Understanding the
Art and Business of VFX, ISBN:978-0-240-81263-2.
Jeffery A,Okun, Susan Zwerman,(2010), The VES Handbook of Visual Effects-Industry
Standard VFX Practices and Procedures, ISBN:978-0-240-81242-7.
Steve Wright, (2002), Digital Compositing for Film and Video, ISBN:0-240-80390-6.
Tim Dobbert, (2004), Matchmoving-The Invisible of Camera Tracking,
ISBN:0-7821-4403-9.
Richard Rickitt, (2000), Special Effects-The History and Technique, ISBN:0-8230-7733-0
Mark Cotta Vaz, Craig Barron, (2002), The Invisible Art-The Legends of Matte Painting,
ISBN:08118-3136-1.
Chiu, Hungdah (1979). China and the Taiwan Issue. London: Praeger. ISBN 0-03-048911-3
Paine, S.C.M (2002). The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and
Primacy. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81714-5.
Smits, Gregory (1999). Visions of Ryūkyū: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought
and Politics. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
176
App-enabled Game-initiated Learning

through Metaphor-enhanced Learning
Objects
Ching-Huei CHEN* & Kuan-Chieh WANG

National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan
*chhchen@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Abstract: In this study, we develop an educational app game in which students learn three
elements of force as they immerse in playing the game. The goal of the app game is to
facilitate students’ intuitive understanding of science concepts through interactive games.
Unlike other app games that are often not grounded in or adhere to the definition,
foundations, assumptions, and methods of any psychological research and theory, our game
seeks to provide an authentic learning context that promotes scientific understanding and
learning.
Keywords: App games, metaphor, learning objects, intuitive, immersive
Introduction
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) reported in 2006 that students’
science achievement has increased over the past years, however their attitudes and literacy
levels toward science have been falling tremendously. Two principles are recommended to
solve this incoming problem: (1) addressing students’ preconceptions, promoting students’
knowledge of what it means to do science, and (2) emphasizing the higher-order thinking
skills. This study situated in the context of app-enabled game-initiated, metaphor-enhanced
learning objects to promote scientific understanding and learning.
1. Game-initiated Metaphor-enhanced Learning Objects
As an advanced technology, game has transformed our pedagogical strategies about
learning and how to teach (van Eck, 2006). A book named “Metaphors we live by”
addresses that metaphors are not simply words, it is thought and meaning making or ‘image
schemas’ arise from core elements of embodied human experience and perceptions (Lakoff
177
& Johnson, 1980). Metaphors have been used commonly to describe teaching and learning.
In teaching, Martinez et al. (2001) have described teachers develop conceptual and personal
metaphors based on their prior experiences, which in turn shape their belief systems. In
learning, the notion of metaphors has been utilized in traditional classroom teaching as well
as in computer-supported educational settings. Metaphor offers an efficient mode of
learning that is not always evident from verbal statement. Situating the study in the context
of game-initiated, metaphor-based learning would provide insights into the major constructs
involved in this study as well as their inter-relationships.
2. AppGaMEs
In this study, we adopt metaphor into the design of our instructional game AppGaMEs.
AppGaMEs approach translates what the expert know, that is, what the scientist holds
abstractly within his or her mind, into a concrete world that students can physically
manipulate. Students will form mental models about the instructional game world through
inquiry and discovery. The goal of AppGaMEs is to facilitate student intuitive
understanding of science concepts through interactive games. The project builds upon the
integration of instructional game design and educational psychology to develop an
informatics system incorporating scaffolding mechanics that support knowledge
construction and building.
References
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Martinez, M., Sauleda, N., & Huber, G. (2001). Metaphors as blueprints of thinking about
teaching and learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 965-977.
van Eck, R. (2006). It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. Retrieved December 10,
2011, from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0620.pdf

178
What are You Dying to Play? : When Flow

Experiences in Game-based Learning cross the
Line to Addiction
Daphne ChingYu TSENGa & Dusti HOWELLb
a
Emporia State University, Emporia KS, USA
b
Emporia State University, Emporia KS, USA
ctseng@g.emporia.edu
dhowell@empori.edu
Abstract: This poster will discuss recent studies and possible solutions to help educators
and parents prevent addiction behavior when integrating flow experience such as digital
game-based learning or mobile learning into teaching.
Keywords: flow experience, Internet addiction, Game-based learning, and mobile learning.
Csikszentmihalyi (1975) proposed that people consider the pursuit of happiness to
be a goal; when people feel happy, the “flow experience” is formed. With flow theory, there
are researches related to digital games which pointed out that it was significantly beneficial
in four major respects: learning achievement, development of cognitive abilities, learning
motivation, and focused attention on learning. Unsurprisingly, these educational technology
developments have led to concerns from many parents, educators, and policymakers that the
excessive amount of time spent by children on digital games and mobile devices may result
in the development of addictive tendencies among children to digital games and
smartphones.
In 2010, according to Kaiser Family Foundation study; on a typical day, 8- to
18-year-olds in the USA spend more than 7.5 hours using media and teenagers spend an
average of 31 hours a week online. Thus, scholars concur that addiction of any kind is
usually associated with an uncontrollable urge, often accompanied by a loss of control, a
preoccupation with use, and a desire to continue with the activity even though it creates
problems. Those problems may include the reduction of work efficiency and an
unwillingness to engage in face-to-face contact with people.

179
Within this poster session we will share the current situation about children and
young adults’ media usage, the studies about Internet addiction and the possible solution
from the instructional design perspective.
Topic 1: Exploring the flow experience and children’s learning.
Topic 2: Identify the difference between flow experiences and addiction.
Topic 3: Current situation about children and young adult’s media/Internet/video game
usage.
Topic 4: How to avoid Internet addiction when integrating technologies into teaching.
1. The balance between gaming and learning activities.
2. The balance between challenges through the games and abilities of the learner.
3. Embedding educational objectives in game scenarios, particularly when
declarative knowledge is concerned.
References
Chiang, Y. T., Lin, S. S. J., Cheng, C. Y., & Liu, E. Z. F., (2011). Exploring online game
players’ flow experiences and positive affect. Turkish Online Journal of Educational
Technology, 10(1), 106-114
Kaiser Family Foundation. (2010). Generation M2: media in the lives of 8- to 18-years-olds.
Retrieved from http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf.
Liu, E.Z.F. (2011). Avoiding Internet addiction when integrating digital games into
teaching. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 39(10), 1325-1336.
doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.10.1325.
180
Track 4: Technology-Enhanced Science
Learning
Exploring the Relationship between

Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Efficacy
for Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge and Efficacy for ICT Design
Thinking
Joyce Hwee Ling KOHa, Ching Sing CHAIa, Huang-Yao HONGb & Chin-Ching TSAIc
a
b
Department of Education, National Chengchi University, Taiwan
c
Abstract: This study investigates Singaporean pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy of their

technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), their design thinking when they
are planning for ICT integrated lesson and their design disposition. Two new dimensions of
survey items were created based on literature review for the design practices and design
disposition. Together with previously validated TPACK items, the new survey was
administered to 93 pre-service teachers after two experts have reviewed the items.
Exploratory factor analysis was conducted subsequently followed by correlation analysis.
The 18-item survey yielded good construct validity and the correlations reveal that the
pre-service teachers’ design disposition, their design practice and their perceived TPACK
are significantly correlated.
Keywords: Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), design thinking,

design disposition
1. Introduction
Digital classrooms embody the aims of equipping students with important 21st century
skills such as problem-solving, collaboration, life-long learning, and knowledge
construction (PS21, 2009). Yet, many empirical studies found teachers using digital tools to
support information transmission activities (Lim & Chai, 2008). Teachers need to develop
what Mishra and Koehler (2006) termed as technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK), which is their capacity to design lessons that integrate the use of information and
communications tools (ICT). Specifically, teachers need to develop the kind of TPACK
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associated with supporting 21st century skills through digital classrooms. In their current
specification of the TPACK framework, Mishra and Koehler describe TPACK as teachers’
synthesis of three knowledge sources - technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge,
and content knowledge. TPACK is externalized as content-specific ICT lesson strategies
designed by teachers (Cox & Graham, 2009). It is also the design knowledge that emerges
throughout teachers’ digital lesson design process (Koehler, Mishra, & Yahya, 2007).
Teachers’ confidence for engaging in design thinking (Chai, Koh, & Tsai, 2013) could
impact how they maneuver their TPACK throughout the ICT lesson design process. While
several survey instruments assess teachers’ efficacy for TPACK (e.g. Chai, Koh, & Tsai,
2011), there are yet no available instruments to measure teachers’ perceptions of design
thinking with respect to ICT integration. The relationships between these two aspects are
not well understood.
This study aims to provide preliminary understanding of teachers’ design thinking with
respect to ICT integration through a self-reported survey. It also examines the relationship
between design thinking and TPACK through correlation analysis. The implications for the
design of teacher ICT training are discussed.
2. Design thinking for ICT Integration
Existing ICT lesson design models have typically been visualized as a systematic process
involving analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (See ASSURE
model, Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino, 1999). In contrast, Schön (1983) describes
the thinking of designers as a process of reflective conversation with the design situation.
Such kinds of “reflection-in-action” typify how designers undertake design tasks by
negotiating between the problem and solution iteratively to reach a desired understanding of
the problem, very often through progressive refinement of design artifacts (Lawson, 1997).
Design, therefore is a messy and episodic process.

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From design literature, certain practices characterize strong designers. Lawson (1997)
found that strong designers tend to play with ideas and their consequences as a means to
understand the problem situation. They also allow conflicting ideas to coexist rather than
forcing an early formalization of the problem solution during the design process. These
processes enable them to gather information until time is appropriate for consolidation
(Schön, 1983). Design studies also found several dispositions to be associated with design
thinking. These are the ability to tolerate uncertainty and conflicting ideas, as well as the
ability to allow time for solutions to emerge (Cross, 2011). Openness to new experiences, as
well as the confidence to push one’s personal judgment rather than accepting or copying
existing solutions are the other dispositions that support design thinking (Lawson, 1997).
In this study, such kinds of design practices and dispositions are premised to encapsulate the
design thinking teachers bring towards ICT lesson design. The fast pace of technological
changes make the constant design and adaptation of ICT lessons a necessity and reality for
teachers as they seek to keep their content and approaches relevant for 21st century
competencies. In such a landscape, design thinking is an important competency for teachers
as they seek to transform their classroom practices. In fact, it has been identified as the third
order barrier to effective ICT integration (Tsai & Chai, 2012). The interplay of teachers’
efficacy for design thinking as well as their efficacy for TPACK associated with designing
constructivist-oriented lessons can support this change. Such kinds of TPACK emphasize
designs that support learners in inquiry and knowledge construction with respect to
real-world problems in both individual and collaborative contexts (Chai et al., 2011). It is
hypothesized that teachers’ perceptions of efficacy for design thinking will be positively
correlated to their perceptions of efficacy for constructivist-oriented TPACK.
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3. Method
The Technological Pedagogical Content Design survey (TPCD) was constructed by first
adopting the six TPACK items from Koh, Chai and Tsai (in press). To investigate
pre-service teachers’ design disposition (DD) and the design practice (DP) they adopted,
items reflecting the desired design practice and design disposition were constructed based
on our review of literature. A total of 18 items were constructed, 6 items for TPACK, DD
and DP, respectively. The TPCD was reviewed by two senior professors in education
technology and relevant changes were made.
The TPCD was then administered to 93 preservice teachers who were attending preservice
teacher training at the National Institute of Education in Singapore. The preservice teachers
were invited to fill in the online survey by their tutors and participation was voluntary. They
were 26 males (28%) and the mean age is 24.8 (SD=4.7).
The skewness and kurtosis scores were screened to check for the normality of distributions.
None of the items exceeded the recommended acceptable scores which are |3| and |10|
respectively (Kline, 2005). Subsequently, following the recommendations of Costello and
Osborne (2005), principal axis factoring with direct oblimin rotation were used for
exploratory factor analysis. Factors with Eigen value greater than 1 were retained and the
item factor loading was set to cutoff at 0.5. As the sample size was relatively small, the
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy Barlett’s test of sphercity was
included. The mean scores of the identified factors were then computed and Pearson’s
correlation was run to determine the factors’ correlation.
4. Findings
Table 1 shows the results of the exploratory factor analysis. Three factors with Eigen value
greater than 1 were identified. They explained a cumulative variance of 76.4%. No items
were excluded as all items were above 0.5 for factor loadings. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
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Measure of Sampling Adequacy is .881 while the Bartlett's Test of Sphericity indicates
significance <0.001. The sample is thus adequate for the conduct of factor analysis and the
three factors that we have hypothesized were identified. In addition, the Cronbach’s alpha
reliabilities ranged from 0.90 to 0.95. These results provide strong grounds that the TPCD
survey is valid and reliable for future use.
Table 1: The Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis for TPCD
Items Factor
1 2 3
DP_2 When designing an ICT lesson, I consider several lesson ideas 0.95
to see if they adequately address students' learning problems
before choosing one idea.
DP_5 When designing an ICT lesson, I consider the consequences of 0.94
adopting particular lesson ideas before working out its details.
DP_4 When designing an ICT lesson, I continually refine my lesson 0.87
ideas as I develop new understandings throughout the design
process.
DP_3 When designing an ICT lesson, I allow conflicting lesson ideas 0.83
to coexist until I feel that I have adequately understood the
learning problems.
DP_1 When designing an ICT lesson, I start by playing with a few 0.80
lesson ideas.
DP_6 When designing an ICT lesson, I am prepared to completely 0.56
change my lesson ideas if needed.
DD_3 I am comfortable to explore conflicting ideas. 0.93
DD_4 I am comfortable to deviate from established practices. 0.81
DD_5 I am comfortable with occasional failures from trying out new 0.81
approaches for ICT lessons.
DD_2 I am open to new experiences. 0.78
DD_6 I am constantly seeking to turn constraints into opportunities. 0.76
DD_1 I am comfortable with the presence of uncertainty. 0.58
TPACK 3 I can craft real world problems about the content knowledge 0.95
and represent them through computers to engage my students.
TPACK 1 I can formulate in-depth discussion topics about the content 0.90
knowledge and facilitate students' online collaboration with
appropriate tools. (e.g. Google Sites, CoveritLive)
TPACK 4 I can create self-directed learning activities of the content 0.88
knowledge with appropriate ICT tools (e.g. Blog, Webquest)
TPACK 5 I can design inquiry activities to guide students to make sense 0.78
of the content knowledge with appropriate ICT tools (e.g.
simulations, web-based materials).
TPACK 2 I can craft real world problems about the content knowledge 0.74
and represent them through computers to engage my students.
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TPACK 6 I can design lessons that appropriately integrate content, 0.55

technology and pedagogy for student-centered learning.
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. a.
Rotation converged in 10 iterations.
Table 2 below shows the results of the Pearson correlation test. All three factors are
significantly and positively correlated. However, the strength of correlation is higher
between DP and TPACK rather than DP and DD.
Table 2 – Pearson correlations between TPACK and Design Thinking

TPACK Design Practice Design Disposition
TPACK 1 .64** .25*
Design Practice 1 .38**
Design Disposition 1
**p <.01; *p <.05
5. Discussion and conclusion
Design thinking is increasingly being adopted in professional fields such as engineering,
architecture, and business to support complex problem-solving (Dorst, 2006). However, the
concept of design thinking is still fairly new in the area of education. This study provides
preliminary evidence of valid and reliable items for assessing teachers’ design thinking with
respect to ICT integration. Such kinds of instruments provide a first step for understanding
the design processes of teachers with respect to the practices of established designers. It can
be also be used to support qualitative analysis of teachers’ design behaviors by serving as a
triangulating data source. The TPACK framework has often been criticized for its
limitations as a lesson design framework because it does not describe how teachers make
connections between technology, pedagogy, and content to formulate their pedagogical
reasoning (Cox & Graham, 2009). Assessment of teachers’ perceptions of their design
thinking provides the missing link of teachers’ design practice and such data can be used to
enhance the theoretical development of the TPACK framework, especially the kinds of
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supporting skills that need to be developed in teachers.
These results partially support our hypothesis of a positive correlation between design
thinking and TPACK. The results indicate that Design Practices have a strong correlation
whereas the correlation between Design Disposition and TPACK is weak, even though it is
significant. These results suggest that for teacher ICT education, teachers’ initial disposition
for design may not necessarily influence their confidence of TPACK. However, there is a
need to scaffold teachers’ development of good design practices by encouraging them to
ideate, play with ideas, understand their problem space, as well as to judge when they should
consolidate their ideas. Teachers’ perceptions of confidence with such kinds of
competencies can have a greater impact on enhancing their TPACK efficacies. An
implication of these results is the importance of modeling good design practices to teachers
in teacher education ICT curriculums. Current studies found that TPACK can be fostered
through design projects (Koehler et al., 2007). The findings of this study suggest that these
projects should be structured with guidelines to emphasize good design practices by
providing opportunities for iterative ideation and idea consolidation. This can enhance
teachers’ practice of design thinking during ICT lesson design.
References
Chai, C. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Tsai, C. C. (2011). Exploring the factor structure of the
constructs of technological, pedagogical, content knowledge (TPACK). The
Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 20(3), 595-603.
Chai, C. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Tsai, C. C. (2013). A Review of Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge. Education Technology and Society, 16(2), 31-51.
Cox, S., & Graham, C. R. (2009). Diagramming TPACK in Practice: Using and elaborated
model of the TPACK framework to analyze and depict teacher knowledge.
TechTrends, 53(5), 60-69.

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Cross, N. (2011). Design thinking. NY, USA: Berg.
Dorst, K. (2006). Design problems and design paradoxes. Design issues, 22(3), 4-17.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino, S. (1999). Instructional media and
technologies for learning. Columbus, OH: Prentice-Hall
Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Yahya, K. (2007). Tracing the development of teacher
knowledge in a design seminar: Integrating content, pedagogy and technology.
Koh, J. H. L., Chai, C. S., & Tsai, C.C. (in press). Examining practicing teachers’
perceptions of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) pathways: A
structural equation modeling approach. Instructional Science, DOI
10.1007/s11251-012-9249-y
Lawson, B. (1997). How designers think: the design process demystified: Architectural
Press, Oxford.
Lim, C. P., & Chai, C. S. (2008). Teachers' pedagogical beliefs and their planning and
conduct of computer-mediated classroom lessons. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 39(5), 807-828.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A
Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
PS21. (2009). Framework for 21st century learning. Retrieved from
http://www.p21.org/documents/P21_Framework.pdf
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action: Basic
books.
Tsai, C. C., & Chai, C. S. (2012). The “third”-order barrier for technology-integration
instruction: Implications for teacher education. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 28(6), 1057-1060.
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Cognitive Processes in Program Debugging

based on Eye-movement Analysis
Ting-Yun HOUa, Yu-Tzu LINa &Yu-Chih LINb
a
University, Taiwan
b
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yuanpei University, Taiwan
*linyt@ntnu.edu.tw
Abstract: This study investigates the cognitive processes involved in program debugging
based on eye gaze tracking. Twenty-five participants were asked to find bugs in the test
programs. Eye-movement analysis was employed to track the students’ gaze paths while
they traced and tried to debug the programs. Cognitive processes were then obtained by
sequential analysis of gaze data to investigate the significant sequences of attention areas.
The experiment results show that most learners had limited working memory capacities for
debugging programs, but females needed more manual calculation for the recursive
program. Females tended to grasp the program requirements and then trace into the major
part of the program, while males traced the change of output value according to the logic of
the iterative statements. For the recursive problem, females or high-comprehenders traced
the program based on the recursive logic to find bugs, while males traced the recursive
function in a more leaping way. Low-comprehenders tended to fall into some statements and
traced the program in an unstructured manner. These results can provide suggestions for
researchers/instructors to develop adaptive instructional strategies for students of different
characteristics.
Keywords: Computer programming, program debugging, eye tracking, cognitive process,

cognitive neuroscience
Introduction
Many instructors/researchers investigated how to effectively and efficiently develop
students programming skills. However, it is challenging for novice programmers is to locate
and resolve bugs (Lahtinen et al., 2005). Novices usually felt frustrated when they had to
find bugs because their knowledge about programming was fragile (Perkins & Martin,
1986). Some research discussed programmers’ debugging behaviors and found that novice
programmers debug programs in a trial-and-error manner without comprehending programs
so that they usually cannot resolve errors successfully (Fitzgerald, et al., 2008). Thus,
investigating factors of students’ cognitive processes in debugging programs is one of
critical keys to improve their programming skills. However, cognition is a very complex
189
process. Traditional research on cognition often conducted interviews and paper tests
(Chen, Lai, & Chiu, 2010), but the results of these methods might be affected by missing
memory, the exactitude of introspection, and unconscious social desirability. More than
80% of cognitive processes are obtained through vision (Sanders & McCormick, 1987).
Through the process of eye-tracking, it is possible to obtain data regarding the amount and
moment of eye fixation, saccade, gaze duration, regression, skipping, and refixation in an
area of interest (AOI), which in turn can help us understand the cognitive processes
occurring simultaneously. Eye movements detected by eye-trackers can provide much
information regarding visual cognitive processes (Just & Carpenter, 1984) and has been
used to investigate creativity, learning, reading, teaching, affection, and problem solving. In
previous studies, researchers applied eye-tracking to capture visual attention strategies and
to conduct a detailed account of visual attention during a debugging task (Bednarik, 2011).
In this study, we investigated the cognitive processes of program debugging for learners of
different genders and comprehension-levels, which can give suggestions to instructors for
design adaptive instructional strategies.
1. Methodology
1.1 Participants
Twenty-five subjects (13 males, 12 females) participated in the experiment. All subjects
were undergraduate students in the Department of Computer Science in a university in
North Taiwan and all had at least one year of education in C language. None of the subjects
had any major psychological or psychiatric disorders that may have affected the
experimental results.
1.2 Procedure
There were twenty-five participants. They were provided with two 100-lines C programs
(one was the iterative structure and the other was the recursive structure), each had three
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semantic or syntactic bugs. The subjects had to try to find all bugs by watching the source
codes without using program development software within 10 minutes. After they finished
debugging the codes, they then had to explain the logic of the programs in an interview in
order to assess whether they understood the programs successfully. Based on the correctness
of comprehension results in the interview, participants were classified as
high-comprehenders or low-comprehenders. In this experiment, 11 participants (5 males, 6
females) were high comprehenders while the 14 participants (8 males, 6 females) were
classified as low comprehenders.
1.3 Data collection
Eye movement data was recorded using the Eyelink 1000 eye-tracker at a viewing distance
of approximately 86 cm and a screen resolution of 1024 × 768. The gaze data was at first
down sampled to obtain quantized gaze sequences. Sequential analysis (Bakeman, 1986)
was then further employed for data interpretation and simplification. This algorithm can
analyze how a set of complex probabilities behaved when it is applied repeatedly over time
based on Maximum likelihood estimation. After sequential analysis, students’ cognitive
processes could be extracted.
The whole experimental procedure, including the interview was recorded with a video
camera to avoid loss of information. We also provided the subjects with the function of free
drawing on the screen so that they could write down their thoughts or computational
processes. The Region of Interest (ROI) was decided according to the logic of the program,
including variable definition, I/O statements, conditional statements, function calls,
computations in the function, and the note area, etc. Figure 1 illustrates an example of a test
program and the corresponding ROIs.
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Figure 1: One example of ROIs.

2. Results and discussion
2.1 Gender effects on cognitive processes of debugging
The experiment results of the iterative program for different genders, as illustrated in Tables
1, show that when debugging the iterative program, both males and females had the
significant sequence: Note area→ Note area, which implies that both genders could not
manipulate computations completely mentally while tracing the program and needed the
note area to assist program tracing. The reason might be that their working memory
capacities were not enough to trace the program because mental arithmetic is constrained by
working memory (Adams & Hitch, 1997; Mackintosh & Bennett, 2003). Female students
had the following additional sequences:
Variable definition→ I/O statement

I/O statement→ I/O statement
I/O statement→ Inner loop condition
That is, females paid much attention to the basic definitions and program requirements,
which are the major step to comprehend the program (Chen, 2007). Males had the additional
sequences:
Computation in the conditional statement→Variable definition→Conditional statements

for the output value
Output→Output
They spend more time tracing the value changes according to the logic of the iterative
statements of the loop. Previous research (Marzieh, Dave, & Colin, 2007) argued that the
most common mistakes made by novice programmers occur in the loop statements.
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Therefore, male participants in this experiment also considered the bugs might occur in the
loop.
In the experiment of the recursive program, females had the significant sequences (as
presented in Table 2):
Recursive function name→ Variable definition in the recursive function→ Conditional

statements in the recursive function
Conditional statements in the recursive function→ Conditional statements in the recursive
function
Computation in the recursive function → Computation in the recursive function →
Recursive call
Note area→ Note area
The results show that females often found bugs in recursive statements and followed the
recursive logic, which compiles with Sabah’s research (2012) indicating that students have
to trace the flow of recursive induction and the stop condition to execute the program and
find bugs. However, males tended to confirm the program requirements at first by seeing the
I/O statements. Their significant sequences were:
I/O statement→I/O statement

Return value of the recursive function→Computation in the recursive function
Recursive function name→Variable definition in the recursive function
Conditional statements in the recursive function→ Variable definition in the recursive
function
Males seemed to trace the recursive function in a leaping manner and did not pay equivalent
attention to all recursive components. They traced the value changes according to the
conditional statements and variable definitions in the recursive function. In addition, they
did not use the note area as often as females did. It seems that males did not feel the
limitation of their working memory for solving this recursive program.
Table 1: Sequential analysis results of the iterative program debugging for different genders.
Computation in the Conditional
Outer loop Inner loop
Variable definition I/O statement conditional statements for the Output Note area
z condition Condition
statement output value
F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
Variable definition 1.84 -0.59 2.54* -0.5 -0.6 0.54 0.99 1.56 0.07 -1.35 0.11 2.88* -0.68 -0.3 -0.84 0.17
I/O statement 0.52 0.28 2.57* 1.87 0.17 -1.79 3.13* 1.37 1.29 -0.24 -1.36 -0.65 0.02 -0.17 -2.73 -0.52
Outer loop condition 0.15 -1.17 -0.35 -1 0.6 1.51 1.96 1.66 1.03 0.64 -0.4 0.84 -0.11 -1.47 -0.39 -0.21
Inner loop Condition -0.29 -0.64 1.33 0.7 1.96 -0.18 1.89 1.82 0.98 0.34 -0.73 -0.32 -0.18 0.24 -1.81 -1.22
Computation in the
-0.52 2.36* -1.2 -0.24 0.11 0.64 0.19 -0.3 0.13 -0.87 -0.9 -0.81 1.71 -0.43 -0.17 0.24
conditional statement
Conditional statements for
-0.95 -0.81 0.12 -0.65 -0.4 -0.4 -0.73 -0.85 -0.25 -0.27 0.3 3.32 1.9 1.5 0.6 -0.49
the output value
Output 1.48 -0.3 0.52 -0.57 -1.24 -1.03 -1.14 -1.25 -1.39 1.08 1.11 1.5 0.83 2.5* -0.96 -0.72
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Note area -1.37 -0.92 -1.99 0.49 -1.21 -0.21 -1.81 -0.29 -0.83 -0.23 2.35* -1.28 0.24 -0.72 3.56* 2.03*
*p < 0.05.
Table 2: Sequential analysis results of the recursive program debugging for different genders.
Variable definition Conditional
Recursive function Computation in the Return value of the
I/O statement in the recursive statements in the Recursive call Note area
Z` name recursive function recursive
function recursive function
F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
I/O statement -0.75 2.2* -0.66 1.19 0 -1.39 0.85 -1.88 0.31 -0.27 -0.15 -1.26 0.66 0.46 -0.42 -0.59
Recursive function
-0.66 -0.43 -0.59 -0.52 2.5* 2.72* 0.46 -0.94 -0.23 -0.42 -0.96 0.2 -0.64 -0.83 -1.1 -1.4
name
Variable definition
in the recursive 1 -0.66 0.24 -0.06 -0.59 -1 2.06* 1.03 0.68 1.03 -1.45 1.25 -0.97 -0.93 -1.05 -1.57
function
Conditional
statements in the -1.36 -0.27 0.46 -0.42 0.39 2.41* 2.85* 0.43 0.32 0.43 0.61 0.51 -1.31 1.12 -1.8 -1.17
recursive function
Computation in the
-1.27 -1.88 -1.12 -0.42 1.86 0.56 -1.43 1.45 2.08* 0.77 2.58* 0.51 -0.4 1.12 -0.17 -1.17
recursive function
Recursive call 1.71 -1.26 1.14 -1.32 -0.75 -0.8 -0.94 1.02 0.93 1.02 1.68 -0.6 -0.08 0.33 -1.78 -0.02
Return value of the
-0.72 0.46 -0.64 -0.83 -0.97 -0.93 -1.31 1.12 -1.22 2.71* 1.85 -0.85 -0.7 -0.54 2.18* -0.9
recursive function
Note area `0.39 1.67 -1.1 -0.68 -1.05 -1.57 -1.35 -0.22 -1.62 -1.17 -0.65 -0.02 3.87* 0.21 2.91* 0.49
*p < 0.05.
2.2 Comprehension-level effects on cognitive processes of debugging
The results of the iterative program for different comprehension levels are presented in
Table 3. High comprehenders had the following significant sequences:
Variable definition→Conditional statements for the output value

I/O statement→Inner loop condition
Outer loop condition→Inner loop condition
Low comprehenders tended to fall into several procedures for a while: variable definition,
I/O statements, Inner loop condition, and conditional statements for the output value. This
might be because they suffered difficulties in tracing the program so that they had to stay in
one procedure for a long time.
In the experiment of recursive program, high comprehenders had the sequences (Table 4):
I/O statement→Recursive function name

Conditional statements in the recursive function→Variable definition in the recursive
function
Return value of the recursive function→Note area
But the low comprehenders only had one sequence: Recursive function name→Variable
definition in the recursive function. It seems that high comprehenders tried to trace the
recursive program according to the recursive logic, while low comprehenders fell into the
initial steps of the recursive function.
Table 3: Sequential analysis results of the iterative program debugging for different comprehension levels.
194
Variable definition Conditional Computation in

Recursive function Return value of
I/O statement in the recursive statements in the the recursive Recursive call Note area
Z` name the recursive
function recursive function function
H L H L H L H L H L H L H L H L
I/O statement -0.64 2.12* 1.73 0.61 1.73 -0.69 0.54 1.54 -1.3 -0.07 3.4* -0.1 -0.19 -0.8 0.03 -0.62
Recursive function name 0.79 0.03 1.51 2.57* 1.51 -1.28 3.11* 1.54 1.02 0.08 -0.41 -1.33 0.84 -0.7 -2.38 -1.16
Variable definition in the

-1.14 0.02 -0.37 -0.88 -0.37 0.44 2.19* 1.64 1.11 0.59 -0.54 1.11 -0.97 -0.73 -1.33 0.59
recursive function
Conditional statements
-0.31 -0.69 1.07 0.9 1.07 0.86 1.11 2.38* 0.98 0.4 -1.34 0.1 -0.55 0.56 -1.42 -1.74
in the recursive function
Computation in the
0.25 1.07 -0.82 -0.57 -0.82 0.19 1.4 -1.15 0.01 -0.73 -0.81 -0.87 0.43 0.68 -0.4 0.37
recursive function
Recursive call -0.73 -1.05 0.41 -0.79 0.41 -0.21 -0.59 -0.93 0.55 -0.87 0.37 3.25* 1.92 1.53 0.28 -0.11
Return value of the
0.72 0.56 -0.24 0.07 -0.24 -2.14 -1.54 -0.91 -0.02 -0.07 0.33 2.16* 1.77 1.79 -1.19 -0.61
recursive function
Note area -0.69 -1.36 -1.1 -0.75 -1.1 0.07 -1.42 -0.94 -0.76 -0.45 1.53 -0.11 -0.36 -0.12 3.78* 2.32*
*p < 0.05.
Table 4: Sequential analysis results of the recursive program debugging for different comprehension levels.
Recursive function Variable definition in Conditional statements Computation in the Return value of the
I/O statement Recursive call Note area
\ name the recursive function in the recursive function recursive function recursive
H L H L H L H L H L H L H L H L
I/O statement 0.95 1.12 3.49* -1.16 -0.99 -0.59 0.1 -1.23 -0.27 0.13 -0.9 -0.73 0.85 -0.59 -0.25 -0.69
Recursive function
0.68 -1.16 -0.81 -0.11 1.56 3.69* -0.89 0.2 -0.52 -0.08 0.97 -1.31 -0.75 -1.4 -1.28 -1.29
name
Variable definition in
1.02 -0.59 -0.23 0.41 -1.56 0.01 1.62 1.3 0.43 1.38 0.02 -0.18 -1.04 -1.57 -1.21 -1.49
the recursive function
Conditional
statements in the -1.37 -0.1 -0.24 0.2 3.51* -0.83 1.51 1.46 0.37 0.56 -0.38 1.46 -0.02 -1.17 -2.46 -0.48
recursive function
Computation in the
-1.15 -1.95 -1.3 -0.08 0.99 1.38 -0.04 0.56 1.31 1.41 1.47 1.47 -0.36 -1.17 -0.58 -0.77
recursive function
Recursive call 0.22 -0.02 -1.01 0.22 -0.69 -0.85 1.19 -1.03 1.47 0.55 -0.48 1.49 0.13 -0.02 -1.61 -0.33
Return value of the
-0.66 0.36 -0.75 -0.77 -1.04 -0.89 -0.73 0.51 0.47 1.05 0.13 1.17 -0.69 -0.9 2.21* -0.93
recursive function
Note area 0.64 1.45 -1.28 -0.51 -1.78 -0.81 -1.21 -0.48 -1.57 -1.24 -0.35 -0.33 3.06* 0.49 2.47* 1
3. Conclusions
This research investigated cognitive processes involved in computer program debugging for
different types of learners based on eye-movement analysis. The findings show that most
learners had limited working memory capacities for debugging programs, but females
needed more manual calculation for the recursive program. Females tended to grasp the
program requirements and then trace into the major part of the program, while males traced
the change of output value according to the logic of the iterative statements. For the
recursive problem, females or high-comprehenders traced the program based on the
recursive logic to find bugs, while males traced the recursive function in a more leaping
way. Low-comprehenders tended to fall into some statements and traced the program in an
unstructured manner. These results can provide suggestions for researchers/instructors to
develop adaptive instructional strategies for students of different characteristics.
References
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experimental child psychology, 1997;67(1): 21–38.
195
Bakeman R. Observing interaction : an introduction to sequential analysis. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Bednarik, R. (2011). Expertise-dependent visual attention strategies develop over time
during debugging with multiple code representations. International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 70(2), 143-155.
Chen, H. C., Lai, H. D., & Chiu, F.C. (2010). Eye tracking technology for learning and
education. Research in Education Sciences, 4, 39-68.
Fitzgerald, S. (2008). Debugging: Finding, Fixing and Flailing, a Multi-Institutional Study
of Novice Debuggers. Computer Science Education, vol. 18, 93-116.
Just, M.A., Carpenter, P.A. (1984). Using eye fixations to study reading comprehension.
New Methods in Reading Comprehension Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 151-182.
Lahtinen E. (2005). A study of the difficulties of novice programmers. SIGCSE Bull., 37,
14-18.
Mackintosh N. J. and .Bennett E. S, The fractionation of working memory maps on to
different components of intelligence. Intelligence, 2003;31:519-531.
Marzieh, A. Dave, E., & Colin, H. (2005). An analysis of patterns of debugging among
novice computer science students. ITiCSE, 84-88.
Perkins, D. & Martin, F. (1986). Fragile knowledge and neglected strategies in novice
programmers. Proceedings of the first workshop on empirical studies of programmers
on Empirical studies of programmers, 213-229.
Sabah AL-Fedaghi. (2012). Conceptual framework for recursion in computer programming.
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 46(2), 983-990.
Sanders, M.S., & McCormick, E.J. (1987). Human factors in engineering and design. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
196
6E Inquiry Science: Marriage of Cognitive

Science and Learning Sciences
Aik Ling TAN & Seng Chee TAN*

*
sengchee.tan@nie.edu.sg
Abstract: In this paper we build on the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 5E
instructional model of inquiry science using a knowledge building approach. Inquiry
science, especially BSCS 5E model and knowledge building are popular approaches
adopted in many classrooms in the world but there have not been attempts to draw on the
strengths of these two well established and popular approaches. While the origin of BSCS
5E inquiry science is in cognitive sciences and knowledge building comes from a
socio-cultural perspective on learning, there are avenues for both ideas to complement each
other such that the learning of science can be enhanced in the classroom. This hybridization
effort aims to contribute to the repertoire of methods to bring about authentic learning of
science in the classroom.
Keywords: Knowledge building, inquiry science, instructional models, community of

learners
Introduction
In the research and development of e-Learning, much attention has been devoted to the use
of new technologies. This paper foregrounds the development in perspectives about
learning, both in learning sciences and in science education. A recent development in
learning sciences suggests viewing learning from the knowledge-creation perspective. One
such knowledge creation e-learning approach is the knowledge building pedagogy proposed
by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006). On the other hand, inquiry science have gained
widespread advocacy in many parts of the world. Inquiry science is the prominent theme in
science education reforms since the 1900s (Anderson, 2007); more specifically, BSCS 5E
model is one of the most prolific science inquiry models with about 73,000 curriculum
materials developed from it (Bybee et al, 2006). Knowledge building (Scardamalia &
Bereiter 2006), on the other hand, has its presence in over 19 countries
(http://www.ikit.org). While the adoption of these two approaches is ubiquitous, there has
197
been little attempt to draw synergy from the two methods. This paper integrates the 5E
model, premised on cognitive science foundation, with knowledge building pedagogy,
which privileges socio-cultural community approach of learning. The product is the 6E
model that not only engages students in interacting with physical phenomena through
empirical investigations, but also engages students in interacting with others in epistemic
discourse and reasoning around the phenomena (Kelly, 2008). This integrated model also
necessitates the use of technologies to support learning (thus e-Learning). Collaborative
technologies, such as online forums or wikis, could support creation of knowledge artifacts
(e.g., a note or a wikis essay) as well as collaborative work among learners to improve their
knowledge artifacts.
1. Foundations of inquiry science and knowledge building pedagogy
1.1 Inquiry science
Learning science through inquiry should enable students to be better aligned to our current
understanding of the nature of science, that is, the epistemological underpinnings of science.
Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, and Schwartz (2002) suggested that current science
instruction should reflect that (1) scientific knowledge is empirical in nature; (2) science is
largely governed by scientific theories and laws; (3) there is a creative and imaginative
element in creating scientific knowledge; (4) science is practiced in a larger social cultural
context; and (5) scientific knowledge is tentative in nature. Teaching students about the
nature of science can either be done through explicit instruction or it can be done in part
through exposing students to the processes in science, as Lederman (2007, p835)
highlighted “inquiry experiences provide students with foundational experiences upon
which to reflect about the aspects of Nature of Science (NOS)”. The processes of scientific
inquiry which students undergo should thus reflect what science is since the assumption
here is that school science should resemble authentic science as closely as possible. That
198
being said, however, we should be cautious that learning science by inquiry may not
naturally lead to an understanding of NOS (Lederman, 2007). Rather, inquiry science better
reflects the nature of science as evidence based (empirical), tentative, and practiced in a
larger context of a community of scientists.
1.2 Knowledge building
Knowledge building is premised on a socio-cultural approach of learning that leverages
community’s expertise and effort to advance understanding of a topic by working on
communal knowledge artifacts. It starts with an investigation of “question of wonderment”
(Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992), that is, problem of understanding the world. These
problems prompt the students to put forth their ideas about the phenomenon. In a public
platform (e.g., Knowledge Forum), students’ ideas can be worked on and improved. Thus,
technologies such as an online forum play a critical role in knowledge building because they
afford a tool for creation of knowledge artifacts and a tool to facilitate and record
collaborative advancement of ideas.
To improve the ideas, students must be engaged in productive knowledge building
discourse, which focuses on application of epistemic criteria to improve the quality of the
ideas. Authoritative sources of knowledge (e.g., textbooks) are used critically and
constructively in the students’ construction of understanding. Unlike the cognitive science
approaches that focus on individual’s learning (e.g., 5E inquiry science), knowledge
building requires collective cognitive responsibilities in improving knowledge artifacts and
a classroom environment that democratizes knowledge contribution rather than one that
privileges the teacher or a specific group of learners. Students also need to assume epistemic
agency, showing volition and capacity to engage in knowledge building work. The ultimate
goal is that the knowledge building practices become habitual practices that endure and
pervade through different subject and grade levels.
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The knowledge building process thus follows a spiral trajectory with three broad phases:
production of knowledge artifacts, collaborative improvement of knowledge artifacts, and
development of knowledge building culture.
2. The 6E model
This section describes the 6E model: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate, and
Enculturate. How do we engage the students in science inquiry? The 5E model suggests
making connection between past experience, prior conceptions and new concept. One of
the most important factors is the authenticity of learning. Students could be engaged by
solving problems that arise from their efforts in understanding the world, problems that the
students really care about. The goal is not just to look for practical solutions, but also to
achieve conceptual understanding. Knowledge building complements this view by bringing
in the social emotional dimension of learning. To achieve that, students should be
empowered with epistemic agency to deal with problems of learning goal, motivation,
evaluation, and long-range planning that are normally left to the teacher. In short, the
students should have ownership to learning through inquiry and have the capacity to work
on science inquiry. That requires a change in the power relationship in the classroom: all
students should be treated as legitimate contributors to the shared goals of the community
and not merely naive recipients of knowledge. Teachers, or other authoritative sources like
textbooks, are not the only legitimate sources of knowledge contribution. In such an
environment, students will take on shared cognitive responsibilities to produce ideas of
value to others for the overall advancement of knowledge in the community.
Explore. 5E model suggests having activities that expose the students’ current concepts,
processes and skills. Knowledge building approach suggests that students put forth their
ideas derived from authentic problems, that is, problems that arise from their efforts in
understanding the world. In addition, these ideas will be placed in a public space, for
200
example, an online forum, where they can be subjected to others for query and
improvement. Through knowledge building discourse, they question each other to clarify
their understanding. In addition, by having students share their ideas, they are exposed to a
diversity of ideas.
Explain. In the 5E model, the Explanation phase focuses on deriving explanations by
learners and teachers on a particular aspect of exploration activities. To be effective in this
process, students could learn to engage in knowledge discourse that values logic, critical
thinking and proper argumentation. Students should learn that claims must be substantiated
with evidence and with scientific principles or theories. Knowledge building discourse on
scientific explanation is important because students learn to appropriate scientific
vocabulary by engaging in these discourse. Engaging the students in public discourse
exposes them to different ways of explaining the same phenomenon. To facilitate the
process of explanation, students should also learn to use authoritative sources
constructively. That is, students should respect and judiciously use authoritative sources to
support their claims, while at the same time adopt a critical stance toward information
presented in the authoritative sources.
Elaborate. In the Elaboration phase, 5E model suggests that we challenge students’
conceptual understanding and skills to develop deeper and broader understanding. This
process can be enhanced by leveraging diversity of idea for improvement. That is, by
bringing in idea diversity, the students can compare and contrast the values of different
ideas, thus creating multiple zones of proximal development for the students. This creates a
rich environment for naïve ideas to evolve into new and more refined scientific ideas. It is
also important to foster a culture that regards each idea as an improvable idea. Rather than
competing for the best idea, the students jointly improve the quality, coherence, and utility
of ideas. Again, engaging in knowledge building discourse is critical for inter-subjectivity
and improvement of ideas. Through discourse, students learn to work on their initial idea
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toward more inclusive scientific principles and theories, and higher level of understanding,
transcending trivialities and oversimplifications. This process is called Rise Above in
knowledge building.
Evaluate. The 5E model suggests providing opportunities for students to assess their own
understanding and for teachers to evaluate student’s progress in the Evaluation phase.
Likewise, knowledge building approach advocates embedded transformative assessment.
The student community engages in its own internal assessment, through self- and peer-
critique. The teacher can help the students to set rigorous criteria. In addition, with the use
of online discussion forum, the evidence for assessment can be found in the discourse
(embedded) which can be used as assessment for learning as well as assessment of learning.
Improved ideas,
Scientific knowledge
Advancement of communal
knowledge artifacts
Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate, Evaluate
Enculturation and identity building

through pervasive knowledge
building
Naïve ideas,
everyday knowledge
Figure 1. The 6E inquiry model
Enculturate. To enculturate students into the scientific practices, there should be pervasive
knowledge building through iterative cycles of inquiry (Figure 1). Each inquiry cycle will
result in more ideas that can be explored further, thereby initiating continual cycles of
inquiry. Thus, advancement of naïve ideas to scientific ideas represents the cognitive
outcome of inquiry. In addition, students develop knowledge building practices and
disposition that is not being confined to particular occasions or subjects. Leveraging the
202
expertise among students and teachers in the learning community, everyone gains through
sharing and collaborative advancement of knowledge. This represents the social cultural
gain of the learning community. We believe that this vertical spiral of continual knowledge
building is important in a rich nurturing environment to appropriate the use of scientific
language, the science process skills and science inquiry attitudes and at the same, move their
everyday ideas towards construction of scientific ideas.
3. Concluding remarks
This paper presents a theoretical argument for integrating knowledge building pedagogy to
enhance science inquiry in the science classroom. This is to address the seemingly lack of
emphasis on the formation of a classroom learning community of science learners, a
community where school scientific knowledge is socially constructed and compared with
the scientific knowledge and where students learn to work together to create understanding
through social interaction. It is also a deliberate attempt to focus on the learning aspects of
e-Learning.
The 5E instructional model is designed to be specific to science and hence is suitably used to
ensure that scientific experimentation and hands-on data collection are parts of the process
of formulation of scientific knowledge. On the other hand, knowledge building focuses on
generic formation of knowledge and hence does not emphasize of scientific experimentation
and data gathering. The integration results in 6E model that will allow a science learning
community to be formed among the students. Furthermore, the students could experience
aspects of the characteristics of processes in science and scientific knowledge more
accurately. Students could better appreciate notions like the tentative nature of science, the
myth of the scientific method and the empirical nature of science when they engage
themselves in discussions and idea improvement within their community. The use of
technologies to support learning (thus e-Learning) is an integral part of this approach as

203
technologies could support creation of knowledge artifacts (e.g., a note or a wikis essay) as
well as collaborative work among learners to improve their knowledge artifacts.
References
Anderson, R. D. (2007) Inquiry as an organizing theme for science curricula. In S.K. Abell
and N. G. Lederman (Eds). Handbook of research on science education (pp. 807-830).
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Scotter, P. V., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., &
Landes, N. (2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins and effectiveness.
Colorado: BSCS.
Kelly, G. J. (2008). Inquiry, activity, and epistemic practice. In R. A. Duschl & R. E.
Grandy (Eds.), Teaching scientific inquiry: Recommendations for research and
implementation (pp. 99–117). Rotterdam: Sense.
Lederman, N. G. (2007). Nature of science: Past, present, and future. In S. K. Abell and N.
G. Lederman (Eds). Handbook of research on science education. (pp.831-879).
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schawrtz, R. S. (2002). Views of
nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners'
conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39,
497-521.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). Text-based and knowledge-based questioning by
children. Cognition and Instruction, 9, 177–199.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and
technology. In Sawyer, R. K. (Eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning
Sciences (pp. 97-118). NY: Cambridge University Press.
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Mental Efforts on Reading and Selecting

WWW Science Information
Chia-Wen CHEN & Meng-Jung TSAI*

Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
*mjtsai99@mail.ntust.edu.tw
Abstract: This study employed eye-tracking techniques to explore students’ visual attention
in the process of information problem solving. Forty-eight university students participated
in a problem-solving task in which they needed to select relevant science information from
the WWW. Task responding time and eye-tracking measures including average pupil
diameter, total fixation duration, total reading time and fixation velocity were collected and
computed for look zones of relevant information, partial relevant information and irrelevant
information. Results showed that the correlations between eye-tracking measures and
responding time depended on the levels of complexity of the online science information.
Eye-tracking measures may have revealed students’ cognitive load or mental effort on
reading and selecting science information from the WWW.
Keywords: eye tracking, online reading, science problem solving, mental effort
Introduction
The World Wide Web (WWW) has become an important learning resource for decades;
however, it is still challenging for students to successfully search, adjust, select and
integrate information for information problem solving (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990;
Debowski, 2001; Lexman, 2010; Tsai, Hsu & Tsai, 2012). Searching and selecting online
information is a complex cognitive process which involves multifaceted cognitive and
metacognitive strategies (Bates, 1990; Tsai & Tsai, 2003), especially while involving
ill-structured problem solving (Laxman, 2010). Students need not only to clearly define the
problem, but also need to identify information needed to solve the problem, such as what
kind of information is needed to answer a question, and how to get useful information
(Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990). Recent research showed that learners' online searching and
reading behaviors are related to their search qualities or information problem solving
205
performance (Tsai, Hsu & Tsai, 2012). However, how students read, select or pay attention
to complex online information is still not clear in such an open-ended problem-based
learning environment.
Eye-tracking technique has been widely applied in research fields including reading and
information processing (Rayner, 1998). Recently, it has been successfully applied to
examine multimedia learning (van Gog & Scheiter, 2010), to explore students’ science
problem solving strategies (Tsai, Hou, Lai, Liu, & Yang, 2012) and to detect learners’
attention distributions in interactive digital learning environments such as game-based
science learning contexts (Huang, Chou, & Tsai, 2012). The above studies have
demonstrated that eye-tracking technology is a potential and powerful tool to uncover
students’ learning strategies and process in digital science learning environments.
Eye-tracking measures in some degrees can reveal students’ learning states or cognitive
strategies utilized for learning.
Eye-tracking technology has also been applied to human-computer interaction studies for
decades (Hyona, Radach, & Deubel, 2003). Prior research in this field has reported that eye
movement can be an index of mental workload (Polt & Hess, 1964; Osuga, 1992;
Takahashi, Nakayama & Shimizu, 2000). Takahashi et al. (2000) reported that human’s
pupil size and blink rate increase while performing a task with higher mental workload.
Gilman and Underwood (2003) indicated that increasing cognitive load has little effect on
perceptual spans of pianists but decreases their eye-hand spans. These suggested that a task
involved with higher cognitive load may require longer fixation durations, longer reading
time, a larger pupil size and a higher blink rate.
Very limited studies explored the impact of cognitive load due to the complexity of online
information on student mental effort investments while reading and selecting online
206
information in order to solve science problems. This study assumed that the complexity
levels of online information are highly related to the relevancy levels between the online
information and the targeted problems. That is, reading relevant, partial relevant and
irrelevant online information can represent tasks with lower, middle and higher cognitive
load, respectively. Therefore, this study used eye-tracking technology to explore students’
mental efforts with regards to three levels of relevancy of online information (relevant,
partial relevant, irrelevant) while solving an information problem from the WWW.
1. Purpose
Based on the above literature review, this study attempted to explore the relationships
between students’ performance outcomes (task responding time) and eye movement
measures (e.g., fixation duration, total reading time, pupil size, fixation rate) while
searching and reading online information of different relevancies for science problem
solving. Followings are the three research questions:
1. Is there any significant correlation between students’ eye-tracking measures and task
responding time while searching information from relevant websites?
responding time while searching information from partial relevant websites?
responding time while searching information from irrelevant websites?
2. Methodology
2.1 Sample and Search Task
Forty-eight university students participated in a problem-solving task to predict occurrences
of landslide hazards. A search task was used to explore how students interacted with
207
different types of web information for problem solving. Four pictures illustrating different
combinations of environmental conditions such as temperatures, rainfalls, slopes and
objects on slides were shown before searching. Each participant was asked to pick out the
picture(s) in which he/she believed a landslide would occur and explain why. All
participants were guided to search from a website with a nested window structure: the
Google search window on the right hand side served as the main window for search
entrance; the question window on the upper left corner was to remind students the goal for
searching; the answer window on the bottom left corner provided a space for editing and
submitting answers. No time limit was set for all participants. After searching and reading
related information on the WWW, each participant edited their answers in the answer
window and submitted online. Right after submitting the answers, all participants were
asked to self-evaluate their cognitive loadings for conducting the search task.
2.2 Instrument and Data Collection
FaceLAB 4.5 with a sampling rate of 60 Hz was used to track and record participants’ eye
movement measures during the search task and GazeTracker 7.0 software was used to
analyze the eye-tracking data. The whole search process was automatically screen captured
by the eye-tracking system. After the search task, a self-reported question regarding
cognitive load was immediately provided for each participant to self-evaluate their loadings
due to the search task. The cognitive loading question was evaluated under a 10 point scale.
The higher score means more heavy loading was perceived by a participant. All
participants’ screen captured videos, including the task responding time, and answers to the
Landslide problem were also collected for data analysis.
208
2.3 Data Analyses
Based on reviewing the screen captured videos, three types of visited website information
were categorized according to the levels of information relativity: relevant information,
partial relevant information and irrelevant information. Table 1 listed the criteria for
categorizing:
Table 1. Criteria for categorizing types of visited website information.

Types of information Criteria
Information mentioned all the three necessary conditions for
Relevant
landslide occurring.
Information mentioned one or two of the three necessary
Partial Relevant
conditions for landslide occurring.
Information mentioned none of the three necessary conditions
Irrelevant
for landslide occurring.
Based on the above criteria, a content analysis was conducted in GazeTracker for each
participant to define and label each piece of web information shown on screen into one of
the following three types of Look Zones: Relevant, Partial Relevant or Irrelevant LookZone.
After defining and labeling all Look Zones, eye-tracking measures including average pupil
diameter (APD), total fixation duration (TFD), total reading time (TRT) and fixation count /
total time in zone (i.e., fixation rate, FR) were output for each look zone and further
computed for means of types of look zones. Besides, based on the videos, each subject’s
responding time was calculated from the beginning of entering the Google search engine
until an answer was submitted via the search system. Finally, correlation analyses were used
to examine the research questions proposed above. Moreover, students’ answers to the
Landslide problem were evaluated by two trained researchers for further data analyses.
3. Results
Preliminary results of the correlation analyses between eye-tracking measures and the
search-task responding time are presented in Table 2, for three types of web information:
209
relevant, partial relevant and irrelevant. No significant correlation was found between
relevant information and responding time across all eye-tracking measures; however, there
were significant findings in partial relevant information and irrelevant information zones.
For the partial relevant online information, students’ average pupil diameter and fixation
rate were significantly correlated with their responding time for finishing the search task. As
for the irrelevant online information, not only the above two eye-tracking measures but also
total fixation duration and total reading time on the irrelevant information zones, i.e., all of
the four measures on irrelevant look zones were significantly correlated with task
responding time. These results showed that students’ eye movements were different in
reading online information of different complexities while solving information problems.
Since reading irrelevant information requires more metal works then reading relevant
information, different types of look zones represent different mental load tasks. Therefore,
the results implied that eye-tracking measures could have reflected students’ mental efforts
invested on processing (i.e., searching and reading) online information for problem solving.
Table 2. Correlation coefficients between eye-tracking measures and search-task

responding time on relevant, partial relevant and irrelevant web information.
Eye-tracking measures
Types of look zones
APD TFD TRT FR
Relevant (low load task) 0.08 0.04 0.05 -0.07
Responding
Partial Relevant (middle load task) 0.31* 0.25 0.27 0.31*
Time
Irrelevant (high load task) 0.42** 0.32* 0.47** 0.31*
*p < .05; **p < .01
APD=Average pupil diameter; TFD=Total fixation duration; TRT=Total reading time; FR=Fixation rate.
Some interesting observations were found while we looking into different eye-tracking
measures. Searching information from partial relevant information zones was challenged
for students to judge and distinguish useful information from useless information; therefore,
210
the average pupil diameter and fixation rate could reflect the workloads or mental efforts to
select information on the www.
As for the irrelevant zones, not only the APD and FR but also TFD and TRT were
significantly correlated with task responding time. Reading irrelevant information while
conducting an online search task for problem solving, it requires deeper information
processing for a comprehensive understanding before judging, selecting and making a
decision to ignore such information. Therefore, total fixation duration and total reading
time in zones could reflect students’ mental efforts to overcome the difficulties for
comprehending such web information. Also, the significant average pupil diameter and
fixation rate showed that information selection was still a challenge in reading irrelevant
online information. This interesting observation provided suggestions for future studies
exploring the relationships between eye-tracking measures and online information
processing.
References
Bates, J. M. (1990). Where should the person stop and the information search interface
start? Information Processing & Management, 26(5), 575-591.
Debowski, S. (2001). Wrong way: Go back! An exploration of novice search behaviours
while conducting an information search. The Electronic Library, 19, 371–382.
Eisenberg, M. B., & Berkowitz, R. E. (1990). Information problem-solving: The big six
skills approach to library and information skills instruction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Hyona, J., Radach, R., & Deubel, H. (2003). The mind’s eye: Cognitive and applied aspects
of eye movement research. North-Holland.
211
Huang, L. J., Chou, Y. S., & Tsai, M.-J (2012). Instructional effects on students’ visual
attention in game-based science learning. Paper presented at the International
Conference on Computers in Education (ICCE), Singapore, November 26 –30, 2012.
Laxman, K. (2010). A conceptual framework mapping the application of information search
strategies to well and ill-structured problem solving. Computers & Education, 55,
513-526.
Plot, J. M., & Hess, E. H. (1964). Pupil size in relation to mental activity during simple
problem solving. Science, 132, 349-350.
Osuga, M. (1992). The estimation of mental workload using biological information.
Measurement and Control, 2, 324-325.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing：20 years of
research. Psychological Bulletin, 124 (3), 372-422.
Tsai, M.-J., & Tsai, C. C. (2003). Information searching strategies in web-based science
learning: The role of Internet self-efficacy. Innovations in Education and Teaching
International, 40(1), 43-50.
Tsai, M.-J., Hsu, C.-Y. & Tsai, C.-C. (2012). Investigation of high school students' online
science information searching performance: The role of implicit and explicit
approaches. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(2), 246-254.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-011-9307-2
Tsai, M.-J., Hou, H. T., Lai, M. L., Liu, W.-Y., & Yang, F. Y. (2012). Visual attention for
solving multiple-choice science problem: An eye-tracking analysis. Computers &
Education, 58(1), 375-385.
Van Gog, T., & Scheiter, K. (Eds.). (2010). Eye tracking as a tool to study and enhance
multimedia learning [special issue]. Learning and Instruction, 20(2).
212
The Effect of Different Representation on

Computer-based Test: Taking Elementary
Mechanics Concepts as an Example
Ah-Fur LAI & Chi-Che LIN

Department of Computer Science, Taipei Municipal University of Education, Taiwan
laiahfur@gmail.com, kingofamani@gmail.com
Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different
representation patterns of computer-based test. Three representations patterns
including text-based, text with graphics, and animation-based dynamic pattern are
designed for computer-based test items. To develop three patterns of
computer-based test items, this study adopts elementary mechanics concept as an
example. The subjects are 101 sixth graders, and they accepted three patterns of
computer-based test of simple mechanics at different time periods. The finding
shows that the test-takers significantly perform better in text with graphics pattern
and animation-based representation pattern than those in text-based one.
Keywords: Computer-based test, Elementary mechanics concept, Dynamic representation,

Static representation
1. Introduction
In the science education search, Huang (2008) found that the computer-based dynamic
representation assisted materials can facilitate the students learn geographic map and space
concepts, and its learning effect are significantly better than that of traditional teaching. Lin,
Wu and Lin (2011) integrated dynamic representations into a two-tier test to explore its
impact on concepts of simple and series circuits, and their finding shows that dynamic
representations can help high achievers to formulate their answers and assist the low
achievement group to better grasp the meanings of the test questions. Based on viewpoints
of multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997, 2001), learners may learn more deeply from words
and pictures than from words alone. Text only or text with graphic components is employed
to show static representation in paper-based or computer-based materials, on the other hand,
computer-based animation is used to implement dynamic representation. According to early
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multimedia learning researches, multimedia materials have positive effects on students’
learning achievement. Nevertheless, how multimedia-based test affects the student’s
performance is interesting and an important topic to survey. Little study pay attention to this
issue. As a result, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different
representation types of computer-based test.
Figure 1. Framework of cloud-based test management system
Figure 2. Interface of user Figure 3. Interface of test items

account management management
2. Methodology
2.1 System Framework
This study designs a computer-based test system using VBA (Visual Basic for Application)
of MS-Excel, and we adopt Dropbox as a back end server. The system framework is shown
in Figure 1, including teacher-side management subsystem, cloud-based storage (for
214
students account, scoring record, test items), and student-side test subsystem. The install
module can help the user to setup the computer-based test system. The system manager and
teachers can easily maintain the test-items and user accounts online or offline through the
function of synchronization of Dropbox, shown as Figure 2 and 3.
Figure 4. Test question of text-only Figure 5. Test question of text with

representation type graphics representation type
Figure 6. Test question of dynamic representation type

2.2 Development of different representation types of computer-based test items
The simple mechanics concepts are comprised up of level and gear sub concepts, and these
concepts are imparted to sixth graders in science subject. This study adopts simple
mechanics concepts as an example for developing three representation types of
computer-based test items including 15 items of level concepts, 10 items of gear concepts.
For instance, one mechanic test item ”when one big gear and one small one bite together, if
the small gear rotate one cycle, at the same time, how many cycles do the big one rotate?”
can be presented as static representation (text-based, or text with graphics), and dynamic
(animation-based) representation forms of computer-based test items, shown as Figure 4, 5
and 6. After pilot test, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of text-based test items is 0.745, its
difficulty indexes range from .407 to .944, and its discrimination indexes range from .22
215
to .52. All of these indexes show that the validity and reliability of this instrument are
adequate.
2.3 The subjects
The subjects are 101 sixth graders from six classes of an elementary school in New Taipei
city, and they accepted three different representation patterns of computer-based test of
simple mechanics afore mentioned, at three different time periods in a month, at computer
labs. Avoiding the maturation effect, the subjects did not get correct answers for those three
different representation types of test questions after testing.
Table 1. Summary of pair-wised t test for scores of different representation

concepts Pair-wise M, SD t(100) Sig.
text: M=10.12,SD=2.861
Lever concept Text - Graphics -3.602 .000***
graphics: M=10.69,SD=2.749
text: M=6.78,SD=1.798
Gear concept Text - Graphics -1.563 .121
text: M=16.90,SD=4.073
Total Text -Graphics -3.629 .000***
Lever concept Graphics-Dynamic -4.503 .000***
dynamic: M=11.66,SD=2.981
Gear concept Graphics-Dynamic -9.793 .000***
Total Graphics- Dynamic -8.761 .000***
text: M=10.12,SD=2.861
Lever concept Text - dynamic -6.169 .000***
text: M=6.78,SD=1.798
Gear concept Text - Dynamic -10.79 .000***
text: M=16.90,SD=4.073
Total Text - Dynamic -11.428 .000***
*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 (text: text-only type, graphics: text with graphics type, dynamic: animation-based type)
3.1 The effect of different test representation on students’ performance
In order to examine the effect of different test representation on student performance, we
adopt pair-wised t test to analyze the collected data. The results depict in Table 1, showing
that the students significantly perform better on text with graphics representation pattern
than text-based representation one in lever concept and total mechanics concept,
t(100)=-3.602, -3.629, p<.001. For gear concept, there is no significant difference between
text with graphics representation and text-based representation. The students significantly
perform better on dynamic representation than text with graphics representation and text
representation for all of mechanics concepts, p<.001. The previous results reveal that the
216
students perform better on dynamic representation than static representation when accepting
different representation types of test. In other words, the students can grasp the meaning of
test questions more clearly in dynamic representation, and dynamic context can help the
learners think deeply.
Table 2. Summary of pair-wised t test for high achievers’ scores of different

representation
text: M=12.41,SD=1.986
Lever concept Text - Graphics -1.991 .057
text: M=8.19,SD=1.145
Gear concept Text - Graphics .402 .691
text: M=20.59,SD=2.469
Total Text -Graphics -1.053 .302
Lever concept Graphics-Dynamic -3.024 .006**
dynamic: M=9.22,SD=.892
text: M=12.41,SD=1.986
Lever concept Text - dynamic -3.703 .001**
text: M=8.19,SD=1.145
dynamic: M=9.22,SD=.892
text: M=20.59,SD=2.469
Table 3. Summary of pair-wised t test for middle achievers’ scores of different
representation
text: M=10.34,SD=2.416
Lever concept Text - Graphics -2.347 .023*
text: M=6.91,SD=1.457
Gear concept Text - Graphics -2.408 .020*
text: M=17.26,SD=3.047
Total Text -Graphics -3.098 .003**
text: M=10.34,SD=2.416
text: M=6.91,SD=1.457
text: M=17.26,SD=3.047
3.2 The effect of different test representation on different achievement level students’
performance
This study divided the students into three level achievers according to their performance of
nature science in the past, including high achiever, middle achiever, and low achiever. After
analyzing the collected data by pair-wised sample t test, the results depict in Table 2 to
Table 4, showing the effect of three kinds of test representation on mechanics concepts for
217
different level achievers. For high achievers, they do not perform better on text with
graphics representation than text-based representation in all of mechanics concepts, p>.05.
On the contrary, the high achievers get higher scores in dynamic representation than that in
static representation for all of mechanics concepts, p<.001. For middle achievers, they
perform better on dynamic representation than static representation in all of mechanics
concepts, p<.001. For low achievers, they divergently perform better on dynamic
representation than static representation in gear concepts; on the contrary, they do not get
higher scores in dynamic representation of lever concepts test. The previous results depict
that the dynamic representation affects the performance of middle achievement students
obviously. Nevertheless, the low achievers perform on test of different representation
unstably due to their misconceptions. In short, the different representations do not facilitate
the low achievement students grasp the mechanics concepts of test questions.
Table 4. Summary of pair-wised t test for low achievers’ scores of different

representation
text: M=7.44,SD=2.063
text: M=5.15,SD=1.586
Gear concept Text - Graphics -.324 .749
text: M=12.59,SD=2.763
Lever concept Graphics-Dynamic -.652 .520
Total Graphics- Dynamic -2.671 .013*
text: M=7.44,SD=2.063
Lever concept Text - dynamic -1.665 .108
text: M=5.15,SD=1.586
text: M=12.59,SD=2.763
3.3 The effect of different test representation on different learning style students’
performance
Based on input dimension, Felder and Silverman (1988) divided the learners into two types
of learning style, visual type and verbal type. Like the statistical method in the previous
sections, this study used t test to analyze the data and its results are shown in Table 5 and 6.
The students of visual learning style significantly perform better on dynamic representation
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than static representation for all of mechanics concepts, p<.001. On the other hand, the
students of verbal learning style significantly perform better on dynamic representation than
static representation for almost all of mechanics concepts, except for gear concepts when
comparing dynamic representation with text with graphics representation. The students of
visual learning style prefer to accept the visual materials (Felder & Silverman, 1988), so
their performance will be affected by the dynamic representation more obviously.
Table 5. Summary of pair-wised t test for visual type students’ scores of different
representation
text: M=10.35,SD=2.649
Lever concept Text - Graphics -2.941 .004**
text: M=6.82,SD=1.846
Gear concept Text - Graphics -1.545 .126
text: M=17.18,SD=3.913
Total Text -Graphics -3.208 .002**
text: M=10.35,SD=2.649
text: M=6.82,SD=1.846
text: M=17.18,SD=3.913
Table 6. Summary of pair-wised t test for verbal type students’ scores of different
representation
concepts Pair-wise Pair-wise t(15) df
text: M=8.88,SD=3.649
text: M=6.56,SD=1.548
Gear concept Text - Graphics -.436 .669
text: M=15.44,SD=4.704
Lever concept Graphics-Dynamic -1.855 .083
Gear concept Graphics-Dynamic -2.967 .010**
Total Graphics- Dynamic -2.897 .011*
text: M=8.88,SD=3.649
Lever concept Text - dynamic -2.692 .017*
text: M=6.56,SD=1.548
Total concepts: text: M=15.44,SD=4.704
-4.114 .001***
Text - Dynamic dynamic: M=19.00,SD=4.382
4. Conclusion and suggestion
This study developed a cloud-based test management system by means of VBA and
Dropbox. Based on Mayer’s viewpoint of multimedia learning, we designed three
representation patterns of test questions for elementary mechanics concepts, including

219
text-only pattern, text with graphics pattern and animation-based dynamic pattern. These
questions are used to examine the performance of sixth grade students on elementary
mechanics concepts. The findings reveal that the students significantly perform better on
dynamic representation pattern than static representation one in most of mechanics
concepts, especially for middle achievement students and visual type of students. In other
words, the dynamic representation context can help the middle achievement students and
visual type students grasp the abstract concepts more clearly when accepting tests in
computer-based test. The computer-based test with multimedia can be implemented in
elementary schools if computing devices are provided and internet addiction mechanisms
are taking into consideration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the National Science Council for partial financial support
for this research project under contract NSC101-2511-S-133-005.
References
Felder, R. M. & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning styles and teaching in engineering education,
Engr. Education, 78(7), 674-681.
Jing-Wen Lin, Yu-Lun Wu & Yen-Ching Lin. (2011). The Impact of Integrating Dynamic
Representations in a Two-tier Test on Diagnosing Students’ Answering in Simple and Series
Circuits. Research and Development in Science Education quarterly, 61, 25-50.
Huang, Shu-Ching (2008). The Development of Mental Model Based Computer Assisted Learning
on Map Teaching of Elementary School. Master thesis of National Taipei University of
Education.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational
Psychologist, 32(1), 1-19.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
220
A Novel Approach: Implementation of

Idea-Creator-Map to Enhance Students’
Knowledge Building Processes
Pei-Shan TSAIa, Ching Sing CHAI a*, Chin-Chung TSAIb & Nian-Shing CHENc
a
b
c
Information Management Department, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan
*chingsing.chai@nie.edu.sg
Abstract: Previous studies have demonstrated the advantages of applying technological

innovations to explore students’ knowledge building processes. However, the outcomes of
these analyses are not simultaneously provided to both students and teachers during the
knowledge building processes. Hence, the aim of the present study is to propose a novel
approach, named Idea-Creator-Map (ICM), to assist not only teachers in tracing and
analyzing students’ knowledge building activities, but also students to understand and
reflect on the knowledge building processes.
Keywords: knowledge building, semantic network, social network
1. Introduction
Recently, researchers have shown their interests in students’ knowledge building.
Knowledge building is commonly defined as “the production and continual improvement of
ideas of value to a community, through means that increase the likelihood that what the
community accomplished will be greater than the sum of individual contributions and part
of broader cultural effort” (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2003, p. 1371). Based on the literature
review, several attempts have been made to explore students’ knowledge building processes
by applying technological innovations. For example, participatory indicators (Joubert &
Wishart, 2012), semantic cloud (Kimmerle, Cress, & Held, 2010), and social network
(Hong, Chen, Chai, & Chan, 2011) were discussed in previous studies. Without doubts, the
research results have revealed the importance of analyzing students’ behaviors in
221
knowledge building activities. However, in addition to the indicators provided above,
several issues remain to be further investigated.
First, the outcomes of analyses are not provided simultaneously to both students and
teachers. Nonetheless, a number of studies have indicated similar difficulties encountered
when both sides are involved in the knowledge building processes (Chen, 2006). Therefore,
a better-established environment, in which teachers are synchronously supported in
assisting students’ knowledge building, may be required.
Second, several applets, such as participation indicators and social network indicators, have
been built for purposes of different dimensions of feedback. However, disparate analytic
feedbacks on social, participation, and cognitive dimensions may not be seen as the best
way to present the information. Thus, there may be a need to consider presenting two or
more dimensions of feedback at the same time, which may provide more meaningful
suggestions to both students and teachers.
2. The concept of the integration of semantic network and social network
The current study proposes the integration of semantic network and social network as a
novel tool, namely, Idea-Creator-Map (ICM), to assist not only teachers in tracing and
analyzing learners’ knowledge building processes, but also students to understand and
reflect during knowledge building processes. Semantic network highlights the relationship
among students’ ideas, while social network addresses the relationship among them.
Through the integration of semantic network and social network, the cognitive, participative
and social dimensions of the knowledge building discourse can be mapped out and thus the
relationship and the interaction among students and their ideas are presented.
In particular, teachers can identify the main ideas in advance and the students are also
allowed to define keywords illustrating their epistemic foci. For example, if students’ ideas
correspond to teachers’ pre-defined ideas, these ideas may be distinguished from some
222
salient differences in ICM. This step can not only reduce the redundancies, but also point
out the main ideas for students. Consequently, at least three roles are revealed in ICM:
initiator, the ideas are generated by whom or who present the ideas; flow up/extended, the
existing ideas are extended by whom or who flow up the existing ideas; and viewer, an
isolated viewer or reader about the ideas. An example of the mockup of ICM is shown in
Figure 1.
The matched ideas of students’
When teacher and students clicked “government” idea, and teacher’s are “Singapore,”
the list of students’ interactions and discussions about “government,” and “history.”
the “government” idea is presented. They can know
that Jessica played the roles as initiator and flow up;
Denny is viewer and flow up; Devi played the role as
initiator; and Victor is only a viewer in the
“government” idea. The roles that students played can
be automatically identified by the system.
Figure 1. An example of the mockup of Idea-Creator-Map (ICM)
This study expects ICM to help teachers provide useful feedback for involved participants
as well as to encourage students to be engaged in knowledge building activities. Hence, four
objectives of the proposed tools (solutions) are:
 Idea Engagement: Teachers understand the scope of students’ ideas, and provide
proper feedbacks for students to elicit more meaningful ideas. Students know the
number of ideas they have produced, and may be likely to generate more ideas.
 Writing Engagement: Teachers understand the depth of students’ postings, and
provide proper feedbacks for students to write more relevant ideas. Students know how
peers’ postings are connected to pre-identify ideas, and try to write more ideas.
 Social Engagement: The relationship among students and their ideas are clearly
presented in the tool. Both students and teachers know the targets working with specific
ideas and are able to interact with them.

223
 Reading Engagement: Both students and teachers know whether the presented ideas
have been read or not. Consequently, students can selectively search for relevant ideas.
3. Conclusion
Currently, ICM is under development in a knowledge-building platform implemented in
order to examine the abovementioned approach. In addition, certain valuable information,
such as students’ learning strategies in the knowledge building processes, may be further
explored by providing automatic suggestions and feedbacks to both students and teachers.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the research grant NRF2011-EDU002-EL005.
References
Chen, W. (2006). Supporting teachers’ intervention in collaborative knowledge building.
Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 29(2-3), 200-215.
Hong, H. Y., Chen, F. C., Chai, C. S., & Chan, W. C. (2011). Teacher-education students’
views about knowledge building theory and practice. Instructional Science, 39(4),
467-482.
Joubert, M., & Wishart, J. (2012). Participatory practices: Lessons learnt from two
initiatives using online digital technologies to build knowledge. Computers &
Education, 59(1), 110-119.
Kimmerle, J., Cress, U., & Held, C. (2010). The interplay between individual and collective
knowledge: technologies for organizational learning and knowledge building.
Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 8, 33-44.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2003). Knowledge building. In Encyclopedia of
Education. (2nd ed., pp. 1370-1373). New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
224
Researchers’ Online Academic Literature

Searching Strategies: Comparisons among
Doctoral Students, Ph.D. Candidates, and
Young Scholars
Ching-Ting HSINa & Chin-Chung TSAIa*

a
*
cctsai@mail.ntust.edu.tw
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to examine the differences and similarities among
three groups of researchers in their online academic literature searching strategies—new
doctoral students, Ph.D. candidates, and assistant professors. A multiple-case study
approach was used to design this study. We recruited 15 participants and then conducted
in-depth interviews with and collected artifacts from them. We found that the three groups
of researchers used different strategies in five aspects: (a) thinking purposefully about the
goals of search, (b) doing advanced search to narrow down or expand their search, (c)
chaining, (d) monitoring and networking, and (e) managing data. We hope that this study
would draw attention on the knowledge of online literature seeking and consequently shed
light on developing lessons for researchers to acquire the knowledge.
Keywords: information seeking, online learning, higher education, teacher education
Introduction
Researchers’ academic literature searching involves complicated knowledge, strategies, and
skills (e.g. Ellis, Cox, & Hall, 1993; Hofer, 2004; Meho & Tibbo, 2003; Tsai, 2009; Wu &
Tsai, 2007). The development of the online resources and social network technologies has
changed researchers’ online information seeking behavior. The purpose of the study is to
examine the differences and similarities among three groups of researchers in their
academic literature searching strategies—new doctoral students, Ph.D. candidates, and
assistant professors. Hopefully, this study would draw attention to the knowledge of online
literature searching; and it would consequently inform the development of lessons for
researchers to acquire these strategies.
225
Methods
A multiple-case study approach was used to design this study. We used snowball sampling
and recruited 15 participants who were in the field of education and in different academic
stages. We conducted an in-depth interview for each participant and collected artifacts from
them. All collected data were then imported into NVivo 10. We then used qualitative
analysis techniques to develop a coding scheme and to generalize themes.
Findings
We found that the three groups of researchers differed in their online literature searching
strategies, and we categorized these differences into five aspects, including: (a) thinking
purposefully about the goals of search, (b) doing advanced search to narrow down or expand
their search, (c) chaining, (d) monitoring and networking, and (e) managing data.
References
Ellis, D., Cox, D., & Hall, K. (1993). A comparison of the information-seeking patterns of
researchers in the physical and social-sciences. Journal of Documentation, 49(4),
356-369.
Hofer, B. K. (2004). Epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process: Thinking
aloud during online searching. Educational Psychologist, 39(1), 43-55.
Meho, L. I., & Tibbo, H. R. (2003). Modeling the information-seeking behavior of social
scientists: Ellis's study revisited. Journal of the American Society for Information
Science andTechnology, 54(6), 570-587.
Tsai, M.-J. (2009). Online Information Searching Strategy Inventory (OISSI): A quick
version and a complete version. Computers & Education, 53(2), 473-483.
Wu, Y.-T., & Tsai, C.-C. (2007). Developing an Information Commitment Survey for
assessing students' web information searching strategies and evaluative standards for
web materials. Educational Technology & Society, 10(2), 120-132.
226
The Review of the Physiology Signals for

Learning State Recognition System
Chih-Hung WUa*, Yi-Lin TZENGb, Bor-Chen KUOc & Gwo-Hshiung TZENGd

a,b,c
NTCU, National Taichung University of Education, Taiwan
d
KNU, Kainan University, Taiwan
1. Introduction
Attention and emotion effects the student’s learning performance. According the past
studies, several techniques need to be combined to estimate the state of attention and
emotion. The emergence of Electroencephalography (EEG) technology can recognize a
learner’s Learning Style (Rashid et al., 2011). Heart rate variability from ECG, has gained
widespread acceptance as a sensitive indicator of mental workload(Lin, Imamiya, & Mao,
2008). And positive emotions may change the HF components of HRV (von Borell et al.,
2007).
2. The review of physiology signals recognition system
Some of the main physiological signals highly adopted for human emotion assessment are:
Eye tracking, Electroencephalography (EEG), Electrocardiogram (ECG), Electromyogram
(EMG), Skin Conductive Resistance (SCR), and Blood Volume Pressure (BVP). Several
approaches have been found the correlation between the emotional changes and EEG
signals (Chanel, et al., 2007). In this study, we summarize the multi physiological feature
system researches as shown in Table 1. According the table, we found the physiological
signals of eye movement, EEG and ECG have become the research trends. But it not exist a
system combined these signals to recognize the affective of human.
Table 1. Multi physiological recognition system review
227
Physiological signals
Research object Reference Eye EEG ECG Facial
emotion recognition (Kim, Ban, & Kim, 2004) ✕
(Ruffman, Henry, Livingstone, &
emotion recognition ✕
Phillips, 2008)
emotion recognition (Lin, et al., 2008) ✕ ✕ ✕
(Latanov, Konovalova, &
visual search task ✕ ✕
Yermachenko, 2008)
emotion recognition (Q. Zhang & Lee, 2010) ✕ ✕
emotional distractors (Srinivasan & Gupta, 2010) ✕
emotion recognition (Yang & Lugger, 2010)
(Murugappan, Ramachandran, &
emotion recognition ✕
Sazali, 2010)
(Dimigen, Sommer, Hohlfeld, Jacobs,
reading process ✕ ✕
& Kliegl, 2011)
(Schmid, Schmid Mast, Bombari,
emotion recognition ✕ ✕
Mast, & Lobmaier, 2011)
learning state (Chen & Wang, 2011) ✕
(Patel, Lal, Kavanagh, & Rossiter,
driver fatigue ✕
2011)
driver fatigue (Zhao, Zhao, Liu, & Zheng, 2012) ✕ ✕
emotion recognition (Q. Zhang & Lee, 2012) ✕
3. Discussion and future work
The reviewed past studies for physiology signals recognition in learning have used EEG and
Heart rate variability in ECG to measure the learning emotion (Chen & Wang, 2011; C.
Zhang, Zheng, & Yu, 2009) and mental workload (Patel, et al., 2011; Zhao, et al., 2012). In
the future, we will develop a learning state recognition system, which can get, recognize and
analyze attention and emotion state when students learning.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported in part by the National Science Council under the Grants NSC
101-2410-H-142-003-MY2.
228
Different Eye Movements during Active Video

Games: An Eye-tracking Pilot Study
Yu-ping CHENa* & Meng-Jung TSAIb

a
Department of Physical Therapy, Georgia State University, USA
b
*ypchen@gsu.edu
Abstract: The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the eye movements and hand
movements while playing a virtual-reality game in healthy children and adults. Five healthy
adults (mean age 24.4 years) and 4 typically-developing children (mean age: 8.8 years)
participated in this study. Each participant played a commercially-available virtual-reality
game, Slap Stream, from EyeToy Play software. Eye movements were recorded by using
Mobile Eye eye-tracker. Based on eye-tracking video analyses, the latencies between object
appearance and the initiation of eye movement, between the initiation of eye movement and
the initiation of hand movement, and between the object appearance and the initiation of
hand movement were computed. As for eye-tracking measures, the total fixation duration,
the normalized fixation duration, number of fixations, and the normalized number of
fixations were also computed for 4 object areas. Results showed that 1) children had a longer
latency between object appearance and the initiation of the eye movement, 2) no difference
in the latency between the initiation of eye movement and the initiation of hand movement,
and 3) children spent shorter fixation duration and fewer fixation points in the virtual target
areas as compared with adults. Children still showed immature eye-hand coordination
pattern as compared to adults. This pilot study showed that eye-tracking techniques can
evaluate students’ eye-hand coordination in virtual-reality games. Future studies are
suggested to explore the effectiveness of providing game-based learning environment for
learners with special needs.
Keywords: Children, Eye movements, Eye-hand coordination, Game-based learning
Introduction
In our daily lives, the eye, head, and hand are constantly in motion within different contexts
(Pelz, et al., 2001). The eye-hand coordination is important to assure the smooth and
accurate hand movements, which includes the shifting of gaze ahead of the hand and the
attention moves ahead of gaze to the intended landing position (Deubel& Schneider, 1996;
Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005). That is, to control gaze shifts and fixations proactively to gather
sufficient visual information in order to guide hand movements (Johansson, Wetling,
Backstrom, & Flanagan, 2001). Several studies have been performed to examine gaze
behaviors of healthy adults in various natural activities, such as driving (Land, 1992; Land
229
& Lee 1994), typing (Inhoff and Wang, 1992), walking (Patla and Vickers, 1999), and
sports (Land & McLeod, 2000). Little is known in children when interacting with virtual
environment (i.e dynamic computer/video games). Videogames represent an important part
of children’s leisure life (Marshall & Gorely, 2006). Recently, the popularity of active video
game consoles, such as the Nintendo Wii, Microsoft Xbox Kinect, provides a virtual
environment for the users to interact with the virtual objects in the digital world. Digital
learning researchers also try to integrate learning materials into such an action-based
learning environment in order to enhance active learning. Recently, researchers have
attempted to use eye-tracking technology to explore students’ cognitive process in online
game-based learning. However, to our knowledge, there are no studies to investigate the
eye-hand coordination in children and adults while playing with active video games.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the eye movements and hand
movements while playing a virtual-reality game in healthy children and adults.
1. Method
Five healthy adults and 5 healthy, typically-developing children volunteered in this study.
All were right-handed without any known neurological deficits. One child’s eye data were
unable to analyze due to equipment problem, so the final sample of this study was 5 adults
and 4 children.
The ASL Mobile Eye with a sampling rate of 30 Hz was used to track and record each
participant’s gaze data while playing the game. Allowing the participant to move freely
within the natural environment, the Mobile Eye was used to track and record participants’
eye movement data in this study. Among the games on EyeToy-Play software, Slap Stream
was selected. There were 4 clouds located at the four corners of the TV screen. The task for
the participant was to smack the rats that appeared randomly in any of the 4 clouds, while
avoiding the bunny girl. Each trial would last about 3 minutes or end after hitting 3 bunny
230
girls. This game was used previously by the first author to train upper-extremity movements
in children with cerebral palsy.
After obtaining the consent form from the adult participants or parental consent for the
children, the participant wore the Mobile Eye tracker and sat in front of the TV to play with
the game. Each participant would play the Slap Stream game twice with the first trial as the
practice session. The eye movements during the first 30 seconds of the second trial were
collected and analyzed. Participant’s eye movements were recorded by the Mobile Eye and
the fixation measures (such as total fixation duration and number of fixations) were later
processed and output obtained by using the GazeTracker 7.0 software. Following data
collection, the video records were analyzed using Microsoft Movie Maker on a
frame-by-frame basis to code the time of initiation and termination of eye and hand
movement, and the time when virtual object appeared.
The latencies between object appearance and the initiation of eye movement, between the
initiation of eye movement and the initiation of hand movement, and between the object
appearance and the initiation of hand movement were computed. The total fixation duration
of the 4 object areas, the normalized fixation duration of the 4 object areas, number of
fixations, and the normalized number of fixations were also computed. Independent t test
was used to compare means of each dependent variable between adults and children using
SPSS. Due to our small sample size and low statistical power, effect size (i.e. Cohen’s d)
was also computed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software.
Our preliminary findings suggest that (1) children had a longer latency between object
appearance and the initiation of the eye movement, (2) no difference in the latency between
the initiation of eye movement and the initiation of hand movement, and (3) children spent
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shorter fixation duration and fewer fixation points in the virtual target areas as compared
with adults. More results will be presented in conference.
Acknowledgements
This project is supported by the research project: NSC 99-2511-S-011-006-MY3.
References
Deubel, H., & Schneider, W. (1996). Saccade target selection and object recognition:
Evidence for a common attentional mechanism. Vision Research, 36, 1827-1838.
Hayhoe, M., & Ballard, D. (2005). Eye movements in natural behavior. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 9(4), 188-194.
Inhoff, A. W., & Wang, J. (1992). Encoding of text, manual movement planning, and
eye-hand coordination during copytyping. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Perfomance, 18, 437-448.
Johansson, R. S., Westling, G., Backstrom, A., & Flanagan, J. R. (2001). Eye-hand
coordination in object manipulation. Journal of neuroscience, 21(17), 6917-.
Land, M. F. (1992). Predictable eye-head coordination during driving. Nature, 359,
318-320.
Marshall, S. J., Gorely, T., & Biddle, S. J. (2006). A descriptive epidemiology of
screen-based media use in youth: A review and critique. Journal of Adolescence, 29(3),
333-349.
Patla, A. E., & Vickers, J. N. (1997). Where and when do we look as we approach and step
over an obstacle in the travel path? . NeuroReport, 8, 3661-3665.
Pelz, J., Hayhoe, M., & Loeber, R. (2001). The coordination of eye, head, and hand
movements in a natural task. Experimental Brain Research, 139, 266-277.
232
How the Format of Advance Organizers Have

an Impact on Learners’ Cognitive Load and
Information Processing: An Eye-Tracking
Exploration
Han-Chin LIUa* & Hsueh-Hua CHUANG
a
Dept. of E-Learning Design and Management, National CHiayi University, Taiwan
b
Center for Teacher Education, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan
*
hanchinliu@gmail.com
Abstract: This study sought to realize if working memory capacity interacted with the format
of advance organizers on affecting learners’ cognitive load and achievement. Eye-tracking
technology was also used to explore if the type and format of advance organizers influenced
learners’ information processing. The results showed no effect from working memory capacity
on learners’ achievement and cognitive load level. The low complexity of the learning content
might have lowered the impact of the independent variables. However, eye-tracking data
seemed to reveal traces “conceptual anchoring” proposed in early studies.
Keywords: Advance organizer, Cognitive load, Working memory span, Eye-tracking
Introduction and Research Design
Advance organizers are believed to anchor learners’ prior knowledge with to-be-learned
information and to direct learners’ attention toward the key elements of the lesson (Ausubel,
1968; Mayer, 1979). Although earlier studies found a positive result on student learning
resulting from advance organizers, later studies examining various types and formats of
advance organizers have reported inconclusive results. Most advance organizer studies have
based their findings on achievement test results, therefore, in addition to self-report
cognitive load measures, this study used eye-tracking technology to gain insight into how
advance organizers impact learners’ information processing patterns.
In this study, each of the 37 participants were identified as either high (hSpan, N=18) or low
(lSpan, N=19) working memory span learners and was randomly assigned into either
graphic (gAO, N=19) organizer or text (tAO, N=18) organizer group. A 2X2 factorial
design was utilized for the experiment using format of advance organizers and working
memory span as the independent variables while learners’ post-test achievement and
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cognitive load level during the reading task. Additional eye-tracking information was
collected to obtain insight into viewers’ information processing of the content.
Results and Discussions
No interaction between format of advance organizer (AO) and working memory span level
on affecting learners’ cognitive load, achievement, and eye movements was found in this
experiment. In addition, no significant differences between the two advance organizer
groups and between the two working memory span groups on either student achievement or
cognitive load level were found in this experiment. Four areas of interest (AOIs, function,
component, distribution, and circulation) were identified on both the AOs and on the
reading material. In tAO group, a significant correlation between the component AOI of the
AO page and the main content on was found (Corr.=.373, p=.023). No significant
correlations between AO and main content on the rest of the AOIs in tAO group were found.
In gAO group, significant correlations between the function (p=.010), component (p=.001),
and circulation (p=.023) AOIs of the AO page and the main content were found. The
aforementioned findings also showed stronger correlations in gAO than in tAO group.
This study found no impact from format of AO and from working memory span on learners’
reading achievement and cognitive load level. The length and complexity of the content
might not be challenging for college level participants. Students’ eye fixations were likely to
be anchored on corresponding areas in the reading content after reading related AOs,
especially when viewing graphical AO. The correlations found in this experiment seemed to
indicated a “conceptual anchoring” process induced by the graphical organizer.
References
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Mayer, R. E. (1979b). Twenty years of research on advance organizers: Assimilation theory
is still the best predictor of results. Instructional Science, 8(2), 133-167.

234
Technology and Learning: Facilitating

Pre-service Teachers' Stages of Concern and
Technological, Pedagogical, and Content
Knowledge (TPACK)
Kuan-Chung CHEN
Abstract: Recent research efforts have been dedicated to promoting teachers’ Stages of
Concern and TPACK. This study redesigned the “Technology and Learning” course aimed
to facilitate students’ technology literacy, knowledge of learning theories, and their
application and implications for learning. Through scaffolding, exploration, group work,
peer feedback, and hands-on practices, students increased all the seven types of the TPACK
knowledge, as well as “Refocusing”, a higher stage of concern. We hope that this research
project will serve as a starting point, from which more ways will be found to help promote
pre-service teachers’ professional development.
Keywords: Technology Integration, TPACK, Professional Development, Pre-service

Teachers
Introduction
Stages of Concern (Hall, Wallace, & Dossett, 1973), an area of Technology Integration
research, describes the developmental phases that a teacher might face when implementing
an innovation. Another framework that aims to enhance teachers’ development is TPACK
(Koehler & Mishra, 2005). Effective teachers possess a sophisticated knowledge base
wherein content, pedagogy, and technology interplay in high degrees. A recent strand of
research on TPACK concerns ways to develop pre- and teachers’ TPACK.
The Present Study
In order to promote pre-service teacher’s Stages of Concern and TPACK, we redesigned the
course “Technology & Learning” wherein 52 students participated in this study. The first
part of the course focuses on “Technology.” We thoroughly discussed the nature and
235
evolution of technology, practiced popular and useful software, and explored the possibility
of the tools to facilitate teaching and learning. The second part of the course focuses on
“Learning”. We discussed many learning theories and models such as cooperative learning
and found different technological tools to facilitate learning theories/strategies.
Preliminary Results: Pre-service Teachers’ SoC and TPACK Development
The increment of the seven types of teacher knowledge all reached .01 significance level,
demonstrating the effectiveness of the Technology and Learning course to facilitate
pre-service teachers’ knowledge growth. For the Stages of Concern scores, only Stage 4,
Refocusing reached significance level (p=.038), meaning that students became more
concerned about finding new ways to refine technology for instruction.
Conclusion
This study showed initial success in promoting pre-service teacher’s TPACK and Stages of
Concern. We hope that this research project will serve as a starting point, from which more
ways will be found to help promote pre-service teachers’ Stages of Concern and TPACK.
References
Hall, G. E., Wallace, R., & Dossett, W. (1973). A developmental conceptualization of the
adoption process within educational institutions (Report No. 3006). Austin, TX:
Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas at
Austin.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2005). What happens when teachers design educational
technology? The development of technological pedagogical content knowledge.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(2), 131-152.
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Interdisciplinary Inquiry Curriculum

Development on Mechatronic for Vocational
High-school Students
Yu-Liang (Aldy) CHANGa*, Wan-Jing CHENb & Huan-Hung WUc
a
Associate Professor & Director, Graduate Institute of Educational Administration and
Policy Development, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
b
Doctoral Student, Department of Education, National Kaohsiung Normal University,
Taiwan
c
Professor &Vice President , Department of Education, National Chiayi University,
Taiwan
*
aldy.chang@msa.hinet.net
Abstract: The main objective of this paper focused on the targeted group of vocational
high-school teachers’ curriculum design process of “interdisciplinary inquiry curriculum on
Mechatronic” and its evaluation. A case study approach was employed for the data
collection and later analytic processes. Participants were ten teachers of two departments
(“Electrical Engineering” and “Mechanical Engineering”) in one vocational high-school in
Taiwan. A dual-dimension (external and internal, formative and summative evaluation)
system was applied in this evaluation process. The results indicated that there was a
progressive development in these teachers’ professional knowledge and competence on
deigning the curriculum cooperatively, while several problems were revealed during the
design process.
Keywords: Curriculum development, interdisciplinary, mechatronic, inquiry, vocational

high-school
1. The Project
The main theme of this “High Scope” curriculum development project was to “Develop
(and Evaluate) Inquiry Curriculum on Interdisciplinary ‘Mechatronic’ Intelligent Robot”.
Under this theme, the “University research team (leading by the National Chiayi University,
NCYU)” and the “Vocational high school research team (National Chiayi Industrial
Vocational High School, CYIVS)” worked cooperatively to development and implement
(experiment) the “high scope curriculum” and students’ assessment in CYIVS through an
action research approach (affiliated project). The main tasks of the NCYU project included
enhancing teachers’ professional development, evaluating the curriculum designed, and
evaluating their students’ competence and inquiry learning outcome on the curriculum, as
well as executing curriculum promotion and other exchange and cooperation tasks.
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2. The Curriculum Development and Teachers’ Professional Development
2.1 The Design of Interdisciplinary Inquiry Curriculum on Mechatronic
Based on these purposes and executive processes of the whole project stated above, the
main objective of this paper focused on the targeted group of teachers’ curriculum design
process of “interdisciplinary inquiry curriculum on Mechatronic”, which was based on the
implementation of the first part. A case study approach was mainly employed for the data
collection and later analytic processes. Participants were ten teachers of two departments
(DEE and DME) in CYIVS, where there were no students officially evolved in the
curriculum design process. Regarded to the curriculum design and development part,
“Interdisciplinary ‘Mechatronic’ Intelligent Robot” was used as the main topic to design the
“infusion” and “project study” curricula with the inquiry-based instruction. Authentic
assessment tools and evaluation guidelines were designed correspondently. The integrated
learning structure and its content were shown in figure 1.
Figure 1 Integrated learning structure and its content
2.2 The Evaluation of Interdisciplinary Inquiry Curriculum on Mechatronic
Three main findings were: For these teachers, their belief in designing the targeted curricula
became more cooperative and concurrent, which helped them to work together in designing
the integrated curricula with “inquiry-based” learning activities, for students to learn
cooperatively in a systematic, conceptualized, and interdisciplinary learning environment.
3. Acknowledgements
This “High Scope” project is supported by National Science Council (NSC) of Taiwan. The
author was grateful to all scholars and participants in Taiwan for their valuable suggestions.
238
Instructional Effect on Text-and-graphic

Readings in Game-based Science Learning
Li-Ju HUANGa, Ching-Yeh WANGb & Meng-Jung TSAIa*

a
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education
b
Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Abstract: This study was to examine instructional effect on text-and-graphic readings and
learning achievement in game-based science learning by a pilot eye-tracking experiment.
Samples were 22 students in this study. A video instruction was used as a conceptual
scaffolding for the experimental group. Students’ eye movements were tracked and
analyzed by FaceLab and GazeTracker software. Results showed that the control group pay
more attention to the text readings than experimental groups in game-based science
learning. However, students who spent more visual attention on the graphic had lower
learning achievement.
Keywords: instructional effect, game-based science learning, text-and-graphic reading
Introduction
Game-based learning is approved to improve learners’ learning motivation. Meanwhile,
texts and graphics information are the most frequently used cognitive representations in
game-based scientific learning (Hou & Chou, 2012). And the visual attention could reveal
evidences of students’ cognitive processes as reading (Rayner, 1998) and science problem
solving (Tsai, Hou, Lai, Liu, & Yang, 2012). This study was to examine instructional effect
on text-and-graphic readings and learning achievement in game-based science learning.
Methodology
Samples were 22 students in this study. The experiment group had a video instruction before
game playing (n=11) and the control group had not video cues (n=11).This study used a
game called Escape the Lab© (Hou & Chou, 2012) for experiment and its goal was to apply
electromagnet concepts to solve a problem. A reference book with texts and graphics was
239
provided in the game. FaceLAB4.6 and Gaze Tracker8.0 were used to record and to collect
participants’ eye movements.
Results & Discussion
The results of t-test showed that there were significant differences between experimental
and control groups. The experimental groups (with video) had shorter reading time (t = 2.25,
p = .04 <. 05), shorter fixation numbers (t = 2.47, p = .03 < .05) and shorter fixation duration
(t = 2.41, p = .03 < .05) on text readings than control groups (without video). Besides, it was
found that students’ learning achievement had negatively significant correlations with
fixation numbers (r = -0.46, p < .05) and fixation duration (r = -0.45, p < .05) in
book-graphic. That is, students who paid more attention to graphic readings tended to obtain
lower scores on posttest and vice versa.
References
Hou, H. T., & Chou, Y. S. (2012). Exploring the technology acceptance and flow state of a
chamber escape game-Escape The Lab© for learning electromagnet concept. Poster
accepted by the ICCE2012, Singapore, Nov. 26-30, 2012.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of
research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372-422.
Tsai, M.-J., Hou, H. T., Lai, M. L., Liu, W.-Y., & Yang, F. Y. (2012). Visual attention for
solving multiple-choice science problem: An eye-tracking analysis. Computers &
Education, 58(1), 375-385.
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Technology Supported Prediction-based

Learning Framework Design
Ben CHANGa* & Hsue-Yie WANGb

a
Department of E-Learning Design and Management, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
b
*bchang.tw@gmail.com
Abstract: Training students the skill to collect information, judge clue value, and predict
event systemically is important for the students facing the 21st century challenges. In this
study, a technology supported prediction-based learning framework which covers
background knowledge acquisition, exploration environment, model building, inferring
results and verification phases is proposed.
Keywords: Prediction-based learning, weather forecast practicing
Introduction
Helping students develop prediction thinking skills in a situated environment is an
important learning approach. A prediction-based learning activity allows students to think
from a different viewpoint, actively participate in activities and develop thoughts on a
specific subject that are more comprehensive. In a prediction-based learning environment,
the students are active learners. They must experiment in sense-making, exploring the clues,
developing evidence-based explanations and communicating their ideas to learn content as
well as discipline-specific reasoning skills and practices by collaboratively engaging in
investigations. Technology as an affordance can help apply the prediction-based learning
activity in the classroom; however, the teacher needs a framework and guidelines to follow
to use the pedagogy. In this study, a technology-supported prediction-based learning
framework is proposed.
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3. Technology Supported Prediction-Based Learning Framework
Predicting is quite a high-level learning skill (Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, Bass, Fredericks,
& Soloway, 1998). It can contribute to the development of synthesized skills in asking
questions, discovering facts and applying that knowledge in the pursuit of further questions.
Technology offers new opportunities to support prediction-based learning including
engaging the students in a technology-enhanced environment, improving the students’
measurement quality, providing the students with prompt feedback, and supporting the
students with scaffolding tools. The technology-supported prediction-based learning
framework includes six phases and is elaborated below:
 Goal of Prediction-Based Learning: The learning group needs to define the learning
goal of the activity at this stage.
 Background Knowledge Acquisition: The goal of the pre-knowledge building session is
to help the learners to have a stronger background on the subject.
 Exploration Environment: For practicing prediction-based learning, the learners need
an environment to manipulate and explore.
 Model Building: Based on the exploration environment, the students can find some
clues. These clues can help the students to make further decisions.
 Inferring Results: At this stage, the students need to make conclusion about their
prediction.
 Verification: For the final stage, the activity leader and the participants need to verify
their findings, and then build proper reflection and conclusion per the activity.
Reference
Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., Bass, K. M., Fredericks, J., & Soloway, E.
(1998). Inquiry in project-based science classrooms: Initial attempts by middle school
students. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7 (3-4), 313-350.

242
Literature Review: Recent Trends in E-book
Yilun HUANG, Zewen PAN , Yuhsuan ZHANG & Meng-Jung TSAI*

Abstract: Electronic-book technology has developed rapidly in the last decade. Recent
research interests have been increasingly drawn on the applications and impacts of e-book
on learning and education. The purpose of this study is to review studies related to e-book in
the last ten years. “E-book” and “read” were used as keywords to search related literature in
WOS database. A meta-analysis is used to analyze 27 selected papers. Four research topics,
four methods, five categories of samples and two major applications were identified from
the review. The study provides insights for researchers and educators in the field of e-book
studies and applications for learning. Future studies are suggested in this paper.
Keywords: e-book, review, meta- analysis
1.Introduction
With the development and popularization of tablet PCs, e-books have been more popular
recently. However, little discussion is on an adequate definition and common features of
e-book. To have a clear picture of recent studies on e-book, this study reviews and analyzes
e-book studies in education in the last ten years. The present study proposed the following
research questions: (1) What are the major research topics, methodologies, and outcomes
addressed in e-book studies? (2) What are the learning scopes of e-book applications in
previous research?
2. Method
Researchers used "e-book" and "read" as keywords to search in Web of Science (WOS) and
produced 251 results. After that, researchers used inclusion and exclusion criteria to refine
the search results into “article”, and within the following categories of research domains:"
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH", "LINGUISTICS", "PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATIONAL"
and "EDUCATION SPECIAL" and produced 59 results. After researchers’ discussion, we
243
excluded the abstract neither related to education nor could be applied in learning and
finally 27 papers are drawn for a meta-analysis.
3. Results
We classified each article according to its research purpose, research method, samples and
learning applications of e-book studies. In terms of research purpose, evaluating the
relationship between e-book usage and learning outcome draws the most attention in the
research field, followed by evaluating users’ habit and attitude toward e-book usage. As for
research method, most research done in e-book field conducted in an experimental way (46%).
The second most popular research method is interview and observation (29%), followed by
questionnaire (21%) and content analysis (4%). Studies of e-books focused most frequently
on higher education institutions (41.6%), followed by kindergarten (29%), elementary
schools (16.6%), teachers (8.3%), and secondary schools (4.2%). In terms of the application
field of e-book, most e-book studies were done in the context of general reading (74%).
Academic e-books (7.4%) were used in certain academic fields, such as physics and medicine.
Although the percentage of application field varies, both contexts integrate face-to-face
lecture with e-books in the studies.
4. Conclusion
Based on the above review, we can have a better understanding of the prior studies on
e-book. So far, the influence of e-book on reading outcome and user attitude are the most
popular issue. The studies of e-books are mainly conducted by experiments, and their
samples are students in higher education. For future study, we recommend to use similar
phrases, such as “digital book”, “electronic book” or “digital reading” to get more related
articles. Also, students reading behaviors and interactions with the digital contents provided
in e-books can be further examined in future studies.

244
Cognitive Processes in Logical Reasoning:

Evidence from Eve Movements
Meng-Lung LAI, Liang-Chen CHIEN, Yi-Chen CHEN & Yi-hua CHENG

National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine how students, high school and college
levels, solved and examined logical tasks (selection tasks) using the eye tracking
technology. Twenty-six students participated in this study. The results showed that none of
these participants successfully solved these logical tasks. In addition, participants looked at
the selected cards longer than the rejected cards. These findings indicate that Taiwanese
students need more training on the logical reasoning.
Keywords: logical reasoning, selection task, eye tracking
Introduction
Learning to reason logically appears to be at the heart of math courses. Wason’s (1996)
selection task has been one of the most investigated reasoning problems. In a standard
version of this task, participants are presented a rule such as “If there is an A on one side
then there is a 3 on the other” and four cards showing A, J, 3, and 7 respectively are
provided for participants to choose. Participants are instructed that each card has a capital
letter on one side and a number on the other side, and they need to turn the card(s) over to
determine whether this rule is true or false. The logically correct choices in this task are A
(proving the rule true) and 7 (proving the rule false). Previous studies (e.g., Inglis &
Simpson, 2004) found that very few participants could correctly solve this problem. Thus,
this selection task in the abstract form is considered very difficult. This study then adopted a
modified format of the selection task, context-embedded problems, as well as the standard
task and investigated whether the participants could better solve the context-embedded
problems due to the support of their life experiences. In addition, this study employed a
more direct method-eye movement tasking-to examine the locus of attentional processing.
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Methodology
Twenty-six students participated in this study (10 high school students and 16 college
students), the former drawn from a public high school and the latter from a national
university in Southern Taiwan. Five selection tasks were used, with one in abstract version
and the other four in the context-embedded version. For each task, four cards were provided
and participants were told that each card has if-context on one side and then-context on the
other. Participants were instructed to decide which card(s) needed to be turned over to
determine whether the rule was true. The eye-movement data were recorded during the
experiment with a faceLAB 4.5 eye-tracking system which has a sampling rate of 60Hz.
Findings
Surprisingly, none of the high school students and none of the university students correctly
solved these five tasks. The participants, either high school students or college students,
were only trying to prove the rule true rather than trying to prove the rule false. Apparently,
Taiwanese high school students and college students might need more training on the
logical reasoning. Regarding the response time, high school students spent more time
solving the abstract question than the college students while their response time did not
differ on the other context-embedded questions. Looking at how participants examined the
cards for each question, we found that longer inspection times (fixation duration) were
associated with the selected cards than with rejected cards.
References
Wason, P. C. (1966). Reasoning. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology (Vol. I).
Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Inglis, M., & Simpson, A. (2004). Mathematicians and the selection task. Proceedings of the
28th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, 89-96.
246
Track 5: Other Technology-Enhanced
Learning Studies or Applications
Effects of Cognitive Styles on Students’

Web-based Collaborative Problem-solving
Performance
Fan-Ray KUOa, Gwo-Jen HWANGb & Nian-Sing CHENa

a
Department of Information Management, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung,
Taiwan
b
Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
gjhwang.academic@gmail.com
Abstract: With the rapid spread of Internet and communication technology, cultivating
web-based problem-solving ability to deal with upcoming challenges and problems is very
important. Several previous studies have attempted to address this issue by proposing
different approaches, among which the collaborative learning strategy has been recognized
as having great potential in enhancing students' web-based problem-solving performance.
However, it is not clear whether such an approach would be affected by learners’ personal
factors, such as their cognitive styles. Consequently, in this study, a web-based learning
activity is conducted to investigate the effects of field-dependent and field-independent
cognitive styles on students’ web-based collaborative problem-solving performance. The
experimental results show that, collaborative learning approach was more helpful to
field-dependent students in improving their web-based problem-solving performance than
to field-independent students. Moreover, collaborative learning was able to reduce the
cognitive load of both field dependent and field independent students in comparison with
individual learning during the web-based problem-solving process.
Keywords: web-based problem solving, collaborative learning, computer supported

collaborative learning, cognitive styles, cognitive load
1. Introduction
Nowadays, society is facing an era of information explosion and fast Internet technology.
Researchers have emphasized the importance of students’ web-based problem-solving
ability, which refers to one’s competence in comprehending a series of questions related to a
specific issue, via seeking, selecting, abstracting, and summarizing information on the Web
to answer the questions (Hwang & Kuo, 2011). However, previous studies have found that
students might get lost or feel frustrated while searching for information to solve complex
problems without proper guidance or supports on the Internet (Kuo, Hwang, & Lee, 2012).
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Consequently, several studies proposed supporting tools and strategies to assist learners in
the web-based learning environments (Hwang & Kuo, 2011; Zamani & Shoghlabad, 2010).
Particularly, Hwang, Tsai, Tsai and Tseng (2008) developed a web-based learning system,
Meta-Analyzer, to help educators deeply understand individual student’s web-based
information searching behavior, and to adjust their teaching strategy accordingly. Many
studies concerning Meta-Analyzer applied to web-based learning were proposed recently
(Kuo, Hwang & Lee, 2012; Hwang & Kuo, 2011). However, these studies were prone to
individual learning context, in which one might easily get confused while searching for
information to solve complex questions without real-time guidance or supports on the
Internet. Thus, to cope with the issue, this study proposes an web-based collaborative
problem-solving approach. To examine the effectiveness of the proposed approach, a total
of 63 students in the 6th grade of elementary school participated in the experiment; in
addition, to investigate the effects of the proposed approach in depth, the cognitive styles of
the students are taken into account while analyzing their learning performance.
2. Research Design
2.1 Participants
A total of 63 grade 6 students (12 years old in average) from two classes of an elementary
school participated in the experiment. One class with 32 students was assigned as the
experimental group, who learned with the web-based collaborative problem-solving
approach. A total of 10 sub-groups were formed in the experimental group with three or four
members in a group based on the heterogeneous grouping strategy. On the other hand, the
other class with 31 students was the control group who learned individually in the
web-based problem-solving environment.
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2.2 Web-based learning environment
In the study, a collaborative learning system, Collab-Analyzer, was adopted to conduct the
web-based collaborative problem-solving activities for the experimental group (Wu, Kuo,
& Hwang, in press). Collab-Analyzer could engage group members in solving social issues
in collaborative mode via searching and sharing information on the Internet based on the
social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). As can be seen in Figure 1, the group members
could share their own knowledge as well as information searched on the Internet based on
the given questions to each other on-line or off-line. Moreover, the system offers a function
for members to share their bookmarks in relation to the given question to other members.
Figure 1. The system for supporting web-based collaborative problem-solving
2.3 Measuring tools
The assessment of web-based problem-solving ability originating from Kuo, Hwang and
Lee (2012) was managed through solving social issues as pre- and post-test in the social
studies course, given both social studies issues of “Renewable energy” and “Garbage
problem,” respectively. Among them, four questions for renewable energy issue are given
"What are the three forms of power generation used in Taiwan?", "In addition to the
previous methods, what other methods are there? Give a short introduction to each.", "What
249
are the disadvantages and advantages of nuclear power and thermal power?", and "If you
were the Minister of Energy, what form of power generation would you adopt, and why?".
The perfect score of the assessment is set to 40 maximum, indicating the higher the score a
student obtains, the better web-based problem-solving ability the student presents. The
inter-rater reliability of the assessment reaches a Cronbach’s α of 0.875 via two senior
teachers of social studies course, showing high consistency between the ratings of the
various teachers (Cohen, 1988).
To measure the cognitive styles of the students, the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT)
developed by Witkin, Moore, Goodenough and Cox (1977) was adopted. This is due to the
fact that the GEFT has been widely used in the studies of learning technology in the past
decades (Shahsavar & Hoon, 2011). The higher the GEFT score is, the higher the field
independency is. The selection of Field Independent (FI) students was calculated as those
with over the mean score plus half the standard deviation. In contrast, those whose score
was under the mean score plus half the standard deviation were identified as Field
Dependent (FD) students (Kelly, 1939).
Moreover, the students’ cognitive load was measured to examine whether the learners suffer
from an overloaded cognitive system induced by external factors to the extent that it would
affect their academic achievement. Cognitive load refers to one's cognitive psychology to
explain the load related to the executive control of working memory (WM). Theories
contend that during complex learning activities the amount of information and interactions
that must be processed simultaneously can either under-load, or overload the finite amount
of working memory one possesses (Pass, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). In this study, the
cognitive load scale developed by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993) was adopted. It
consisted of four items with a seven-point Likert-type rating scheme (7: strongly agree, 1:
strongly disagree). The reliability of the scale was high in this study with the Cronbach's α
value of 0.92 (Cohen, 1988) .

250
3. Experimental Results and Analysis
3.1 Analysis of web-based problem-solving ability
In the study, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to analyze the posttest of
students' web-based problem-solving ability for two groups. Table 1 shows the posttest
score of field independent (FI) students, which reveals no significant difference between the
two groups (F=0.01, p>.05). On the other hand, the ANCOVA result in Table 2 showed that
the posttest score of field dependent (FD) students in the experimental group had better
web-based problem-solving performance than those in the control group (F=5.89, p<.05).
The effect sizes (d) calculated from eta square were 0.25 (d >= 0.14), which is a large effect
size (Cohen, 1988), implying that, for the FD students, web-based collaborative problem
solving approach was able to help them improve web-based problem-solving performance.
Table 1. ANCOVA of web-based problem-solving performance of FI students between two
groups
Cognitive Adjusted
Group N Mean SD SE F d
Style Mean
Experimental Group 9 80.22 2.39 80.29 0.89
FI 0.01 0.001
Control Group 10 80.50 2.76 80.44 0.85
Table 2. ANCOVA of web-based problem-solving performance of FD students between
two groups
Cognitive Adjusted
Group N Mean SD SE F d
Style Mean
Experimental Group 11 75.73 4.29 75.46 1.08
FD 5.89* 0.25
Control Group 10 71.30 2.49 71.60 1.31
*p<.05
3.2 Analysis of cognitive load

The cognitive load ratings of the students in two groups were compared using Independent
sample t test. Table 3 shows that the FI students in the experimental group had significantly
251
lower cognitive load than those in the control group (t=-2.31, p<.01). The effect sizes (d)
calculated from eta square were 0.22, which means a large effect size (Cohen, 1988).
Table 4 shows that FD students in the experimental group had significantly lower cognitive
load than those in the control group (t=-3.02, p<.01). The effect sizes (d) calculated from eta
square were 0.32, showing high impacts of the statistical test result.
From the experimental results, it was found that both FI and FD students in the experimental
group had lower cognitive load while learning with the web-based collaborative learning
approach than those who learned individually. That is, collaborative learning was helpful to
the students of both cognitive styles. This finding conforms to those of some previous
studies reporting when facing complex problems, students not only can gain more ideas, but
also can avoid feeling frustration and unease via discussing with peers and sharing ideas
(Kirschner, Paas, & Kirschner, 2009).
Table 3. Independent sample t test for cognitive load of FI students between two groups
Cognitive Style Group N Mean S.D. t d

Experimental Group 9 2.83 0.35
FI -2.31** 0.22
Control Group 10 3.15 0.24
**
p<.01
Table 4. Independent sample t test for cognitive load of FD students between two groups
Cognitive Style Group N Mean S.D. t d

Experimental Group 11 2.81 0.34
FD -3.02** 0.32
Control Group 10 3.40 0.52
**
p<.01
4. Conclusions and future works
To enhance students’ web-based problem-solving ability quicker and more accurate has
become an important challenge, thus, in the study, a web-based collaborative
problem-solving approach is proposed. To examine the effectiveness of the proposed
252
learning approach, a quasi-experiment method was conducted with one experimental group
and one control group in the social studies course of an elementary school.
The research findings showed that the experimental group students with FD cognitive style
who accepted the web-based collaborative problem-solving approach gained better
web-based problem-solving performance than those who learned with the web-based
problem-solving approach individually. Moreover, in the cognitive load measurement, the
results showed that FD and FI students in the experimental group had significantly lower
cognitive load than those students in the control group, respectively. All in all, the proposed
approach was proven to be helpful to FD students through online discussion with group
peers when solving the given social studies issues. In the future, it is worth investigating
other factors that might affect students’ learning performance in web-based collaborative
problem-solving activities, such as gender, prior knowledge, and the grouping strategies.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of China
under contract numbers NSC 101-2511-S-011 -005 -MY3 and NSC100-2911-I-110-503.
References
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Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,
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for assisting teachers in analyzing student web-searching behaviors. Computers &
Education, 51(2), 926-938.
Hwang, G. J., & Kuo, F. R. (2011). An information-summarising instruction strategy for
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Kuo, F. R., Hwang, G. J., & Lee, C. C. (2012). A hybrid approach to promoting students’
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Kelly, T. L. (1939). The selection of upper and lower groups for the validation of test items.
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complex cognitive tasks: Effects on retention and transfer efficiency. Computer in
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An approach to combine mental-effort and performance measures. Human Factors,
35(4), 737–743.
Pass, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design:
recent developments. Educational Psychology, 38(1), 1-4.
Shahsavar, Z., & Hoon, T. B. (2011). Does cognitive style affect bloggers’attitude in an
online learning environment? Journal of Language Studies, 11(1), 159-171.
Wu, C. H., Kuo, F. R., & Hwang, G. J. (in press). Development of a Collaborative Learning
Environment for Conducting Web-based Problem-Solving Activities. Paper presented at
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Bangkok, Thailand.
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and
field- independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of
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254
Motivating English-language Learning by

Using Mobile-Quest Learning Approach
Ching CHANG, Ju-ling SHIH & Chih-Kai CHANG

Dept. of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan, Taiwan
chingtw2006@gmail.com
Abstract: An important aspect of mobile-assisted-language-learning (MALL) instructional

design is the consideration of learning activities to stimulate students’ learning motivation.
In order to elicit student interest in learning, creating a motivating interactive environment
with the consideration of the design of motivational strategies is essential. The study
exploited Keller’s ARCS model in the design and implementation of a MALL lesson, and a
mobile quest fieldwork learning activity (called M-quest) was established, with adopting
inquiry-based learning approach (IBL) to facilitate the students in constructing their own
language knowledge. Learners were situated in both real and virtual world language
learning environments and exposed to pragmatic language input offered by a mobile device
with pre-designed resources. During the implementation of the M-quest learning activity,
the learning process and effects were analysed and the class questionnaires adapted by
Keller’s instructional materials motivation survey (IMMS) were collected. The ARCS
Model was utilised as the main theme in examining M-quest learning approach in the
MALL course. The results indicate significant positive outcomes concerning the students’
learning motivation and learning achievement about the M-quest learning approach.
Keywords: mobile quest learning activity, inquiry-based approach, learning motivation
1. Introduction
English education in Taiwan has been advocated widely and implemented, yet there are still
many students remaining with demotivated learning behaviour and amotivation,
particularly in technical universities. According to a study by the Global Education
Association in Taiwan (2010), the average English language proficiency of Taiwanese
technical university student is generally low, only reaching to the pre-elementary level.
Rather than showing willingness and interest towards English learning, students in the
context exhibit unmotivated learning behaviour and avoid participating. One possibility of
explaining this phenomenon is the teaching method that emphasises individual discipline
for mastering test skills in order to receive the English certification (Chang & Wu, 2003).
255
Yet, language learning cannot be treated as one-way direction, but takes place when
incorporating interactivity into the learning environment (Leonard, 1968). Mobile
technology potentially offers both interactivity and mobility. It has been reported to boost a
more active learning environment, provide learners with greater feedback, and augment
student learning motivation (Hashemi et al., 2010). Thus, the study adapted mobile
technology into English curriculum that designed a mobile query learning task (M-quest) to
supply an effective input to the students and offered different perspectives on second
language (L2) learning, serving as an impetus, and as a result, to enhance learning
motivation.
2.1 Inquiry-based learning approach
The inquiry-based learning approach (IBL) is grounded in the central tenets of
constructivism which enables learners to construct meaning by acquiring information from
the outside world and offers opportunities for them to develop personal understanding by
exploration, investigation and observation in their learning environment (Feletti, 1993).
Learning by essentially doing with open-ended, student-centred, and hands-on activities
encourages students to actively participate rather than be passive recipients of knowledge in
a traditional teacher-centred model. IBL is traditionally authorised in science study
(Manlove et al., 2006), its kernel essence, yet, has largely been used in English as L2
instructions, such as mobile ubiquitous language learning project with the combined use of
technology-based resources to produce a variety of anticipated learning outcomes (Liu et
al., 2010). From the studies, we see that IBL reflects the epistemology of language learning,
mainly stemming from: (1) Enquiry that leads students to read texts for meaningful
understanding and then identify own learning issues and work on their own problems. (2)
The process of learning is enhanced by a collaborative/cooperative approach. (3) Language

256
knowledge gaining that is an interactive process between content and context. (4) Students’
gains of meaningful understanding of target subjects that further develop deeper
understanding to know how to learn.
2.2 language learning motivation
Motivation plays a crucial role in language learning. Weiner (1992) uses a behavioural
approach to explain human behaviour in terms of motivation dictated by primitive drives
and needs while Williams and Burden’s (1997) interpret motivation from the social
constructivist view whereby learners’ motivation comes not only from individuals
themselves but also from society around them. Although understanding classroom-specific
motives are vital, Keller (2010) argues that instructional design is a ‘neglected heart’
playing a key element in classroom settings. Keller’s model contains four categories of
attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. This model assumes that there exists
value in learning whereby 'learners have the basic motives and generalise expectancy for
success’ (Keller, 2010:32). A study by Liu et al (2010) that focused on elementary students
provides a comprehensive picture of an ARCS model design embedded into instructional
design which helps increase learners’ learning motivation and listening/speaking skills
through designing a game-based learning activity by using context-awareness ubiquitous
technology. The current study, by exploiting the mobility of learners and taking locations
into account, established a mobile-quest activity by applying inquiry-based learning
strategies as well as embedding ARCS model into instructional design for augmenting
students learning motivation and examining the putative effects on potential learning gains.
3. Pedagogical-sound instructional design
3.1 Learning constructs
The chosen learning content was the concept of the Confucius Temple. Due to the ‘urban
marketing’ advocated by the Tourism Bureau of Taiwan, creating a friendly and warm
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travel environment for travellers or overseas students to visit Taiwan is crucial to advance
the competition of Taiwan internationally as well as to boost economic tourism gains
effectively. Given this trend, it is beneficial to choose the concept of the Confucius Temple
as the learning content as it not only fits in the Taiwanese marketing promotion strategy but
also enables students to appreciate the beauty of local Confucius Temple culture. Thus,
three themes of the Confucius Temple were included and rewritten to fit into the students’
reading ability level.
3.2 ARCS model design
The instructional design is underpinned by the ARCS approach with emphasising the four
key elements embedded in Table 1.
Table 1. Embedded ARCS model into the M-quest strategy
Principle Embedded in the research
Attention -Stimulating students’ curiosity -Using mobile-based learning to attract students’

and interesting to explore the attention to learn.
world and knowledge. -Designing a mobile exploration activity is an
interesting but challenge activity.
-Emphasizing that language learning is for ‘fun’.
Relevance -Providing students with their -Arranging group work to enhance learning.
needs and meeting their personal -Understanding students’ learning backgrounds
goals for the purpose of creating a and learning goals to determine how introducing
positive attitude. Confucius Knowledge could be helpful to boost
their tourist knowledge.
Confidence -Encouraging and helping students -Accept and adapt students’ opinions.
to believe that whether they are -Encourage students’ creativity.
successful or not is controlled by -Sharing successful learning experiences.
themselves. -Cultivating students’ sense of responsibility
Satisfaction -Reinforcing students’ -Creating opportunities for ‘really’ accessing
achievement for pursuing English-language learning.
knowledge exploration -Accepting the diversities of learning
performances in learning results.
-Providing positive feedback rather than
threatening comments.
3.3 System support
Mobile application was designed according to the M-quest activity. Questions (hints)
related to three themes were provided. The questions had two formats either open and close
or prompted consecutively and progressively. Students, according to the hints, observed
258
Confucius Temple: open hint questions required students to write down their observation
notes while close hint questions would offer suggested answers but asking students to
observe physical objects and look up information from the database or the Internet (Figure 1
- 4).
Figure 2. Mobile application

Figure 1. Mobile application
interface for observation notes
interface for exploration tasks
Figure 3. M-quest field observation Figure 4. Students looking up hints
4. Methodology
4.1 Research process
Thirty-three undergraduate non-English major freshmen at a university in Taiwan
participated in this study. Before conducting the field inquiry, the students were trained with
warm-up mobile orientation. We then made close observations of the students’ learning
process internally and behaviourally while they performed the M-quest learning task. After
finishing the task, the students were asked to fill out a five-point Likert scale motivation
questionnaire adapted from Keller’s (2010) instructional materials motivation survey
(IMMS) to explore the possibility for changes in students' level of motivation. In addition, a
259
pre-test and a post-test were distributed to assess their possible language gains in vocabulary
and reading ability from learning content.
5. Results
5.1 learning achievement
Learning achievement showed a significant difference between the scores of pre-test and
post-test in vocabulary (t=-6.7, p=.000***) and reading ability (t=-7.83, p=.000***). For
the potentially language gains (Table 2), reading ability improved more from the M-quest
activity (the mean scores progressed 24.85) than knowledge of vocabulary increased (the
mean scores increased 22.43). The results indicate that M-quest learning approach had a
positive impact on learning of vocabulary and reading ability.
Table 2. Paired t-test for pre-test and post-test learning achievement
Learning Pre-test Post-test
achievement Mean SD Mean SD t p
Vocabulary 43.63 18.34 66.06 14.98 -6.707*** .000
Reading 23.63 11.67 48.48 18.56 -7.834*** .000
5.2 Learning motivation
Table 3 presents the results of the survey, showing that students considered the M-quest
activity helpful in stimulating their motivation to learn, with a mean above four in the four
elements: attraction (M=4), relevance (M=4.06), confidence (M=4.03) and satisfaction
(M=4.12). The students showed positive learning motivation towards the M-quest approach.
Particularly, the satisfaction factor is in highest value in mean value, implying that learning
with mobile quest activity was an interesting and relaxing way compared to sitting in the
traditional classroom to have language class.
Table 3. Mean scores for the motivation of the M-quest

260
Items Mean SD
1. The activity attracts me to conduct a target object and learn English 4.00 .66
(Attraction)
2. The learning materials are a useful and helpful for English 4.06 .74
learning. (Relevance)
3. I feel relaxed and more confidence to learn English after 4.03 .63
conducting a mobile exploration learning activity (Confidence)
4. I like to learn with mobile exploration learning activity and had a 4.12 .54
sense of achievement after completing the activity (Satisfaction)
In addition, we further divided the participants into high, median, and low achievers
according to their learning achievement in reading and vocabulary, and explored the
relationship between different learning achievements and changes in student’s level of
learning motivation (Table 4). It was found that the level of motivation for learning
vocabulary increased the most in the low achievers (M=4.22), while the motivation for
enhancing reading ability increased the most in high achievers (M=4.18). This might reveal
that the low-vocabulary students think that the M-quest approach motivates them to learn
English because the questions provided them with unfamiliar vocabulary search, while
high-reading achievers considered M-quest approach motivating in learning possibly due to
the M-quest approach offering the challenge for them to organise what they investigated and
develop their own understanding of language knowledge.
Table 4. Motivation for students with different learning achievements
learning Motivation changed learning Motivation

achievement in achievement in changed
vocabulary Mean SD reading Mean SD
High (n=9) 3.89 0.60 High (n=9) 4.18 0.63
Middle(n=16) 4.06 0.57 Middle(n=16) 4.00 0.70
Low (n=8) 4.22 0.70 Low (n=8) 4.00 0.86
5. Conclusion
A mobile quest approach had been proposed, combining the development of instructional
design of motivational strategies and an inquiry-based learning approach for L2 university
freshman students to explore a location-based cultural park with digital support from mobile
261
devices. Rather than placing students in the classroom, they were situated in a real-world
language learning environment and exposed to pragmatic language input offered by mobile
devices to facilitate their fieldwork quest. Overall, the study showed that the M-quest
approach supports an effective learning method for the students whose learning
achievement was greatly facilitated and provides an impetus to increase students’ learning
motivation.
References
Chang, Y. P., & Wu, E. (2003). Second/foreign language teaching and learning strategies.
Paper presented at the 2003 Spring Bilingual Conference. TX. USA.
Feletti, G. (1993). Inquiry based and problem based learning: how similar are these
approaches to nursing and medical education? Higher Education Research &
Development, 12(2), p.43-156.
Hashemi, M., & Ghasemi, B. (2011). Using Mobile Phones in Language
Learning/Teaching. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2947–2951.
Keller, J.M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance The ARCS Model
Approach. New York, NY: Springer.
Leonard, G. (1968). Education and ecstasy. New Year: Dell.
Liu, T.-Y., & Chu, Y.-L. (2010). Using ubiquitous games in an English listening and
speaking course: Impact on learning outcomes and motivation. Computers &
Education, 55(2), 630-643
Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. CA: Sage
Newbury Park.
Williams, M. & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A social.
Constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
262
Effects of Cognitive Diagnostic Dynamic

Assessment and Adaptive Instruction System
on Learning 3D Objects of Students with
Different Degrees of Self-Awareness
Lin-Jung WUa*, Su-Lan YANGa, Yao-Ting SUNGb & Kuo-En CHANGa
a
University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
b
Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Taiwan Normal
University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
*ljungwu@gmail.com
Abstract: The purpose of this research is to develop an online cognitive diagnostic and
adaptive learning system. The development of this system was based on the Bayesian
network diagnostic assessment and dynamic assessment. The system offers the
"pretest-learning (training)-transfer-posttest" cycle in 3D graphics learning. To examine the
learning effects of the system on math learning, total of 115 secondary school students
participated the experiment. The experimental group used the adaptive learning system,
whereas the control group used the non adaptive approach. The study investigated the
learning effect of students with diverse self-awareness. It employed quasi-experimental
design, and investigated by Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on the pretest-posttest
scores. The results indicated that low self-awareness students learning with adaptive
learning environment gain significantly higher scores than those high self-awareness ones.
Multimedia learning environment connect with the diagnostic assessment system can
provide the adaptive instructions immediately. Besides, low self-awareness students could
have more successful learning experience from adaptive learning environment in such a
“diagnostic assessment – instruction - diagnostic assessment” learning cycle.
Keywords: cognitive diagnostic assessment, dynamic assessment, adaptive learning,

self-awareness, mathematics education
Introduction
To achieve the principles of personalized education and providing education for each and
every student, the development of robust teaching processes and assessment methods and
establishment of comprehensive learning contents would be extremely important. However,
personalized assessment during actual teaching is too time-consuming. Large classes also
made it difficult to provide individualized evaluation and response. Hence, many measures
often fail to achieve their expected objectives.
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Lin and Cheng (2009) expressed that computer-based assessments could provide easy and
rapid acquisition of many types of information, including answer choices and test duration,
via a diversity of student exam subjects and processes. General online assessments could
provide easy and rapid evaluation of student performance. However, evaluation results on
student cognitive understanding were extremely lacking (Lau & Yuen, 2010). Two students
with similar test performance results may have different degrees of cognitive understanding,
areas they were confused in, and knowledge content. These areas may need further analysis
and discussions (Davis et al., 2003). Hence, a suitable assessment technology would be
required to compensate for the inadequacies of general online assessments (Reeves, 2000).
In response to this situation, many scholars had proposed various assessments, using
computer-based calculations to provide easily accessible and widespread collection of
learning information from student assessments. An example of these would be the
diagnostic assessment (Geller & Yovanoff, 2009).
Another concept that emphasized integrative learning assessment feedback was the
dynamic assessment. Campione and Brown (1987) developed a graduated prompting
assessment that focused on providing examinees with assistance to improve their
performance and discover potential areas that examinees could improve upon. These
potential areas would then be transferred or generalized into other tasks or scenarios to
evaluate the learning results of the prompting assessment. Practical processes were carried
out using a "pre-test - learning support (dynamic assessment of learning and knowledge
transfer) - post-test" model.
Results of many actual experiments provided positive feedback for learning effectiveness
and motivation in computer-assisted learning. Examples included computer-aided learning
of graphic concepts (Chang, Sung & Lin, 2006), the use of teaching spatial geometry (Wu,
Chang, Lai & Sung, 2012), and included game scenario (Chang, Wu, Weng & Sung, 2012)
264
This investigation aimed to construct a dynamic and adaptive learning system centering
round cognitive diagnostic assessment and based on the theories of graduated prompting
assessment proposed by Campione and Brown (1987). Bayesian networks were used as the
deductive tool, transferring diagnostic and calculation results from the assessment modules
to the learning system to give learning suggestions. In order to overcome issues of
insufficient manpower and resources as well as the lack of self-awareness amongst certain
students, the learning system replaced traditional lecture-based instruction with
computer-aided learning after receiving diagnostic results, and the adaptive guidance
function would list suitable learning content in the system in order to achieve the objectives
of adaptive learning support. The final post-test phase would only provide comparative
evidence with the pre-test to verify whether educational results satisfied student
requirements and achieved the pre-established learning objectives. Results would also be
used to understand how the system would influence students with different levels of
self-awareness.
4. Dynamic Assessment, Adaptive learning activity and system design
4.1 Campione & Brown's graduated prompting assessment model
The graduated prompting assessment model of Campione & Brown (1987) adopted a
four-phase method of "pre-test-learning (training)-transfer-post-test" to understand the
examinee's learning, retention and transfer abilities. Static evaluation of pre-test and
post-test phases was used to understand their performance during these phases. Learning
transfer utilized dynamic assessment, giving a small list of standardized intervention. The
following describes the experimental process:
(1) Pre-test: No assistance was provided in order to obtain the basic performance of the
examinee. The pre-test could be used to evaluate the examinee's current performance
standard.
265
(2) Training: A pre-designed support system was provided to give feedback, problem
solving logic and instruction of parallel questions.
(3) Transfer: Parallel questions based on the previous phase with slight (near transfer) and
large (far transfers) changes were used in order to assess the degree of examinee
understanding of the questions and their ability to utilize prior knowledge and acquired
principles.
(4) Post-test: Used to assess the maximum possible performance standard of the examinees.
4.2 Dynamic Assessment and Adaptive learning activity
This study as based upon the graduated prompting assessment model developed by
Campione & Brown (1987), and integrated cognitive diagnostic assessment in the pre- and
post-tests. Diagnostic results from the pre-test were used to provide learning suggestions for
the intermediate phase (learning and transfer).Table 1 lists the learning activities used.
Table 1 Dynamic Assessment Phase and Adaptive learning activity

Phase Adaptive Learning Activity
Evidence-based diagnostic assessment was used as the pre-test tool. Bayesian

Pre-test network theories were used to transfer diagnostic results from the assessment
module into the learning system to give learning recommendations.
 Individual student diagnostic results were sent to the learning system to
carry out adaptive instruction
Learning  The system shall immediately establish personalized learning guidelines
(training)  Feedback on mistake types
 Instructions for parallel questions and solution logic
 Step-by-step operating animations (concrete  abstract)
 Providing manual operation practice (concrete  abstract)
Transfer  Practice for transfer questions
 Feedback for transfer question practice
Parallel questions based on pre-tests were provided to evaluate changes in
Post-test
student cognition
Adaptive learning content during the learning (training) phase included feedback of mistake
types, instruction of parallel questions by solution logic, and step-by-step operation
animation that would help students improve their concepts from concrete examples to
abstract understanding (Figure 1).

266
Figure 1 Instructions for parallel questions by solution logic and Step-by-step operating
animations
(1) Transfer vs. transfer questions operation and practice
The transfer phase would provide parallel questions based on the previous phase. Transfer
question practice (Figure 2), hints to solution strategies (Figure 3) and immediate feedback
to transfer question practices (Figure 3) included correct answers and step-by-step solutions.
Figure 2 Manual operation practice and Transfer question practice
Figure 3 Hints to solution strategies and Feedback for transfer questions

5. Methodology
5.1 Participants
Participants for this study were grade 8 students from a junior high school in New Taipei
City. The experimental variable of this study would be the mode of instruction. The
experimental group was provided with adaptive instruction and had 28 boys and 26 girls for
a total of 54 students. The control group was given non-adaptive instruction and had 31 boys
and 30 girls for a total of 61 students. The two groups provided a total of 115 participants.
267
5.2 Experiment method
The study utilized a quasi-experimental design, using classes as a unit to implement
experimental instruction. Both groups would be given a pre-experimental mathematics
diagnostic and performance assessment as well as a self-awareness evaluation form. After
the experiment, both groups would undergo a mathematics diagnostic and performance
post-test. The independent variable would be the method of teaching intervention, which
would be divided into adaptive and non-adaptive instruction. The background variable
would be self-awareness abilities, which would be divided into high and low degrees of
self-awareness. The dependent variable would be learning performance.
5.3 Tools
1. Measurement tools
(1) Pre- and post-diagnostic assessments
This study implemented two diagnostic assessments before and after the experiment.
Pre-test questions were based on the Bayesian diagnostic model. After the questions were
composed, a copy was edited and used in the post-test. The content and questions of the
diagnostic assessment was composed and reviewed by five presently employed junior high
school mathematics teachers. The training data were from a total of 308 students from
Taipei City and New Taipei City. The reliability of the test questions was 0.846.
(2) Self-awareness scale
Self-awareness scale composed by skills when designing the Bayesian network diagnostic
system for 3D graphics were directly used as assessment items in the self-inspection form.
Students with high degree of self-awareness would be those with large number of items
with similar scores in both the form and system diagnostics, while those with low
self-awareness would have a small number of similarly-scored items.
5.4 Procedure
Four class sessions were implemented for both the experimental and control groups during
268
this study. Table 3 describes the experimental procedure of students from both groups.
Table 3 - Procedure
Experimental group (adaptive learning) Control group (non-adaptive learning) Duration
1. User instruction for equipment and system operations 5 min
2. Using the Bayesian network assessment diagnostic system to implement
45 min
mathematics diagnostics and performance assessment pre-test
3. Giving each student a skill and error 3. Giving each student the questions they
type diagnostic report, as well as scores made mistakes in as well as their scores.
for each of their abilities.
4. The system would automatically 4. Students would each choose topics in
provide suggestions for each student on the system by themselves to undergo
topics they need to improve upon as well instructions (Figure 10) 90 min
as wrong concepts that they would need to
clarify, and implement relevant
instructions (Figure 1).
5. The system would provide transfer 5. The system would provide questions
questions for practice. for practice.
6. Using the Bayesian network assessment diagnostic system to implement math
45 min
diagnostics and performance assessment post-test
6. Results
To understand the effects of the Cognitive Diagnostic Dynamic Assessment and Adaptive
learning system on students’ performance of learning 3D graphics of different
self-awareness students, ANCOVA was used to analyze changes between the students’
pretest and posttest scores. In the analysis of the learning effect of different self-awareness
students in non-adaptive learning environment. The posttest scores matched the basic
hypothesis of the homogeneity of the regression coefficient (F(1,57) = 0.30, p=.58 > .05.
The result of ANCOVA showed that the scores in the posttest did not reach statistical
significance (F(1,58) = 0.01, p = .91 > .05) between the different self-awareness groups. In
the analysis of the learning effect of different self-awareness students in adaptive learning
environment. The posttest scores matched the basic hypothesis of the homogeneity of the
regression coefficient (F(1,50) = 0.55, p=.45 > .05). The result of ANCOVA showed that
the posttest scores of the test were significantly higher (F(1,51) = 7.91, p = .00 < .05) in the
experimental group than in the control group.
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7. Discussion and conclusion
The analysis of the experiment in this study indicates that neither the high self-awareness
group nor the low self-awareness group showed a significant difference in non-adaptive
learning evironment. The assessment results may not be able to uncover long-term or
overall cognitive errors. It is consistence with Ketterlin-Geller and Yovanoff (2009)’s
viewpoint about response analysis. The results in adaptive learning enviroment indicated
that low self-awareness students learning with adaptive learning environment gain
significantly higher scores than those high self-awareness ones. Multimedia learning
environment connect with the diagnostic assessment system can provide the adaptive
instructions immediately. Besides, low self-awareness students could have more successful
learning experience from adaptive learning environment in such a “diagnostic assessment –
instruction - diagnostic assessment” learning cycle.
References
Campione, J. C., & Brown, A. L. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school
achievement. In C. S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An international approach to
evaluating learning potential (pp. 82–115). New York: The Guilford Press.
Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., & Yovanoff, P. (2009). Diagnostic assessments in mathematics to
support instructional decision making. Practical Assessment, Research, &
Evaluation, 14(16), 1-11.
Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Lin, S. F. (2006). Computer-assisted learning for mathematical
problem solving. Computers & Education, 46(2), 140-151.
Chang, K. E., Wu, L. J., Weng, S. E., & Sung, Y. T. (2011). Embedding game-based
problem-solving phase into problem-posing system for mathematics
learning. Computers & Education.
Wu, L. J., Chang,K. E. Lai, S. C. and Sung, Y. T.(2012). Learning Spatial Geometry with
Mobile Devices. Proceeding of ICCE 2012, Singapore.
Lau, W. W. F. and A. H. K. Yuen (2010). Gender differences in learning styles: Nurturing a
gender and style sensitive computer science classroom. Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology, 26(7): 1090-1103.
270
Young and Adult Learners’ Learning Effects

on Formative and Summative Feedback in the
ASR-based CALL System
Yi-Hsuan WANGa*& Shelley Shwu-Ching YOUNGb
a
Institute of Information Systems and Applications, National TsingHua University, Taiwan,
b
Institute of Learning Sciences, National TsingHua University, Taiwan,
annywang12345@hotmail.com*
Abstract:
In this study, we developed the three-level feedback ASR-based CALL system, and two
groups of learners including 18 adults and 16 seventh graders were involved in the study to
evaluate the effectiveness of using the system for English pronunciation learning. The
results revealed that integrating the ASR technology into an e-learning system had positive
effects on promoting the learners’ articulation, improving their speaking level distributions
and raising their interest in learning English. Moreover, both implicit and explicit feedback
strategies were needed for acquiring spoken language. The adults preferred the implicit
audio information, while the young learners tended to read both textual and audio
information for self-correcting.
Keywords: CALL system, Automatic Speech Recognition, English learning
Introduction
The use of learning technology, especially automatic speech recognition (ASR), brings
language pronunciation training a wealth of new possibilities. ASR-based computer
programs allow learners to have simulated conversations with a computer, and practice with
the programs could help them improve their fluency and confidence (Hazel & Mervyn,
2010). In our previous preliminary study (Wang & Young, 2012), we explored the
possibility of applying ASR tools in developing a computer-assisted-language-learning
(CALL) system in which we reported the differences between adult and young students’
perceptions of the needs toward ASR CALL systems. The preliminary results revealed that
the topic of English proverbs is one of the needed learning contents for Taiwanese learners.
Besides, it informed us that both young and adult learners have diverse approaches and
preferences regarding using ASR-based CALL systems in learning. The adults reported
requiring the system to record their learning progress in each learning unit and to integrate it
271
into a summative evaluation at the end of the learning tasks to avoid interrupting their
learning. On the contrary, the young learners preferred formative feedback providing
immediate evaluation of their utterances. Starting with a review of some of the previous
research suggestions, this study presents the developed ASR framework followed by an
empirical evaluation and describes the further investigation of the effects of using an
ASR-based CALL system for pronunciation activities. The research questions of the study
are as follows:
 Can adult and young learners improve their English pronunciation as a result of
using the ASR-based CALL system?
 What are young and adult learners’ perceptions of the ASR-based CALL system
for practicing English speaking with formative and summative feedback?
1. Related Literature Review
ASR-based CALL systems benefit learners by providing them with integrated learning
stimulation and opportunities to enhance their speaking skills in the foreign language
(Hartley, Sotto, & Pennebaker, 2003). The timely evaluation of learner speech provides a
learning environment wherein the learner can learn at his/her own pace. ASR-based
pronunciation learning systems are attracting increasingly more interest from researchers
and English instructors alike, and all of the abovementioned studies have pointed out that
applying automatic speech recognition technology to language learning systems could
benefit learners by enhancing their English ability. Using this technology, students gain
more flexible opportunities to speak that are not only limited to drill and practice, but
involve a variety of different ways of using the language. The feedback design in the CALL
system is another important issue (Bigelow et al, 2006). The immediately rewarding
performance is necessary for learners to improve their English ability, and learners with
corrective feedback learn more effectively than those who only have opportunities to
produce learning output. An effective CALL program should indicate to learners what their
272
language errors are, and help them improve more through self-repairing their
mispronunciation rather than only providing them with language recasting (Hendrickson,
1978). Researchers have suggested that an effective CALL program should provide learners
with understandable language feedback that indicating what the speakers’ language errors
are. For example, the pre-generated feedback could be applied to address how the particular
error could be corrected by the learners (Asakawa et al, 2005) or system feedback could be
presented either numerically or graphically (Machovikov et al, 2002).
2. The ASR-based CALL system
The ASR-based CALL system was accomplished by using a self-developed speech
application programming interface (API). The speech API was used to judge the learners’
pronunciation based on a statistical comparison by Hidden Markov Model (HMM) with that
of the built-in corpus. The Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) machine-readable
pronunciation dictionary was adopted as the built-in corpus for mapping from the words to
the learners’ pronunciations in the given phoneme set and transcribing the utterances into
textual codes for speech recognition uses. For example, the pronunciation of the word
“apple” is transcribed into four phoneme sets including /AE/, /P/, /AH/ and /L/. The ASR
API received the input voice, transcribed the utterances into textual codes, and gauged it
based on the factor of tone, timber, speed and volume with a numerical score (Chen, Lo, &
Jang, 2004). Then, the system generated a textual evaluation feedback based on the ASR
calculation for each learner.
2.1 The presentation of language learning feedback in the system
Both formative and summative feedback was provided in the system (Table 1). The implicit
and explicit approaches were adopted for designing the formative feedback that was
presented immediately after the learners’ utterances and were organized into three levels.
273
The first level showed the learner’s pronunciation score and the audio waveforms. The
second level contained a comment, a list of words that were pronounced accurately and
inaccurately, and an audio toolbar for replaying the learner’s utterances. At the third level,
demonstration of the accurate utterances with both full sentence and single-word form was
available. In addition, a learning portfolio contained each learner’s audio utterances and
login data is organized that served as summative feedback assisting students to review their
learning progress and connect the new learning information with the prior one to bring out
meaningful learning. In this study, the speaking portfolio was presented in the form of
web-page files according to the target proverbs. In each page, an audio file with the
practicing time and score was presented, allowing the learners to take a second look and
think about how they could improve in their future attempts.
Table 1 Design of summative and formative feedback: Theory basis

and Modes
3. Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed in the study for evaluationg the
effects of feedback design on pronunciation learning in the ASR-based CALL system. The
speaking pre-test and post-test was collected and the students’ oral performance was
evaluated based on their pronunciation accuracy. A level was assigned to each student after
finishing the pre and post-speaking tests, and we compared the level distribution of learners
before and after using the system to examine the effectiveness of practicing speaking with
the ASR-based CALL system. Besides, data from questionnaires regarding personal and
274
background details of the target students, and how the participants perceived the system in
terms of usability and interactivity was administrated to the students. The Cronbach’s α of
the questionnaire was 0.932. In addition, observations of learners’ learning processes
through system records and the analysis of the raw audio data in the system were also
observed for further analysis. The duration of the data collection was eight weeks, and the
learning contents were English proverbs that were categorized by themes including
Learning and Experience, Time, Chances and Success, Capability and Tale. The learners
were encouraged to arrange their schedule to practice English speaking using the system, as
long as they used the system at least two times a week and completed four learning units
within eight weeks.
3.1 Participants
Two groups of learners were involved in the study voluntarily. Group 1 contained 18 adult
learners aged from 23 to 40 and Group 2 included 16 seventh graders aged from 11 to 13.
The learners were allowed to use the system which integrated both implicit and explicit
strategies of formative feedback, and were provided with the summative portfolios.
4. Data analysis
4.1 Learning effectiveness of the adults and young learners
The speaking level distribution of learners before and after using the system is analyzed and
the description of the level distribution is listed in Table 2. The results show two of the
young novice students improved their level to “advanced beginner,” while four advanced
beginner to “intermediate” level. Similarly, one adult improved his/her level from
“advanced beginner” to “advanced intermediate,” whereas five of the advanced
intermediate adults changed their level to “advanced”. We can see that after the eight weeks
of on-line speaking practice, the learning performance of all the students was enhanced.
Besides, as seen in Table 3, the mean post-test scores are higher than the initial scores for
275
both groups. The paired samples t-test indicates that there are significant differences
between the pre- and post-test scores for Group1; however, there is no significant difference
for Group 2. This indicates that the adults achieved better speaking improvement than the
young learners with the help of the three-level system.
Table 2 Distribution of the five speaking levels
Table 3 Results of Paired Samples T-test
4.2 Perceptions of the ASR-based CALL system from the adults and young learners
The results of questionnaires indicate that the demonstration of the accurate utterances as
full sentences was the most helpful information for both the adults and the young learners to
improve their pronunciation. Then, the audio replay of the learners’ utterances and the
demonstration of the single words were also useful elements for the adult learners to
improve their pronunciation. On the other hand, the young learners agreed that the
demonstration of the single words, playing the sentences at a slow speed and the individual
words that they pronounced inaccurately and accurately could enhance their speaking
(Table 4).
Table 4 Multiple choice results
276
Besides, it was found that the adult learners tended to refer to the speaking portfolios more
often than the young ones. The average number for an adult learner to read the summative
speaking portfolio was 10 times a week; however, it was only 2 times a week for a young
learner. Moreover, from the analysis of the questionnaires, it also indicated the adults
preferred to use the summative feedback to improve their pronunciation, and more than half
of the adults (65%) would like to listen to their own utterances at different learning periods
using the personal speaking portfolios but only 30% of the young learners agreed with that.
The results of the study revealed that the participants had positive perceptions of the uses of
the ASR-based CALL system and the learners made progress, especially the adults who
achieved significant improvement. The participants improved their speaking level
distributions in that most of the adults improved from advanced intermediate to advanced,
while the young learners mostly changed their level distributions to intermediate level.
Besides, the study implies that both the implicit and explicit feedback strategies were
helpful for acquiring spoken language, and we noticed that the adults preferred implicit
modes with audio information, while the young learners tended to read information from
both implicit and explicit modes, textual with audio information, for improving their
speaking errors. This implies that instructional programming designers should design
ASR-based system feedback based on the integrated approach and a multimedia format to
help learners from various background acquire spoken language efficiently and effectively.
The findings of the study show positive learning effectiveness of the uses of ASR-based
CALL systems. More research findings will be shared in the near future.
277
References
Asakawa, S., Minematsu, N., Isei-Jaakkola, T., & Hirose, K. (2005). Structural
representation of the non-native pronunciations. In Proceedings of Interspeech, New
York, USA, 165-168
Bigelow, M., Delmas, R., Hansen, K., & Tarone, E. (2006). Literacy and the Processing of
oral recasts in SLA. TESOL Quarterly, 40(4), 665-685
Chen, J.C., Lo, J.L., Jang, J. S. R. (2004).Computer Assisted Spoken English Learning for
Chinese in Taiwan. Proceeding of the International Symposium on Chinese Spoken
Language, Hong Kong, 23-30
Hartley, J, Sotto, E., & Pennebaker, J. (2003) Speaking versus typing: a case-study of the
effects of using voice-recognition software on academic correspondence. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 34(1), 5-16
Hazel, H., & Mervyn, J. (2010). Speech interactive computer-assisted language learning: a
cross-cultural evaluation, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 23(4), 295-319
Hendrickson, J. M. (1978). Error correction in foreign language teaching: Recent theory,
research,and practice. The Modern Language Journal, 62, 387- 398
Long, M. H.(1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition.
In: W.C. Ritchie, T.K. Bhatia, (eds.) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press , 413-468
Machovikov, A., Stolyarov, K., Chernov, M., Sinclair, I., & Machovikova, I. (2002).
Computer based training system for Russian word pronunciation. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 15, 201-214
Wang, Y. S. & Young, S. S.-C. (2012). Exploring young and adult learners' perceptions of
the corrective feedback in the ASR-based CALL system. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 43(3), 77-80
278
Investigating Learning Strategies of Using

Texts Generated by Speech to Text
Recognition Technology in Traditional
Classroom
Rustam SHADIEV*, Wu-Yuin HWANGa & Yueh-Min HUANG

a
rustamsh@gmail.com
Abstract: This study applied the Speech to Text Recognition technology during a seminar
in traditional classroom environment to enhance learning. The aim of this study was to
investigate learning strategies of participants to use texts generated by the Speech to Text
Recognition technology. This paper reports results of the study. Furthermore, this paper
provides recommendations about using STR-texts to enhance learning and ideas for future
research that may be useful for teaching and research community of the field.
Keywords: Speech to Text Recognition, transcriptions, learning strategy, learning behavior
1. Introduction
Speech-to-text recognition (STR) technology was proposed as a potential and valuable tool
for learners to better understand a speech given by a lecturer (Konur, 2007; Wald & Bain,
2008). A lecturer speaks into a microphone, wherein the STR technology translates speech
input into a text (i.e. STR-text), and a text is shown on a whiteboard or computer screens
synchronously for audience to read (Hwang, Shadiev, Kuo & Chen, 2012). According to
Rogers, Sharp and Preece (2011), external representations, such as STR-texts, greatly
extend and support students’ ability to carry out cognitive activities (e.g. inference,
problem-solving and understanding). One benefit of STR-texts is on memory. First,
STR-texts reduce working memory load by providing external tokens for the information
that must otherwise be kept in mind. Second, STR-texts serve as visual retrieval cues for
long term memory, evoking relevant information that might not otherwise be retrieved.
Finally, STR-texts are more ‘enduring’ (visual) text-based content, which goes along with
the more ‘temporary’ (oral) speech-based presentation.

279
Recent evidence suggests that the STR technology was widely applied for supporting
learning and improving its quality. Wald and Bain (2008) developed the STR tool called
ViaScribe to help students with a wide range of disabilities. Speech Recognition in Schools
Project (2013) employed the STR technology to help students with reading, writing or
spelling difficulties. According to results of the project, the STR technology provided an
effective means of writing and recording work, and in some cases, has produced significant
improvements in basic reading, spelling and writing skills. Ryba et al. (2006) applied the
STR technology in the university lecture theater. The participants reported that the system
had potential as an instructional support mechanism. Hwang et al. (2012) and Kuo et al.
(2012) employed the STR technology during teaching and learning activities in online
synchronous learning environment. The results of studies of Hwang et al. (2012) and Kuo et
al. (2012) showed that the experimental group (i.e. students who used STR-texts) had a
significant improvement on homework accomplishments and post-test results than the
control group.
Learning strategies are procedures that a student uses to succeed in a task that would be
difficult without special effort. Learning strategies associated with internal mental
procedures (e.g. note-taking, asking for clarification and etc.) aim to make learning material
more memorable. Relevant literature suggests that there has been little discussion about
learning strategies of using STR-texts during and after teaching and learning activities in
traditional classroom environment. Therefore, this study attempted to investigate this issue.
2. Method
Three females and six males aged 22-38 participated in this study. All participants majored
in the field of Information technology. In this study the one and a half hour seminar was
executed once a week during eight weeks. The seminar was carried out in the
“read-and-present” format. That is, the professor had a list of research articles on the
280
syllabus for each week related to learning technology, and each participant studied one of
the articles and then gave an in-class presentation.
This study employed Windows® Speech Recognition using the Microsoft® Operating
System as the STR technology. Wald and Bain (2008) suggested that a training on the STR
technology should be executed in order to achieve reasonable dictation accuracy (<85
percent). Therefore, every participant of this study trained the STR technology beforehand
following general recommendations of Hwang et al. (2012) and Kuo et al. (2012) and then it
was employed during the seminar.
The participants of this study were assigned summary writing tasks after each seminar. In a
summary, participants were asked to write about main objectives, findings and personal
opinion related to research article presented during the seminar.
One-on-one semi-structured interviews and subsequent data analysis were conducted at the
end of this study. The interviews were carried out with all participants. They were asked
open-ended questions about: a) their opinions about the usefulness of STR-texts for learning
and b) learning strategies to use transcripts. Furthermore, this study evaluated content of
summaries to explore participants’ cognition.
According to results of the interviews, most participants had high perceptions toward
usefulness of STR-texts for learning and for summary writing tasks. Similar findings about
usefulness of STR-tests were found elsewhere (Ryba et al., 2006; Speech Recognition in
Schools, 2013; Wald & Bain, 2008). However, Mayer (2001) argued that the same
information presented in both auditory and written format makes it redundant and gives rise
to a split-attention effect and cognitive load (modality principle). This study administered
the seminar in English for non-native English participants; thus, due to participants’
language abilities, most of them relied on STR-texts presented in written format.

281
Nineteen learning strategies of using STR-texts for learning (Appendix 1) were extracted
and classified into: a) understanding content (items 1-10); b) finding an answer (items
11-16); and 3) summary writing (items 17-19). The item 3, 4, and 6-9 of ‘understanding
content’ category had the highest frequency (more than 40). The participants mentioned that
they studied STR-texts during or after the seminar for recalling content, finding key points
of a presentation and corresponding to it explanation, and taking notes. For example, if the
participants experienced some unfamiliar terminologies / key concepts in STR-texts, they
used online search engines or dictionary to find out additional explanatory information or
translation in their native language. Therefore, STR-texts could help the participants to
understand content of a presented topic deeper. The item 16 of ‘finding an answer’ category
had the highest frequency. The participants mentioned that STR-texts were useful to
formulate a question and then find an answer to it either on their own, by asking a presenter
or discussing it with peers. All strategies of summary writing category had high frequency.
The participants mentioned that STR-texts were useful to write summaries and to confirm
content of a summary. Similar findings regarding learning strategies of using STR-texts for
learning were also suggested in some other studies (Hwang et al., 2012; Kuo et al., 2012;
Ryba et al., 2006; Speech Recognition in Schools, 2013; Wald & Bain, 2008). However, our
finding extends current state of knowledge as participants in this study employed additional
and more advanced learning strategies. For example, previous studies do not mention
strategies under items 3, 6, 7 and 10 of ‘understanding content’ category performed by
participants. Frequent usage of these strategies suggests the need to understand presented
content better. The STR-related literature also mention a little about the strategies of
‘finding an answer’ category. Perhaps, in other related studies, the STR technology was
used for one-way lectures (Hwang et al., 2012; Ryba et al., 2006; Speech Recognition in
Schools, 2013; Wald & Bain, 2008) and in-class learning activities (Kuo et al., 2012), and
students were not supposed to ask questions, give comments or have any discussion with
282
others using STR-texts. Besides, few studies reviewed strategies of using STR-texts for
writing a summary simultaneously and for confirming its content with STR-texts (i.e. item
17 and 19 of ‘summary writing’ category) due to availability of STR-texts and the academic
level of the participants. As STR-texts were available during the seminar in this study, the
participants tried to listen to a presentation and to write summaries simultaneously. As for
item 19, all participants in this study were, at least, graduate students; therefore, they
employed such strategy to confirm content of a summary with transcripts.
Further detailed analysis of summaries’ content revealed another interesting finding; the
participants have undergone different cognitive processes during accomplishing summary
writing tasks. Some participants underwent less cognitive processes because they did not
study hard. That is, they did not make good use of STR-texts or other available resources to
study the presented topic thoroughly. These participants mostly relied on STR-texts; they
did not study STR-texts carefully but employed copy-and-paste method (i.e. performed
useless, harmful and not meaningful learning behavior) to complete summary writing tasks
without further integrating content and including elaborated ideas and personal opinions
related to a topic. Without studying STR-texts, some participants did not realize what
information in STR-texts was important. Therefore, both important and unimportant parts of
STR-texts were included in summaries. Detailed analyses of summaries illustrated some
interesting examples of misusing STR-texts. Content of some summaries was copied from
STR-texts and then integrated; however, it was only related to some parts of a presented
research paper, e.g. literature review and methodology. Writers of these summaries did not
add any other significant information in summaries, such as, results obtained in a presented
research, their discussion and conclusion. This study also found that some summaries
contained STR-texts copied word by word without any integrated information. For example,
if a summary included a research’s results, a participant who copied them word by word
from STR-texts did not further synthesize or discuss them. That is, if the participants used
283
STR-texts related to one important part of a presented research for summaries, they tended
to overlook other important parts of it. Therefore, although some participants used
STR-texts, they did not help their scores. In addition, this study found that some participants
did not elaborate any personal ideas or opinions related to a presented topic in summaries.
There were also some instances when participants did not focus on the quality of
summaries. That is, they did not proofread and revise content of summaries carefully. Thus,
some summaries were of low quality. On the other hand, some participants have undergone
more cognitive processes because they did study hard. That is, they studied a presented topic
by using STR-texts as well as other available resources (e.g. original research paper or
related academic papers from Internet) and therefore, understood a topic deeper. The
participants also studied STR-texts thoroughly, tried to find out and use only important parts
of them, as well as to include elaborated ideas and personal opinions related to presented
topic. Yet, the participants spent longer time on writing, revising and proofreading
summaries. Therefore, summaries of such participants contained more sophisticated
content.
4. Conclusion
This study attempted to investigate learning strategies of using STR-texts during and after
teaching and learning activities in traditional classroom environment. The results of this
study revealed that most participants perceived STR-texts were useful for learning and
summary writing tasks. Further investigation revealed that there are nineteen learning
strategies to use STR-texts and they can be categorized into a) understanding content, b)
finding an answer and c) summary writing. The results of this study also revealed that the
participants have undergone different cognitive processes during accomplishing summary
writing tasks. Some participants applied learning strategies efficiently but some participants
performed useless, harmful and not meaningful learning behavior; they studied STR-texts
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superficially and employed copy-and-paste method. Therefore, besides providing
STR-texts, students need to be taught about how to use STR-texts effectively by employing
meaningful and useful learning strategies. Perhaps, providing a set of guidelines with the
strategies of using STR-texts may enhance effectiveness of using STR-texts.
In the future, advanced applications of the STR technology to assist learning activities will
be further explored. Particularly, it is worth to investigate how guidelines on applying
various learning strategies of using STR-texts can scaffold cognition and metacognition.
References
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Recognition Application on Learning Performance in Synchronous Cyber Classrooms.
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education: the interface between academic standards and disability rights. Journal of
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Group Learning Activities on Learning Performance in a Synchronous Cyber
Classroom. Computers & Education, 58(1), 600-608.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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students’ perceptions and experiences with continuous automated speech recognition.
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Wald M. & Bain K. (2008). Universal access to communication and learning: the role of
automatic speech recognition. International Journal Universal Access in the
Information Society, 6(4), 435-447.
Appendix 1: Learning strategies to use STR-texts
1. Using STR-texts during a presentation for clarifying some key points of a presentation (i.e. when a key point
was not pronounced clearly)
2. Using STR-texts during a presentation for reading it as a only way to learn about content of a presentation
(i.e. a presenter spoke unclear or with heavy accent)
3. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for finding some key points of a presentation
4. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for understanding content of a presentation better
5. Using STR-texts during a presentation for following a presenter (i.e. reading text while listening to a
presenter)
6. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for searching for additional information about some unfamiliar
terminologies or key concepts from Internet using search engine
7. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for translating unfamiliar terminologies or key concepts using
online/offline dictionary
8. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for taking notes
9. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for recalling content of presentation
10. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for comparing it with text of original paper
11. Using STR-texts during a presentation for asking a question to a presenter (i.e. based on a key point of a
presentation)
12. Using STR-texts during a presentation for giving a comment to a presenter (i.e. based on a key point of a
presentation)
13. Using STR-texts during a presentation as a reference for discussing a key point of a presentation with other
group members sitting next
14. Using STR-texts after a presentation for discussing a key point of a presentation with other group members
15. Using STR-texts after a presentation for asking a question other group members
16. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for finding an answer to a question formulated by a participant
on his/her own
17. Using STR-texts during a presentation for writing a summary simultaneously
18. Using STR-texts after a presentation for writing a summary
19. Using STR-texts during/after a presentation for confirming a content of a summary with STR-texts (e.g.
summary include all main points of a presentation)
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Estimation of Item Difficulty Index based on

Item Response Theory for Computerized
Adaptive Testing
Shu-Chen CHENG* & Guan-Yu CHEN

Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Southern Taiwan
University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
*
kittyc@mail.stust.edu.tw
Abstract: The aim of computerized adaptive testing is to shorten the test process or length
and to estimate the testee’s ability correctly and quickly. It archives the personal test
exclusively for the testee through selecting the test item with the difficulty, which is
consistent with the current testee’s ability. One of the most important prerequisite of
computerized adaptive testing is the item difficulty index should be estimated correctly.
Typically, the development of computerized adaptive testing is based on the item response
theory. However, in a test system with a big item bank, it may be very difficult to collect
enough number of pre-test samples for estimating the item difficulty indices. Therefore, an
estimation method of item difficulty indices is proposed in this study. The testees’ abilities
are considered into the estimation process, in other words, the item difficulty indices and the
testees’ abilities can be estimated mutually. Through this method, the item bank can be
expanded easily at any time, and the item difficulty indices will be estimated quickly and
reasonably without too many pre-test samples.
Keywords: Computerized adaptive testing, Item analysis, Item difficulty index
Introduction
In recent years due to the popularity of computers and the development of Internet, the
teachers or researchers have started to construct the computerized test systems. The
computer adaptive testing (CAT) has been developed to solve the problem that the
traditional computerized testing gives the inappropriate test items. It provides the test items
with the difficulties which are consistent with the testee’s ability. It creates the exclusive
content of personal tests by the way of dynamic item selection. One of the important issues
of CAT is the item difficulty indices must be estimated properly. The item response theory
(IRT) is usually been used as the mathematical model to estimate the difficulty indices for
the CAT. However, in a test system with a large number of test items, it may be difficult to
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collect sufficient pre-test samples for the IRT model. When new test items are expanded
into the item bank, the item difficulty indices need to be estimated again. This is also a big
challenge.
The testees’ abilities are considered into the estimation process of the item difficulty
indices. Those who answered wrongly with higher ability or answered correctly with lower
ability are regarded as the answers abnormality. In this study, the concept of answers
abnormal rate is proposed to develop an estimation method of item difficulty indices.
Through this method, the item difficulty indices and the testees’ abilities can be estimated
correspondingly. Each test item can also be estimated independently. Therefore, the test
item bank can be expanded easily at any time without abundant pre-test samples.
1. Literature Reviews
1.1 Computerized Adaptive Testing
In order to improve the lack of traditional testing that gives inappropriate test items to the
testees, the basic concept of computer adaptive testing is to select the test item with the
difficulty which is the most consistent with the current testee’s ability. When a test item has
completed, the test system will assess the testee’s ability immediately. And then, the next
one test item will be selected according to this ability. In the other words, the testee’s answer
is correct or not will affect the difficulty of next one test item. For the testees with higher
abilities, it does not have to give them too easy test items; for the testees with lower abilities,
it does not have to give them too difficult test items. Through this kind of dynamic item
selection strategy, the CAT can be held according to different abilities. The CAT is a way of
test created exclusively and personally. Because of the feature of dynamic item selection
strategy, to implement the CAT can not only shorten the test length, but also assess the
testees’ abilities accurately. It archives the goal of individualized learning (Cheng, Lin, &
Huang, 2009; Huang, Lin, & Cheng, 2009).

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1.2 Item Difficulty Index
There are usually two estimation methods of item difficulty indices. First, the item difficulty
index of a test item is represented by the percentage of correct answers. It is shown as
P=R/N×100%, in which P is the item difficulty index, N is the number of all the testees, and
R is the number of testees who answered correctly. There is another one estimation method
of item difficulty index. First, the testees are sorted by their scores. Then, the groups of
highest scores and lowest scores are designated as the higher score group and lower score
group. To calculate the percentage of correct answers for these two groups. Finally, the
average of their percentage is taken as the item difficulty index. It is shown as P=(PH+PL)/2,
in which PH is the percentage of correct answers in the higher score group and PL is the
percentage of correct answers in the lower score group. These two extreme groups are
typically token 25%, 27%, or 33% (Haladyna, 1999; Suen, 1990).
1.3 Item Response Theory
Item response theory is one of psychometrics theory to describe the relationship between the
testee’s location on a continuous ability scale and the testee’s response to an individual test
item. It assumes that if the location of testee’s ability is known, then the relationship
between the answer response and the location of ability can be described by this
mathematical model exactly. This model gives each test item a set of parameters, and to
estimate these parameters by the information it provides (Lord, 1980).
Rasch (1960) proposes the one-parameter logistic model, so it is often referred as Rasch
model. In the Rasch model, the testee’s correct rate of the i-th test item is shown as
P(Xi=1|θ,bi)=-1/{1-exp[-(θ-bi)]}, in which Xi is the testee’s answer situation of the i-th test
item, i.e., the response pattern, θ is the testee’s ability, and bi is the item difficulty parameter
of the i-th test item. Birnbaum (1968) proposes the three-parameter logistic model. The
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testee’s correct rate of the i-th test item is shown as P(Xi=1|θ,ai,bi,ci)=ci+(1-ci) ×
-1/{1-exp[-ai(θ-bi)]}, in which ai is the item discrimination parameter of the i-th test item
and ci is item guess parameter of the i-th test item.
The IRT indicates the accuracy of the tests amount the item information. The higher
information of one test item indicates that it is more accurate to measure a location.
According to the local independence assumption, a sum of all the information of test items
in a test is the test information. This means that in the tests, it needs not to provide the same
test items to all testees. This makes the test more flexible and efficient. It is the basic concept
of adaptive testing that test according to the testee’s ability. The more the test information,
the more accurate the assessment. There are two ways to increase the test information: one is
to increase the test length in the case of item information of each test item unchanged;
another is to increase the test item information through selecting appropriate test items in the
case of test length unchanged (Lord, 1980).
2. Methods
In this study, an estimation method of item difficulty indices based on the answers abnormal
rate is proposed to refer to the IRT model. The testee’s abilities are considered into the
estimation process of item difficulty indices. Before defining the answers abnormal rate,
there are three basic assumptions for item responses: 1) If the testee’s ability is greater than
the difficulty of one test item, then the testee will answer this test item correctly; 2) If the
testee’s ability is smaller than the difficulty of one test item, then the testee will answer this
test item wrongly; 3) If the testee’s ability is equal to the difficulty of one test item, then the
situation of testee’s item response is indeterminate. It is viewed as answers abnormality if
the item response violates these above three assumptions.
The answers abnormal rate of one test item for the testees with the abilities, which are
greater than the item difficulty index, is represented by the wrong answer rate. It is shown as
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hAARi=hFi/hFi, in which hAARi is the answers abnormal rate of higher ability group for one
test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level, hFi is the number of wrong answers of higher
ability group for one test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level, hFi is the number of all the
testees of higher ability group for one test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level.
The answers abnormal rate of one test item for the testees with the abilities, which are
smaller than the item difficulty index, is represented by the correct answer rate. It is shown
as lAARi=lTi/lNi, in which lAARi is the answers abnormal rate of lower ability group for one
test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level, lTi is the number of correct answers of lower
ability group for one test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level, lNi is the number of all the
testees of lower ability group for one test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level.
The answers abnormal rate of one test item for the testees with the abilities, which are equal
to the item difficulty index, is represented by the absolute value of the difference between
the correct answer rate and 0.5. It is shown as eAARi=|eTi/eNi-0.5|, in which eAARi is the
answers abnormal rate of equal ability group for one test item if its difficulty is at the i-th
level, eTi is the number of correct answers of equal ability group for one test item if its
difficulty is at the i-th level, eNi is the number of all the testees of equal ability group for one
test item if its difficulty is at the i-th level.
To add the three parts together is the answers abnormal rate of one test item. It is shown as
AARi=hAARi+eAARi+lAARi, in which AARi is the answers abnormal rate for one test item if
its difficulty is at the i-th level. To take the level of minimum answers abnormal rate as the
item difficulty index of one test item. It is shown as D=argmin(AARi), in which D is the item
difficulty index of one test item. Through this method, every test item can be estimated
independently, and the item bank can be expanded easily at any time.
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3. Experiments and Results
The CAT system used in this study is developed in an online English-learning system. That
system provides the learning materials for technology English. And then, the CAT is used
assessing the learners’ outcomes. To login with an authorized account, and set some basic
parameters of the test, the adaptive testing can be carried out (Cheng, Lin, & Huang, 2009).
The item difficulty indices for the item bank in the test system is estimated by the method
based on the answers abnormal rate proposed in this study. Combining the dynamic item
selection strategy based on the particle swarm optimization algorithm in that system
(Huang, Lin, & Cheng, 2009), a complete and robust CAT system is constructed.
The way of experiment in this study is online tests. The participants are the 4-th grade
students, who took the course named “Technology English”, in the departments related with
computer or information in a university in southern Taiwan. There are 1,513 test items in the
item bank. The item difficulty indices are 9 levels ranged from 0.1 to 0.9. The initial values
of item difficulty indices are all set to 0.5. There are 51 students participate this experiment.
The students’ abilities are also divided into 9 levels, which are from 0.1 to 0.9. The initial
values of student’s abilities are all set to 0.2. The experimental period is 6 weeks, and the
way for the tests is that the students exercise in the after-school time freely. Then, the item
difficulty indices will be estimated every week regularly according to the results of tests.
Fig. 1 The variation trends of item difficulty indices.
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After the 6 week experiment, except 3 students who have never used this system, there are
48 testees doing the tests. In the 1,513 test items in the item bank, there are 870 test items
reached the selected threshold. Their item difficulty indices are estimated. From the
variation trend of item difficulty index adjustment, there are 54 test items can be considered
as stable. The item difficulty index of one test item tends to be stable, if it is answered about
50 to100 times. It is seen that if the selected times of a test item reaches a certain number of
candidates, the results of estimation will be stable. Fig. 1 represents the general variation
trends of item difficulty index adjustments.
To confirm that the estimation method of item difficulty indices proposed in this study is
reasonable or not, we can compare the testees’ abilities assessed by the test system with the
pre-tests at the start of course, and the post-tests at the end of the course. Test results are
consistent with the testees’ abilities assessed by this method combined with the dynamic
item selection strategy.
4. Conclusions
In the estimation method of item difficulty indices based on the answers abnormal rate
proposed in this study, the testee’s abilities are considered into the estimation process. The
item difficulty indices and the testees’ abilities can be estimated accordingly at the same
time. It can speed up the estimation process of item difficulty index adjustment to be stable.
Every test item is deemed to be independent, so its item difficulty index can be estimated
independently. The item bank can be expanded easily at any time. New test items and old
existing ones work together in the system. Their item difficulty indices can be estimated
quickly and reasonably.
In this study, we only discuss with the estimation of item difficulty indices. However, to
compare with the mathematical model of IRT, it will be more suitable to discuss with the
item discrimination indices and the item guess indices for the type of choice items. The
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description of item parameters can be more complete by them. Therefore, the item
discrimination indices and the item guess indices will be discussed and researched based on
the answers abnormal rate in the future. The scale or objects of testees can also be extended
to verify this system more comprehensively.
Acknowledgements
This research was partially supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, ROC, under
Contract No.: NSC 100-2511-S-218-008-MY3 and NSC 101-2511-S-218-004-MY2.
References
Birnbaum, A. (1968). Some latent trait models and their use in inferring an examinee’s
stability. In F. M. Lord, & M. R. Novick (Eds.), Statistical theories of mental test
scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cheng, S.-C., Lin, Y.-T., & Huang, Y.-M. (2009). Dynamic question generation system for
web-based testing using particle swarm optimization. Expert Systems with
Applications, 36(1), pp. 616-624.
Haladyna, T. M. (1999). Developing and validating multiple-choice exam items (2 ed.).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Huang, Y.-M., Lin, Y.-T., & Cheng, S.-C. (2009). An adaptive testing system for supporting
versatile educational assessment. Computers & Education, 52(1), pp. 53-67.
Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of Item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests.
Copenhagen: The Danish Institute for Educational Research.
Suen, H. K. (1990). Principles of exam theories. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
294
A Cooperative Learning Certification

Examination Tutoring System Combining
Hamming Distance with Bloom's Taxonomy of
Education Objectives
Gwo-Haur HWANGa*, Beyin CHENb, Dong-Ming LOEa & Cin-Wei HUANGa

a
Department of Information Networking and System Administration, Ling Tung University,
Taiwan
b
Department of Information Management, Ling Tung University, Taiwan
*ghhwang@mail.ltu.edu.tw
Abstract: Professional certifications in recent years have become one of the important
references for employment. With the popularity of digital learning, many researchers
indicate cooperative learning has the characteristics of the communication and exchange,
which can enhance the overall effectiveness of learning. However, whether the grouping
structure is good or bad will affect the quality of cooperative learning. Therefore, this study
proposes a grouping algorithm which combines Bloom's Taxonomy of Education
Objectives and Hamming distance. According to the Bloom's ability indicator, the two
students with higher complementarity will be grouped into the same group based on
Hamming distance and conduct exam practicing together. Through exchanges and mutual
assistance, it is hoped that the student certification examination pass rate can be enhanced.
Keywords: Certification examination tutorial, cooperative learning, Bloom’s taxonomy of

educational objectives, Hamming distance
Introduction
In the past, there have been many researchers that are developing and improving the
certification tutoring systems. Hwang, Lee and Tseng (2012) imported the joyful learning
factors into the certification tutoring system and achieved good results. Hwang, Chen,
Huang and Loe (2013) built a ubiquitous personalized certification tutoring system based on
Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. However, past certification tutoring systems
mostly focused on individual independent teaching strategies, students rarely have the
opportunity to communicate. Therefore, if we can promote communication and interaction
between students, we believe that it will help the overall effectiveness of the learning for
students. With the popularity of the development of the Internet and digital learning,
cooperative learning is the one of teaching strategies that often used. Through grouping and
295
communicating, the purpose can be reached for students to help each other and jointly
upgrade the abilities. However, some researchers point out that the cooperative learning
groups with excellent structure and poor structure will result in different learning
effectiveness (Chou & Sun, 1996; Hwang & Hwang, 2006). In addition, in network courses,
a large amount of students will also result in cooperative learning grouping problem.
Therefore, Hwang and Hwang (2006) defined a multi-target mathematical mode of
collaborative learning grouping. At the same time, they proposed universal heuristic
algorithm. Based on student test scores and the understanding extent of students to the
course, the cooperative learning grouping is conducted. However, the cognitive difference
within a concept is not considered. Hamming proposed the concept of Hamming distance.
We combines it with the Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001), which can divide a concept into different cognitive levels. Based on this,
a Hamming distance grouping algorithm is proposed. Through this algorithm and according
to the students' Bloom's ability indicators of each chapter, the system can group two students
with higher complementarity into the same group. Based on this, the overall grouping can be
optimized and the overall learning effectiveness is expected to be enhanced.
1. Algorithms
1.1 The Students' Encoding Algorithm of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives
The cognitive process dimension of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives can be
divided into six classes. This paper only uses the first 4 classes and combines the
“remember” and “understand” into low level as well as the “apply” and “analyze” into high
level. HTML certification exam contains 9 categories totally. Every category contains 2
levels, so there are 18 bits need to be encoded. To encoding each bit of the 18 bits, the
system will select 3 test questions from exam question database randomly, so there are 54
test questions when pre-test. For the 3 test questions, if the number of right answering is 0 or
296
1, the bit is encoded to 0. If the number of right answering is 2 or 3, the bit is encoded to 1.
Finally, for each student, the system will produce an 18-bit "students' Bloom's ability code".
1.2 The algorithm of Hamming distance between two students
Figure 1 is used to explain how to calculate Hamming distance of two students.
Figure 1. The example to illustrate Hamming distance of two students
1.3 The algorithm of Hamming distance grouping
The algorithm of Hamming distance grouping is explained in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
Figure 2. The flowchart of Hamming distance grouping Figure 3. Hamming distance matrix
2. Conclusions
This study develops a cooperative learning certification tutoring system combining
Hamming distance and Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. By this, the students
with higher prior knowledge of a certain chapter can help those students with the lower prior
297
knowledge of the chapter to relieve their puzzles. It is expected that such cooperative
certification tutoring system can increase the certification examination pass rate.
Acknowledgements
This study is sponsored by the National Science Council of the Republic of China under the
contract no. NSC99-2511-S-275-001-MY3.
References
Anderson, W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.) (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing: A revision of Bloom’s educational objectives. NY: Longamn.
Chou, C., and Sun, C. T. (1996). A Computer-Network-Supported Cooperative Distance
Learning System for Technical Communication Education. IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication, 39(4), 205-214.
Hwang, C. W. & Hwang, G. J. (2006). A study on cooperative learning group constructing
problem based on genetic approach. Paper presented at the 2nd Taiwan E-Learning
Forum (TWELF 2006). Tainan, Taiwan.
Hwang, G. H., Chen, B., Huang, C. W., & Loe, D. M. (2013). Development of a
personalized ubiquitous multi-device certification tutoring system based on Bloom's
taxonomy of educational objectives. Paper accepted by the 17th Global Chinese
Conference on Computers in Education (GCCCE 2013). Beijing, China.
Hwang, G. H., Lee, C. Y., & Tseng, W. F. (2012). Development and evaluation of an
educational computer game for a certification examination. Journal of Educational
Technology Development and Exchange, 5(2), 27-40.
298
Instructional Designs with WordPress: Tools

and Processes for Four Education Websites
Elliot JORDANa*& Yu-Ju LINb
a
Center for Evaluation and Educational Policy, Indiana University, USA
b
Program of Learning, Design & Technology, University of Georgia, USA
*ellijord@indiana.edu
Abstract: This paper, website, and presentation looks at the WordPress platform used to
create four education websites at The Equity Project at Indiana University. The goals are (1)
to illuminate the efficiency and versatility of this website platform for instructional and
organizational purposes and (2), to look at how the ADDIE model and other related process
frameworks were used and improved in a real world design situation. With a hybrid ADDIE
and Agile process, we were able to implement these websites on time. This is to be presented
as both a hybrid design case study and web development workshop.
Keywords: Instructional, CMS, WordPress, website, usability, ADDIE, Agile, process
Introduction
WordPress is a flexible, intuitive, and mature open-source website development platform
that may be used for a wide variety of educational websites (Smith & McCallister, 2011).
This paper, accompanying website (with screenshots and survey data at
http://indiana.edu/~testweb), and conference presentation demonstrates the utility of the
WordPress platform in a real-world instructional design situation. Also discussed are the
workflow approaches taken from several process models (ADDIE, Agile, and Scrum) which
helped us to create our websites quickly given our organizational circumstances.
1. WordPress – easy and efficient web development
WordPress allows for easy development of websites by technical or non-technical users. It
is offered as free, open-source software. Originally a blog platform, WordPress is now used
for a wide variety of websites as well. With the availability of many plugins, accessory
tools, and a strong developer community, WordPress offers an instructional developer a
versatile tool for creating websites. Some potential uses for WordPress include the creation
299
of learning management systems, discussion forums, blogs, quizzes, social media, video
conferencing, instructional audio/visuals, web-based portfolios, and mobile learning
(Roseth, 2013).
2. The Equity Project scholar Websites
2.1 About The Equity Project and main Equity Project website
The Equity Project is a small research group at Indiana University. I joined this group as an
instructional developer in August 2011 to help develop, maintain, and eventually redesign
their instructional websites and discussion forums. Common problems with all of the old
websites included 1) poor organization / navigation, 2) obsolete contents, 3) broken links,
and 4) a poor and dated appearance “(Chung, personal communication)”. The current
Equity Project website is over 5 years old and was initially adequate but limited in
functionality and inconvenient to maintain. The new Equity website is more visually
appealing, easy to update, and includes several social media functions.
2.2 Atlantic Philanthropies Grant - Research Collaborative
We needed to create a new, simple website dedicated to our Atlantic grant with basic
features (e.g., about statement, resources, a list of collaborators and contact information).
Usability studies and surveys on color schemes/fonts/header designs were attempted, but
only several general requirements were given to build from. Development time was only
one month. This was our first WordPress website.
2.3 Equity in Indiana Data Website
The Equity Project offers data on school discipline to over 300 Indiana school districts
annually. The previous website used dropdown menus that retrieved database queries.
300
Data formats changed in 2012 rendering the queries obsolete. We decided to rebuild this site
with WordPress for expediency. New data was overdue and few requirements were known.
Garrett (2010) indicated that simplicity is key in highly usable websites, so to simplify
design, complete data pages were created for each school so users could compare data
instead of the less useful isolated queries. Other changes were needed (e.g., labeling,
content, navigation, spacing, and other details) and implemented. Some Agile principles
such as “quick iterations” can speed development (Rubin, 2012). We finished this website
in 2 months with users reporting high satisfaction.
2.4 PBISIN – Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) – Indiana
This website represents our PBIS initiative in Indiana. The old PBIS Indiana website was
incomplete and disorganized (e.g., it included a mix of top, left side, and page-internal
navigation that was confusing). Usability surveys were completed by staff members that
addressed needed improvements (n=10). Site resources were hard to find. The most urgent
need was to implement logical information architecture of labeling, and navigation, which
are critical components in user-centered web design (Garrett, 2010).
3. Process: Deviations from the standard ADDIE model
With strict deadlines and evolving needs, we had little time for in-depth analysis (ADDIE –
stage 1). The user information we had depended on our users and time available.
Key factors in all projects were communication, resources, external decision makers, and
time. Our process became more of a repeated Develop–Evaluate version of ADDIE, or
DEDE. In its standard form, ADDIE can be inefficient and we found ourselves unable to
follow it as defined (Gordon & Zemke, 2000).
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Conclusion
WordPress is an efficient tool for creating educational websites without extensive
programming. ADDIE was inefficient for our projects due to various organizational
circumstances. Openness to new design processes (e.g., Agile methods) is preferable to
strict adherence to any model (Smith & Boling, 2000). Being adaptive and flexible as design
changes occurred helped us speed up development. For more detailed information on our
websites and survey data, please visit the companion website for this paper at
http://indiana.edu/~testdata.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to The Equity Project, and all of the helpful IT staff at Indiana University.
References
Garrett, J. J. (2010). The elements of user experience: user-centered design for the Web
and beyond (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: New Riders
Gordon, J., & Zemke, R. (2000). The attack on ISD. Training, 37(4), 42-45.
Roseth, C., Akcaoglu, M., & Zellner, A. (2013). Blending synchronous face-to-face and
computer-supported cooperative learning in a hybrid doctoral seminar. TechTrends,
57(3), 54-59. doi: 10.1007/s11528-013-0663-z
Rubin, K. S. (2012). Essential scrum: A practical guide to the most popular Agile
Process (1st ed.). Upper Saddle River: NJ: Addison-Wesley Professional.
Smith, B., & McCallister, M. (2011). Wordpress in depth. Indianapolis, IN: Que
Smith, K. M., & Boling, E. (2009). What do we make of design? design as a concept in
educational technology. Educational Technology, 49(4), 3-17.
302
Evaluating the Feasibility of Adopting

E-learning Quality Certification System in
Taiwan Universities
Yi-Lin LIUa*, Tzy-Ling CHENb & Hsiu-Ping YUEHc

a
Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan
University, Taiwan
b
Graduate Institute of Bio-Industry Management, National Chung Hsing University,
Taiwan
c
Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan
University, Taiwan
*r92630006@ntu.edu.tw
Abstract: This study intended to explore the feasibility of e-learning quality certification
system promoted and implemented by the e-Learning Quality Service Center in Taiwan.
The focus of this study was on the university faculty, and data were collected by the
researcher-developed structured questionnaire. The results revealed that half of the surveyed
instructors had applied the e-learning quality certification system to their instruction in
classes to some extents. Moreover, the instructors confirmed the dimensions utilized in
e-learning quality certification system were appropriate and important.
Keywords: e-Learning quality, e-learning courseware quality certification, e-learning

service quality certification, university faculty
1. Backgrounds
Enhancing and building the culture of quality in e-learning is critical to the success of higher
education institutions, by enabling individuals to continuously improve their educational
practice (Ehlers, 2009; Inglis, 2005). The ability to accurately evaluate the e-learning
quality is important to all stakeholders involved, in the context of e-learning for
university-level learners, it is vital to understand how instructors define the quality of
e-learning since the needs and circumstances are diverse and different from corporate
training. This study explored the impact of a national e-learning courseware quality
certification from the higher education perspective. By applying eLCQC in the university
context, this study evaluated the generalizability and importance of this enterprise-based
certification.
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2. Research Methodology
The study used purposeful sampling to understand the feasibility of applying e-learning
quality certification system in higher education institutions. The questionnaires were
distributed via e-mail to 43 instructional design- or educational technology-related
departments in 30 universities in Taiwan. 42 questionnaires from 22 departments in 18
universities were returned. The participants in this study were of 10.83 years of working
experience in average; 64.29% of them were male; and 27.45% were professors, followed
by assistant professors (25.49%) and associate professors (21.57%).
The instrument was researcher-developed questionnaire that contained 8 items for
collecting participants’ background information and 26 items for investigating participants’
attitude toward the e-learning quality certification system. The participants were required to
evaluate the appropriateness and importance of five dimensions in eLCQC and eight
dimensions in eLSQC separately. Each item was evaluated using a 6-point Likert-type scale
from 1 (strongly inappropriate/ strongly not important) to 6 (strongly appropriate/ strongly
important). Additionally, there was one open-ended question to collect participants’
opinions of and feedbacks on the quality certification system. The internal consistency
reliability (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) estimates for the questionnaire was 0.969 that
demonstrated the instrument attained a rather reliable level.
3. Results
3.1 Feasibility Evaluation of eLCQC
The average score given to the familiarity of eLCQC and eLSQC was 4.64 (SD=1.28) and
3.90 (SD=1.53) separately. The paired-sample t-test of familiarity showed a statistically
significant difference between the eLCQC and eLSQC (t (41)=4.415, p<.001). Since one
participant expressed strongly unfamiliar with eLCQC, whom was deleted from the analysis
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of appropriateness and importance of eLCQC in further investigation.
In the assessment of appropriateness, participants considered the content was most
appropriate (M=5.24; SD=0.66), followed by instructional design (M=5.20; SD=0.68),
navigation and tracking (M=5.12; SD=0.75), instructional media (M=5.07; SD=0.75), and
creativity (M=4.66; SD=1.09). The results were consistent with the assessment of
importance that the content (M=5.51; SD=0.60) and instructional design (M=5.49;
SD=0.68) were more important than instructional media (M=5.29; SD=0.81), navigation
and tracking (M=5.10; SD=1.00), and creativity (M=4.93; SD=1.19). Overall, the average
score given to importance (5.264) was higher than appropriateness (5.058), and attained
statistically significant difference (t (40)=-2.440, p<.05).
3.2 Feasibility Evaluation of eLSQC
There were five participants who expressed strongly unfamiliarity with eLSQC and were
therefore deleted from the analysis in further investigation. Similar to the results of eLCQC
that the average score participants given to importance (5.171) was higher than
appropriateness (4.998) in eLSQC, which also attained statistically significant difference
(t(36)=-2.794, p<.01). Learner support (M=5.22; SD=0.75), instructional support (M=5.19;
SD=0.81), course design (M=5.05; SD=0.78) and instructional process (M=5.05; SD=0.85)
were viewed as appropriate for eLSQC. Although the sequence was somehow different,
course design (M=5.38; SD=0.72), learner support (M=5.35; SD=0.75), and instructor
support (M=5.30; SD=0.70) were also emphasized as important. However, technology
support, organizational support, and program development were not as appropriate and
important comparing to other dimensions.
4. Conclusion
The results of this study suggested that the participants were more familiar with eLCQC
courseware than eLSQC service. With regard to the feasibility of introducing e-learning
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quality certification system into university context, the standards were viewed more
important than appropriate for practical application, no matter in eLCQC or eLSQC. The
quality dimensions of content and instructional design were both the most important and
appropriate issues in eLCQC concerned by university faculties; however, the feature of
creativity was difficult to assess that made it not be valued. Furthermore, learner support,
instructor support, and course design were the crucial dimensions that university should pay
attention to when attempted to provide high-quality e-learning service. Comparing to other
quality dimensions, the establishment of infrastructure was complete nowadays for
universities that allowed the participants de-emphasize the technology support quality.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Industrial Development Bureau and e-Learning Quality
Service Center for their grants support to this study.
References
Ehlers, U. D. (2009). Understanding quality culture. Quality Assurance in Education, 17(4),
343-363.
Inglis, A. (2005). Quality improvement, quality assurance, and benchmarking: Comparing
two frameworks for managing quality processes in open and distance learning.
International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 6(1), 1-13.
306
Investigating the Perceptions of Vocational

Undergraduates Using Podcasts
Kuang-yun TINGa*& Mei-sheng, CHAOb
a
Department of Applied English, St. John's University, Taiwan
b
College of Foreign Languages, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
*
k.y.ting@gmail.com
Abstract: The use of podcasting has attracted the attention of teachers because it is
content-rich and is of wide general interest. Users can listen to podcasts via the Internet or
download them on to a portable music player. Many podcasts provide an authentic context
including those which are vocationally orientated. In other words, learners can access
podcasts linked to their field of study or interest. Accordingly, this research project explores
vocational undergraduate learners’ perspectives of podcasts related to certain subjects.
Finally, it proposes a number of suggestions for practical strategies and techniques for
teaching English through podcasting.
Keywords: podcasts, multimodal facilities, transcript
1. Introduction
Podcasting has grown exponentially in education since its introduction. The possible reason
is that the core medium in podcasting actually is audio, not new to educators. The variety of
the podcasts on the Internet ensures that language learners can have access to valuable
listening resources so as to practise at their own pace outside the classroom (Richardson,
2010). Therefore, this project explores learners’ reaction to their initial experience of using
podcasting and what progress they expected to make in learning the target language through
this medium.
2. Research Design
The project set out to study two research areas. These were firstly, how learners engage in
English learning through podcasting and, secondly, students’ expectations of this particular
medium. The twenty-nine participants in the study were English majors attending evening
classes at a university. The whole process is described here in three stages. During stage one
(week 12), the concept of podcasting was explained to the students. Stage two lasted four
weeks (week 13-week16) and involved the use of actual podcast materials. Each student
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introduced a chosen podcast based on the content, technical design, the length of each topic
and the potential for language learning purposes. Stage three consisted of a relevant
questionnaire and a reflection assignment on how the use of podcasts contributed to
learning.
3.1 The type of podcast chosen
The chosen podcasts can be classified into two main groups. First, authentic content read by
native speakers such as the news in English (BBC, CNN), literature (Penguin group, Wired
for books) and topics based on specific organisations (National Geographic, NASA, C21
Real Estate). Second, language content specifically designed for English as a second
language learner such as vocabulary (Just Vocabulary, Word Nerds) and specific topics. In
addition, participants’ opinions on the content of chosen podcasts can be divided into two
categories: a variety of accents and authentic text. The issue of authentic input is
emphasised here because authentic language provides input that is rich enough for second
language acquisition to occur.
3.2 The value of learning English skills
It is not surprising that most students agreed that the podcast is the most beneficial tool for
listening practice. Except from listening skills, reading skill, grammar and vocabulary
acquisition were mentioned most by the participants. Two students stated that podcasts also
help speaking and writing because they could use sentences from them in their jobs.
As a whole, students appreciated the opportunity to work with new digital technology and
showed that they enjoyed learning English with podcasts.
3.3 Podcast design

308
Audio was definitely considered of great importance by most participants and video design
came next. Further, a transcript of the podcast content was regarded as a fairly important
necessity. The majority of the participants pointed out that a transcript was a very important
resource for them and a podcast with audio transcripts was generally evaluated as good by
many participants. Richards (1983) mentions that comprehension will be difficult if learners
lack culturally or subject specific scripts. Therefore, transcripts are necessary for language
learners because they can make subject matter more comprehensible and then trigger
specific interest in learners.
4. Conclusion
This paper has given rise to a number of suggestions for practical strategies and techniques
for teaching English through the medium of podcasting. First, students have to be given a lot
of guidance before they start surfing for podcasts. Second, podcasts chosen by students
should be reviewed carefully before being adopted. The last important issue is that the
optimum level of English proficiency for students to take full linguistic advantage of
podcasting is pre-intermediate because the directory and most of the podcasts are in English.
References
Evans, C. (2008). The effectiveness of m-learning in the form of podcast revision lectures in
higher education. Computers and Education, 50(2), 491–498.
Richards, J.C. (1983). Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Procedure. TESOL
Quarterly, 17(2), 219-240.
Richardson, W. (2010). Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts, and Other Powerful Web Tools for
Classrooms. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
309
Worked-Examples with Metacognitive

Questions: How do Children of Different
Abilities Learn?
Huei-Min WUa, You-Jia HUANGb, Hui-Chuan HUANGb, Shyh-Chii TZENGb, ,
Tai-Yih TSOc & Ning-Chun TANd
a
Department of Psychology , Fo Guang University, Taiwan
b
Department of Applied Informatics, Fo Guang University, Taiwan
c
Department of Mathematics, National Taiwan Normal University
d
Department of Mathematics and Information Education, National Taipei University of
Education
hmwu@mail.fgu.edu.tw
Abstract: This study compared two types of worked examples, that is, worked examples
with meta-cognitive questions (MQ) and without meta-cognitive questions (NMQ), and
examined their impact on learners of different abilities in terms of their test performance,
study and test time, and perception of cognitive load and motivation. The results showed
that the MQ group required more time to learn and there were no significant differences in
test performance when the task was easy. However, when the task was difficult, high ability
students in the NMQ group outperformed those in the MQ group. This advantage, however,
disappeared in the delayed posttest. In addition, the students in NMQ indicated a higher
level of willingness to continue the activity than the MQ group.
Keywords: example-based learning, worked example, cognitive load, ability difference
Introduction
An impressive body of research over the last few decades has shown that for novice
learners, worked examples are more effective in facilitating learning compared to
conventional problem solving ( Renkl 2011; Wittwer & Renkl, 2010). In addition, research
also suggest that encouraging self-explanation ( Witter and Renkl’s , 2010) or training
students to formulate and answer metacognitive questions while they worked on problems
significantly enhance learning outcomes, compared to the worked example training method
(Mevarech& Kramarski, 2003). Mevarech and Kramarski (2003) also found that the gain
of lower achievers from their metacognitive training was more pronounced than high
achievers. However, it was noticed that the majorities of the studies that found the
advantage of self-explanation or metacognitive training involved participants of older
students. It is not clear to what extend younger students would benefit from such an
310
approach and whether .metacognitive training can enhance students’ learning when
embedded in an individualized setting. This study aimed to understand if embedding
metacognitive questions (i.e., reflect or elaborate on the underlying principles of the worked
examples) in worked examples would encourage deeper processing and enhance
performance in an individualized multimedia learning environment and also to examine
how metacognitive questions in example-based learning influence the performance and
perception of learners of different abilities.
1. Methods
1.1 Participants and design
A total of 97 fifth graders from an elementary school in Taiwan participated in this study.
They were divided into high and low ability groups based on their mid-term examination
scores in mathematics and randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions:
meta-cognitive questions (MQ) group and no meta-cognitive questions (NMQ) group.
1.2 Instructional Materials and Instrument
The instructional materials were two multimedia lessons created in Microsoft PowerPoint
with Visual Basic Applications. The content was about the properties of a parallelogram,
and how to segment a parallelogram and restructure the segments to become a rectangle
(Unit 1) and how to solve parallelogram area problems (Unit 2). Two versions of the
material were developed, i.e. NMQ and MQ versions.
Three kinds of test instruments were developed: a 16-item prerequisite test, a 26-item
immediate test for Unit1 and a 16-item immediate test for Unit2, and a 40-item delayed
posttest. In addition, the Cognitive Load and Motivation Inventory (CLMI) (Tso et al.,
2010) was used to measure task difficulty, effort needed to complete a task, effort devoted to
a task, willingness to continue a task, and confidence level while working on a task.
311
1.3 Procedure
This study consisted of four sessions: one prerequisite test session, two learning and
immediate posttest sessions, and one delayed posttest session. Sessions 2-4 were conducted
in the computer room. Each session was one week apart .
2. Result
Results were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. The results on test performance showed
that when the task was easy (Unit 1) , there were no significant differences between
instructional methods. However, when the task became more difficult (Unit 2), the high
ability students in the NMQ method outperformed those in the MQ method, F(1,45)=4.467,
p=.040. This advantage disappeared, however, in the delayed posttest, F (1,93)<1. For the
low ability students, no significant differences between methods were obtained.
The results from time analyses showed that the MQ group consistently required more time
to learn than the NMQ group for both Unit 1, F(1, 93)=13.490, p=.000 and Unit 2,
F(1,93)=4.869, p=.030. When the task was easy, there was no ability difference in learning
time and test time. When the task was difficult, the low ability group demanded more time
to learn than the high ability group, F(1,93)=7.661, p=.007. In addition, there was a
significant interaction effect between instructional methods and ability in test time. The
high ability students in the NMQ method spent more time on the test than low ability
students, F(1,45)=14.022, p=.001, but this pattern was not observed in the MQ method.
Finally, analyses on the cognitive load and motivation data showed that the only significant
difference was observed in the willingness to continue solving similar problems between the
two instructional methods, F(1,93)=5.306, p=.023, favoring the NMQ group.
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3. Conclusion and Discussion

This study examined the use of meta-cognitive questions in an example-based environment
and investigated how they affected learners of different abilities. The results showed that
adding meta-cognitive questions required more time to learn, but produced no immediate
advantage. On the contrary, when the task was difficult, high ability learners in the NMQ
method needed less time to learn and outperformed those in the MQ method. This result
suggested that meta-cognitive questions in worked examples were not effective for young
learners in individualized learning setting and hindered the learning of high ability students.
Acknowledgements
This study is a partial report of a research grant from the National Science Council, Taiwan.
Grant No. NSC 100-2511-S-431 -003 -MY3. The authors would like to thank Dr
Ming-jiang Chen and his team for the support of PowerPoint add-in training and Dr.
Chien-Ming Cheng for his contribution to the assessment construction.
References
Mevarech, Z. R., & Kramarski, B. (2003). The effects of metacognitive training versus
worked-out examples on students' mathematical reasoning. British Journal Of
Educational Psychology, 73(4), 449-471.
Renkl, A. (2011). Instruction based on examples. In R. E. Mayer & P. A. Alexander (Eds.),
Handbook of research on learning and instruction (pp. 272-295). NY: Routledge.
Tso, T. Y., Lu, F. L., Tzeng, S. C., Wu, H. M., Chen, M. J., Tan, N. C. (2010). Impact of
reducing task complexity on experts' and novices' reading geometric proof. Bulletin of
Educational Psychology，43，291-314.
Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2010). How effective are instructional explanations in
example-based learning? A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychology Review, 22,
393–409.
313
Educators’ Perceptions on Public Health

Education beyond Borders
Erlyana ERLYANAa* & Veronica ACOSTA-DEPREZb

a
Health Care Administration Department, California State University Long Beach, USA
b
Health Science Department, California State University Long Beach, USA
*erlyana.erlyana@csulb.edu
Abstract: This paper is to examine the perceptions of public health faculty regarding online
learning methodologies. Perceptions will focus on their knowledge, attitudes, and practices
related to online learning as integrated in their work. A nationwide random sample of Public
Health educators was conducted through an online survey. Descriptive data analysis was
conducted using the data analysis tool provided on the online site. The results suggested that
the public health faculties are behind the technological curve. The roadblocks include
administrative and institutional barriers: course quality and workloads concerns and lack of
skills, resources, supports, and time commitment. Tools needed to improve quality of online
learning and student outcomes include training both in teaching and technology use and
strengthening measures and tools to improve and assess performance. The study helps to
recognize barriers and predict directions of online teaching and learning efforts are headed.
Keywords: Public Health Education, online learning, barriers, future trend
1. Background
Providing adequate numbers of traditional classes is always a prominent challenge for
public institutions. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) estimated about
89% of public 4-year institutions offered college level distance education during the
2006-2007 academic year (Parsad, 2008). The non-linear online and hybrid/ blended class
method of delivery is also well-suited for dynamic nature of health care field that rapidly
evolved and updated, it is borderless and faster (Renes & Strange, 2010). In addition, online
delivery allows higher level of interactions among students (instructor-learner,
learner-learner, web-learner) at any time (Ginns & Ellis, 2007). However, despite its
potential, there are potential threats caused by lack of public health educators’ and
institutions’ readiness. This study focuses on assessing public health educators’ perceptions
314
on the promoters and barriers of online learning as well as on the technologies and activities
that impacted future online courses.
2. Methods: Study Design and Sample
This study was conducted via an online survey service, SurveyShare. Invitation was sent by
e-mail to a nationwide random sample of 400 public health educators who were listed as
members of Eta Sigma Gamma, a professional organization for health educators. A total of
82 surveys were completed and 51 were usable. The questionnaire collected: demographic
information, perceptions about promoters and barriers, and predicted technologies and
activities used in the future. Descriptive data analysis was conducted using the data analysis
tool provided on the online site.
3. Results
3.1 Sample Characteristics
Of the 51 individuals completed the confidential survey, 51% were female. 24% had 3-5
years of experience of integrating technology tools, 37% had 6-10 years of experience, and
27% had more than 10 years of experience
3.2 Perceptions Regarding Technology, Tools, and Activities
According to the respondents, technologies that will most greatly impact the delivery of
online learning in the next 5 years, ranked from the highest to the lowest impacts, include:
wireless tech (31%), reusable content object (21%), e-portfolio (11%), peer to peer
collaboration (10%), simulations and games (10%), assistive technology (10%) e-books
(10%) tablet PCs (10%), and online language support (1.5%). Tools and activities
influencing online course websites in the future include: engaging and interactive
simulations (30%), self-assessment activities and tools (18%), global courses and
international collaboration (14%), online mentoring and expert support (12%), online
explorations and discovery activities (8%), embedded educational games and edutainment
(4%) and use of reusable learning objects (4%).

315
3.3 Perceptions Regarding Promoters and Barriers of Online Courses
Predicted success factors of online courses were perceived to include monetary support
(24%), pedagogical competency (16%) and technical competency of online instructors
(16%), marketing (13%) improvement in online technologies (8%), quality management in
the accreditation process (6%), and joining consortium (2%). The roadblocks they perceived
for online learning expansion or implementation including course quality concerns (17%),
workload concerns (16%), lack of rewards or incentives (12%), administrative and
institutional issues (11%), development costs (9%), lack of perceived need (7%), plagiarism
concerns (5%), lack of support from institution administrators (4%), lack of fit with
institution’ mission (3%), limited technological infrastructure (3%), legal concerns (2%),
inability to obtain authorization (1%), lack of access to library or other support services
(1%), and restrictive Federal, State, or Local Policies (1%).
4. Discussion and Implications
To achieve success, bridges and barriers of teaching online courses need to be
acknowledged and addressed (Shea, 2007). The results suggested that the public health
faculties are behind the technological curve – lack of incentives, skills in managing change,
and had concern of quality of online learning and workload. The results of this study helped
predict and evaluate future trends in online teaching and learning in public health. Use of
engaging and interactive simulations was found to be the most widely used in online public
health courses in the future. The tool was also predicted to be widely used for pedagogical
e-learning technique in the workplace setting (Bonk et al., 2005). In addition, the study
reported that the emerging technology that will most greatly impact the delivery of online
learning was wireless technologies, as predicted in other study as well (Bonk et al., 2005).
Although this study was conducted in 2007, the results are very much in line with current
trends especially in discussions related to pedagogy as well as instructor skills. As online
learning becomes more embedded in the education of students, instructor skills and roles
316
need to change. Instructors will no longer be considered experts and authoritative figures in
the classroom. “As authoritative sources lose their importance, there is a need for more
curation and other forms of validation to generate meaning in information and media”
(Johnson et al., 2013, p.7). Additionally, more recent college graduates will enter the
workforce not only with college skills but also with informal learning experiences. The
results of this study also support studies that have shown educator roles as changing with
their students having access to a vast array of information through the internet. Hence, skills
such as collaboration as well as critical thinking are more important and valuable now than
ever before.
References
Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2005, June). Future directions of blended learning in
higher education and workplace learning settings. In World Conference on Educational
Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (Vol. 2005, No. 1, pp. 3644-3649).
Ginns, P., & Ellis, R. (2007). Quality in blended learning: Exploring the relationships
between on-line and face-to-face teaching and learning. The Internet and Higher
Education, 10(1), 53-64.
Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H.
(2013). NMC Horizon Report: 2013 Higher Education Edition.
Parsad, B., and Lewis, L. (2008). Distance Education at Degree-Granting Postsecondary
Institutions: 2006–07 (NCES 2009–044). . National Center for Education Statistics,
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC.
Renes, S., & Strange, A. (2010). Using technology to enhance higher education. Innovative
Higher Education, 1-11.
Shea, P. (2007). Bridges and barriers to teaching online college courses: A study of
experienced online faculty in thirty six colleges. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
Networks, 11(2 ).
317
Promoting Personalized Learning with Open

Educational Resources
Yu-Ju LINa*& Elliot JORDANb

a
Program of Learning, Design & Technology, University of Georgia, USA
b
Center for Evaluation and Educational Policy, Indiana University, USA
*sharonlin90@gmail.com
Abstract: This paper proposes the design guidelines for the implementation of open
educational resources (OERs). The implementation aims to promote students’ personalized
learning in an introductory statistics course. Three components are initially classified and
required for the implementation of OERs in an introductory statistic course: (a) identifying
individual students’ needs, (b) clarifying the goals for personalization, (c) using appropriate
strategies (e.g., flexible instruction, differentiated instruction) with regard to students’
personalization. Then the synthesized guidelines are provided to help promote students’
personalized learning by implementing OER in an introductory statistics course.
Keywords: Personalized Learning, Personalization, Statistic Learning, Open Educational

Resource (OER)
Introduction
Most college classrooms now are composed of students with different learning styles and
experiences, as well as different achievement levels (Ferguson, 2001). Personalization has
played an important role among students and teachers. Personalized learning refers to a
unique way of students' learning determined by their own learning style, pace, and
individual needs (Keefe & Jenkins, 2008). The educational use of open resources has been
explicitly defined as open educational resources (OERs). Through OERs, open learning has
bridged the gap between formal (school-based learning) and informal education (the OER
domain) (Gourley & Lane, 2009). Open learning can provide learners with multiple ways of
learning which formal education may lack (D'Antoni, 2009). Owing to their different prior
knowledge or background about statistics, college students often experience various
difficulties in an introductory statistics course (AlajÄÄSki, 2006). Though web-based
learning resources (e.g., simulation, animation) were provided as supplements to statistics

318
courses, the availability and use of technology without considering individual students’
needs may cause no significant change on the improvements in statistics learning
( Meletiou-Mavrotheris, Lee, & Fouladi, 2007). This paper proposes the design guidelines
for the implementation of OER, which aims to promote students’ personalized learning in
an introductory statistics course. Three components are initially classified: (a) identifying
individual students’ needs, (b) clarifying the goals for personalization, (c) using appropriate
strategies with regard to students’ personalization.
References
AlajÄÄSki, J. (2006). How does Web technology affect students' attitudes towards the
discipline and study of mathematics/statistics? International Journal of Mathematical
Education in Science & Technology, 37(1), 71-79.
D'Antoni, S. (2009). Open educational resources: reviewing initiatives and issues. Open
Learning, 24(1), 3-10.
Ferguson, D. L. (2001). Designing personalized learning for every student. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Gourley, B., & Lane, A. (2009). Re-invigorating openness at the Open University: the role
of open educational resources. Open Learning, 24(1), 57-65.
Keefe, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M. (2008). Personalized instruction: the key to student
achievement. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Meletiou-Mavrotheris, M., Lee, C., & Fouladi, R. T. (2007). Introductory statistics, college
student attitudes and knowledge – a qualitative analysis of the impact of
technology-based instruction. International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Science & Technology, 38(1), 65-83.
319
Kanji Learning Method Using Digital Pen
Hironari NOZAKIa*, Tetsuro EJIMAa & Kyoko UMEDAa

a
Faculty of Education, Aichi University of Education, Japan
*nozaki@auecc.aichi-edu.ac.jp
Abstract: It is very difficult for students from non-kanji cultures to learn kanji. In this paper,
we describe the strategies of learning Japanese kanji. The student was asked to practice
writing kanji by repeatedly writing them using a digital pen for seven days. The results of
pretests and posttests show that repeated writing kanji is an effective learning strategy.
Keywords: Kanji learning strategies, digital pen, acquisition of motor skills, JSL(Japanese
as a second language)
Introduction
Japanese has three types of orthographies, namely, hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Hiragana
and katakana share the same syllabic-sound representation and can be transcribed one by the
other. Kanji is a logographic script adopted from the Chinese language. JIS X0208 (1990)
lists 6,355 kanjis. In Japan, students are expected to learn 1006 kanjis by the time they
graduate from primary school. Therefore, since kanjis have different ways to read and there
are many types of characters, learning kanji has been considered as very difficult. In
particular, students from non-kanji cultures find it especially difficult to learn kanji. In this
research, we studied methods of learning Japanese kanji.
1. Theoretical Background
Nozaki and Ichikawa (1997) have pointed out that facilitation of writing motions and
understanding of kanjis’ pattern structure are effective learning strategies. This article
focuses on the facilitation of writing motions pointed out by Nozaki. Studies on effects of
writing motions on memory indicate that to repeat writing serves as a visual rehearsal to
facilitate memorization. In addition, memorization by writing allows one to acquire
representation of motor skills different from visual memory and thus facilitates studying.
320
Repeatedly writing the Kanji enables creating a movement-derived imagery of the
characters, which facilitates their memorization. In addition, to repeat writing motions is
one of effective methods to acquire kanjis.
2. Procedure of Kanji Learning and the Result of the Test
We used the following equipment for kanji learning: A digital pen (Anoto-Maxell K.K.), a
dedicated notebook for the digital pen, and PC. The contents written in the dedicated
notebook using the digital pen are read and saved in a personal computer connected to the
pen as digital data with the original brushstrokes. At first we conduct a pretest to see how
many kanjis a student has acquired, how her errors in stroke orders are characterized, and so
on. Then, we create learning materials based on the results analyzed over the pretest. The
student learns kanjis using the learning materials, the digital pen, and the dedicated
notebook. In the end we conduct a posttest to analyze the result and compare with the result
of the pretest. The results are shown in Table 1. The test scores are certainly going up.
Table 1 Percentages of Correct Answers in Dictation Questions

Test (1) Test (2) Test (3)
Pretest 96% 71% 57%
Posttest 100% 92% 89%
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 23300300.
References
Nozaki, H., & Ichikawa, S.(1997). Kanji gakushu shien shisutemu no kaihatsu
[Development of a Computer-Assisted Kanji Learning System: Understanding Pattern
Structure and Acquisition of Motor Skills], Jpn. J. Educ. Technol., 21(1), 25-35.
321
Learning but not Learning – Informal

Learning with Web 2.0
Michelle Mei Ling YEO

Monash University, Australia
yeomeiling1@gmail.com
Abstract: This paper aims to explore and understand polytechnic students’ learning
experiences with the use of Web .0 applications. The focus of this paper is on the systematic
exploration of Web 2.0 applications like blogs, YouTube, wikis and facebook as illustrative
and typical examples of technologies. A qualitative method of informal interviews is used in
exploration of the students’ experiences and opinions with use of Web 2.0 for learning. The
data shows that the polytechnic students in Singapore like and enjoy using Web 2.0
applications to make friends, to network with peers, classmates and friends for learning
informally. To the students, there is learning of information and knowledge that is beyond
the boundaries of the classroom and the textbook. The findings of this study would be useful
to policy makers and educationists as it would provide insights into how the use of
technology (Web 2.0) as a learning technology could be used to shape the education of a
digital generation in this globalized millennium.
Keywords: Social-Constructivist Learning, Collaborative Learning, Informal and

Networked Learning and Web 2.0 learning technologies
Introduction
Web 2.0 applications provide online users with interactive services and control over their
own data and Web 2.0 encourages social networking (Maloney, 2007). This paper aims to
derive an understanding of some polytechnic students’ learning experiences with Web 2.0
applications. At this particular polytechnic, the first-year business students have prior
experiences and usage of Web 2.0 applications.
Research Question 1: What are students’ learning experiences and opinions with Web 2.0
applications for learning? Research Question 2: What could possibly be the problems,
difficulties and constraints with using Web 2.0 applications for learning?
1. Methodology
This paper is an in-depth discussion of qualitative data collected in relation to the questions.
With permission granted from the Dean and the academic staff of the polytechnic students,
322
the interviews with 5 year one students were recorded using a mobile phone recording
device and the transcripts coded using the open coding, axial coding and selective coding
processes of analyzing data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
2.1 Learning but not Learning - Informal learning through Networking with Web 2.0
The students like to make use of the Web 2.0 applications for “informal learning through the
network with friends”. The students’ identification of informal learning is on the
“knowledge of the world” and on “life’s lessons” with the network of friends while
leveraging on blogs, the wikis, YouTube videos and on Facebook postings. Secondly, the
students’ main use of Facebook is to maintain relationships with existing known friends.
2.2 Problems, difficulties and Issues with Web 2.0 for Learning
The main problem is with distractions from the online games. The distractions of other
“non-educational videos”, the “fun and unreliable” comments online and the Facebook
“social invites” actually “take away my learning time” with using Web 2.0 applications for
learning.
3. Conclusion
Through leveraging on Web 2.0 applications, the students are provided a creative
environment to network, to learn with fun and to learn from the larger community and into
the specific fields in which they are studying to be before graduation. The students are able
to see how ‘things work in real life’ to learn about the “knowledge of the world” and on
‘life’s lessons” with the network of friends and with the community of Web 2.0.
References
Maloney, E. J. (2007). What Web 2.0 Can Teach Us about Learning, Chronicle of
Higher Education 53, (18)
Strauss & Corbin, A. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory procedures
and Techniques (2nd Ed). Thousand Oaks, California, USA : SAGE Publications .
323
Investigate the Effectiveness in Applying

Interactive Device on Natural Science
Curriculum
Pei-Fen WUa*, Chian WANGb, Kuang-Yi FANc & Chin-Tsang TENGd

abd
Graduate Institute of Digital Contents Technology & Management, National Changhua
University of Education, Taiwan.
c
Department of Media and Design, Asia University, Taiwan.
*pfwu@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Abstract: The corresponding answer would be needed for children to obtain next question
and could practice what kinds of Natural Science (e.g. physical or/and chemistry) by playing
an interactive device. In this paper, we present an interactive device of the Natural Science
curriculum for 53 children of 3rd grade in elementary school. The effectiveness is higher in
experimental group, means interactive device provides higher effectiveness on teaching and
learning. The guideline for Natural Science curriculum on interactive device is suggested.
Keywords: Interactive device, game-based learning, Natural Science curriculum.
1. Introduction
Interactive multimedia device is a new exhibition, its sensor could detect the body
stretching, or/and surroundings and then feedback to the user. It is easy for children to pay
attention for children, and would be interesting to associate the interactive device with
curriculum to promote the children’s learning effectiveness. The design of the interactive
device aimed to achieve the following goals: (1) Exploring the effectiveness of learning on
the teaching of Natural Science. (2) Finding the guideline for designing.
2. Research method
The objects are, 53 children of the 3rd degree of elementary school in mid-Taiwan,
separated as experimental and controlled group. Experimental group has 15 boys and 12
girls applied the interactive device associated with game-based teaching; controlled group
has 14 boys and 12 girls applied traditional teaching method. The learner interacts with the
324
Flash teaching material to test learner obtains either high learning effectiveness or not. Both
experimental and control group have the same teacher, teaching time. The teaching material
contains 8 units of “air and wind” in this study: (1) Air and wind; (2) Air flow to be wind;
(3) Aware of the presence wind; (4) Aware of the wind direction; (5) Judge the wind
direction; (6) Recognize compass; (7) How to use the compass ; and (8) How to use the wind
anemometer. The methods of experiment and questionnaire are used in this study, and data
analysis is used by PASW to process T-test on independent sample.
3. Analysis
(1) Result of certifying the independent sample T test: P=0.001, means the divergence is
significant. The experimental group is better than control group, and the interactive device
would promote the learning effectiveness. (2) The boys are better than girls, the interactive
device would be more acceptable for boys. (3) The children of experimental group rather
like to enjoy the interactive device. (4) There are 8 children earn full score in experimental
group, higher than control group. (5) All genuine teachers find the experimental group
attends the curriculum enthusiastically from Semi-structured interview.
4. Conclusions
The interactive device would promote the learning effectiveness, and suggests sorted as
following: (1) Should be reasonable and lucid; (2) Could be used simultaneously for many
children; (3) Would be guide the learner’s motivation before lesson; (4) The teaching
material should be interesting interaction, and the feedback should be satisfy for learner; (5)
Contain friendly operation and fine graphic to enhance the learner’s willingness.
325
The Teachers College Television: A Digital

Storytelling Approach to Learning Community
E-Lu CHEN & Marcus D. CHILDRESS

CHEN, Emporia State University, U.S.A.
CHILDRESS, Emporia State University, U.S.A.
echen@emporia.edu
Abstract: Using a digital storytelling approach, The Teachers College Television project
(TTC-TV) for The Teachers College at Emporia Sate University, involves developing and
maintaining an online video resource with numerous topical channels. The purposes of
TTC-TV are to 1) promote The Teachers College academic programs, 2) engage
professional development outside of the university environment and 3) embrace and nurture
teachers/educators/professionals in the 21st century.
Keywords: digital storytelling, learning community, informal learning, multimedia

learning
Introduction
The infusion of social media has blurred the line between education and entertainment. In
addition, learning is no longer a privilege that can be only received from conventional
educational environments – schools and universities (Ito et al., 2009). Today, digital
storytelling can integrate the use of web 2.0 social media tools. Storytelling is not just a
tactic for one to share personal experiences. Through storytelling, the mutual connection
between people can be established and sustained. To extend this emotional connection, a
form of community is built (Fields, 2008; Lambert, 2012; Ohler, 2008). Ohler (2008) states,
“digital storytelling uses personal digital technology to combine a number of media into a
coherent narrative” (p.15). In interest of building a learning community with the digital
storytelling approach in an academic setting, storytelling is based on the development of the
learning community through personal narratives (Fields, 2008). This type of learning is
denoted with a length of history and the phenomenon that is called informal learning
(Livingstone, 2001).
326
The Teachers College Television Prototype
In fall 2012, the dean of The Teachers College at Emporia State University initiated a
project meeting in which he shared a new vision for promoting academic programs and
building learning communities. In order to meet his vision, the concept of The Teachers
College Television (TTC-TV) was proposed, based on a digital storytelling approach. By
using the “Television” concept, three channels (web pages) were introduced: Children’s
Stories, Significant Professional Development Experiences, and Testimonials
(https://sites.google.com/site/ttcesu/). This project has not yet been publicly released. The
dean of The Teachers College announced and exhibited the project concept and digital
storytelling video clips based on three topical channels. Further evaluation will be
conducted once there is a substantial collection of digital storytelling videos.
References
Fields, A. M. (2008). Fostering community through digital storytelling: a guide for
academic libraries. Westport, Conn: Libraries Unlimited.
Ito, M., Horst, H. A., Bittanti, M., Boyd, D., Herr-Stephenson, B., Lange, P. G., …
Robinson, L. (2009). Living and Learning with New Media: Summary of Findings from
the Digital Youth Project. The MIT Press.
Lambert, J. (2012). Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creating Community (4 Rev
Upd.). Routledge.
Livingstone, D. W. (2001). Adults’ Informal Learning: Definitions, Findings, Gaps, and
Future Research. NALL Working Paper #21. Retrieved from
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED452390
Ohler, J. (2008). Digital storytelling in the classroom: new media pathways to literacy,
learning, and creativity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
327
An English Teaching and Learning

Environment based on Augmented Reality
for Junior High School Student
Min-Chai HSIEHa*, Cheng-Hung WANGa, Ching-Ju CHAOab & Hao-Chiang Koong
LINa
a
Department of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan
b
Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Tung Fang Design University, Taiwan
*shiehminchai@gmail.com
Abstract: In this study, a web-based Augmented Reality English Teaching System

(ARETS) was developed using augmented reality technology to create a more efficient and
interesting teaching and learning environment. We examined students’ learning
achievement after augmented reality English teaching experiment. The results revealed that
students’ learning achievement between experiment group and control group did
significantly differ. The experiment group was better than control group in students’
learning achievement. Moreover, the feedbacks from students indicated the augmented
reality English teaching was novel and interesting for students learning.
Keywords: Augmented reality, English teaching and learning, learning achievement,

English prepositions of place
Introduction
With the progress of information technology development, the form of digital teaching and
learning multimedia materials has changed dramatically from traditional books to digital
media. Thus, the learning becomes more lively and interesting. In recent years, various
computer-assisted learning systems have been developed to provide more interactive
teaching and learning (Hsieh & Lin, 2010). Augmented Reality (AR) is an innovation of
technology. Azuma (1997) identified three common characteristics of AR scenes,
combination of the real and virtual, interactive in real-time, and the scenes registered in 3D.
Chang, Y. J. et al. (2011) implemented an AR learning system for English vocabulary
learning. They investigated learners’ satisfaction and behavioral intention as well as the
effectiveness of the AR-learning system. The related works indicated that AR in the
educational context can be very valuable.
328
Augmented Reality English Teaching System

The Augmented Reality English Teaching System (ARETS) development is based on
FLARToolKit. The multimedia formats included text, voice, graphic and movie.
Experiment and Conclusion

To evaluate the effectiveness of the innovative augmented reality English teaching, an
experiment was conducted on an English prepositions course of a junior high school in
Tainan, Taiwan.
Table 1 The t-test of the post-test results

N Mean SD t
Post-test Experimental Group (AR) 28 88.46 15.40 2.26*
Control Group (CAI) 27 73.74 30.73
* p < .05.
Table 1 presents the t-test results of the post-test. The mean and standard deviation of the
post-test were 88.46 and 15.40 for the experimental group, and 73.74 and 30.73 for the
control group. It is found that the learning achievement of the experimental group is
significantly better than the control group. Namely, the augmented reality English teaching
was more effective than the CAI teaching approach in improving the learning achievements
of the students in this study.
References
Hwang, G. J., Yang, T. C., Tsai, C. C., & Yang, Stephen J. H. (2009). A context-aware
ubiquitous learning environment for conducting complex experimental procedures.
Hsieh, M. C., & Lin, H. C. K. (2010). Interaction Design Based on Augmented Reality
Technologies for English Vocabulary Learning. Paper presented at the 18st
International Conference on Computers in Education (ICCE 2010), Putrajaya,
Malaysia.
Azuma, R. T. (1997). A survey of augmented reality. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual
Environments, 6(4), 355-385.
329
Practical Adaptive Instruction with IWB

for Language Education
Hsin-Tzu (Tommy) CHEN
Chinese Culture University, Taiwan
cxz4@faculty.pccu.edu.tw
Abstract: This study provides a summary of the practical and research bases for the design
and effects of Japanese learning within interactive whiteboard (IWB) using the adaptive
instruction approach to maximize student learning. The analysis of students’ learning styles
and achievement that includes both quantitative and qualitative was conducted to uncover
the learning style distribution and the effectiveness of IWB integrated instruction. The
results show that using IWB incorporating instruction in learning language achievement and
motivation were both better than the control group significantly. Finally, this study may be
of importance to offer the concrete information and approach for language educators to gain
insight into the adaptive teaching and learning within IWB technology.
Keywords: adaptive learning, learning styles, interactive whiteboard, IWB
Introduction
New technology and applications have occurred in all other areas of education. From the
available body of research, several themes and patterns have emerged (Torff & Tirotta,
2010; Miller & Glover, 2010), the majority of IWB research, however, is based in
qualitative research methodologies, such as interviews and observation analyses.
Research methodology, data analysis
This study was designed to examine the impacts of incorporating IWB and adaptive
instruction in into language education, and was conducted in a Junior high school of
southern Taiwan, for the purpose of discussing in IWB integration, the adolescents’ learning
style distribution, and examined the gender, age, and learning achievement differences by
using questionnaire survey procedure, with Felder & Soloman Index of Learning Style
(ILS), as the instrument. The sample size is 54 (valid survey). There were also a couple of
class interviews and observations for examining learning motivation and attitude.
Research findings and discussion
The results of the descriptive statistical analysis shows that the Taiwanese adolescent
students’ learning style distribution condition, is the “intense verbal type” learner on the
learning sense organ; the learning manner is partial to “active slightly”; the learning way is
330
partial to “mild intuitive”; and the learning pondered that the pattern is partial to “global”.
The results of the analysis in adolescent learning achievement indicated there is no gender
difference but the age difference.
The results of these experimental parts were emphatically positive in both achievement and
motivation. Students’ achievement and engagement behaviors increased significantly when
the IWB was used for instructional purposes. In this study, we also found IWBs affect
learning in several ways, including raising the level of student engagement in a classroom,
motivating students and promoting enthusiasm for learning. The student’s feedback is pretty
similar to many previous researches. IWBs support many different learning styles and are
used in a variety of learning environments, including those catering to students with hearing
and visual impairments.
From research observation records, it indicated that notes taken on an IWB can play a key
role in the student review process, leading to higher levels of student attendance. In addition
to the observed positive impacts on student learning, this study showed that designing
lessons around IWBs helps instructor streamline their preparation, be more efficient in their
Information and Communication Technology integration and increase their productivity
overall. Age difference was also found in this research. It will suggest that the future study
to investigate the relationship between the intensity of the use of IWB learning environment
and student background characteristics, such as learning style preferences, achievement
motivation, self-concept constructs and subject attitudes.
References
Torff, B., & Tirotta, R. (2010). Interactive whiteboards produce small gains in elementary
students' self-reported motivation in mathematics. Computers & Education, 54(2),
379-383.
Miller, D. & Glover, D. (2010). Interactive Whiteboards: A Literature Survey in Thomas,
M, & Schmid E.C., Interactive Whiteboards for Education: Theory, Research and
Practice, 1-19.
331
Using Automatically Generated Mind Maps to

Promote Initial Communication
Brendan FLANAGANa*, Yohei INOKUCHIb, Chengjiu YINc

& Sachio HIROKAWAc
a
Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University,
Fukuoka, Japan
b
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Kyushu University,
Fukuoka, Japan
c
Research Institute for Information Technology, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
*bflanagan.kyudai@gmail.com
Abstract: In communication, it is important to get to know the common interests of each

other. This paper proposes a method to extract keywords that represent the interests of
individuals from their comments on SNS sites. Those keywords are visualized as a mind
map, which can be used as a communication tool. The effectiveness of the maps is evaluated
in three examples.
Keywords: Communication, mind maps, knowledge sharing, common feature words.
Introduction
As social network services have increased, opportunities to communicate with unknown
people have also increased. Using mind maps could help resolve communication problems
by increasing participants’: self-knowledge, knowledge of others, understanding of what
others are trying to express, and common conversation topics. However, it is difficult to
draw a mind map as it takes time, effort, and skill. We propose that by using personal
information in a users twitter feed, feature words can be extracted to automatically generate
a mind map about the user to overcome this problem [1,2].
1. Mind maps Generated From Sample Data
1.1 Automatically Drawing Mind Maps
The frequency of co-occurrence between words is used as a measure of the degree of the
relation in the sample data. Figure 1 is the formula used to determine the frequency of
332
co-occurrence Rel(a, b), where a is the parent node word, and b is the child node word, and
D(w) is the number of sentences that contain the word w.
|𝐷(𝑎) ∩ 𝐷(𝑏)|
𝑅𝑒𝑙(𝑎, 𝑏) =
|𝐷(𝑏)|
Figure 1: Frequency of co-occurrence formula.
1.2 Data Collection and Examples Mind Maps
Using the Twitter API, the history of three peoples tweets were collected from person A, B
and C totaling: 1182, 1508, and 3200 tweets respectively. The frequency of co-occurrence
was used to draw three sample maps automatically. We then looked for common feature
words, which are listed below in Table 2, which could serve as common topics.
Table 2: Common feature words of person A, B and C.

A and B Study, Exam, Research, Work, Man, Information, Friend, Yen
A and C Friend, Photo, Woman, Email, Ito, Research, Study, Professor
B and C Chemistry, Study, Tweet, Boyfriend, Woman, Friend, Talk
2. Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed the using SNS data to automatically generate mind maps for use
in promoting communication. Example mind maps were created using three peoples tweets
on Twitter, and then examined to find common topics that could be used to promote
communication.
References
Hwang, G. J., Chu, H. C., Lin, Y. S., Tsai, C. C. (2011). A Knowledge Acquisition
Approach to Developing Mindtools for Organizing and Sharing Differentiating
Knowledge in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment. Computers & Education, 57(1),
1368-1377.
Nuutinen, J., Sutinen, E., Botha, A., & Kommers, P. (2010). From Mindtools to Social
Mindtools: Collaborative Writing with Woven Stories. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 41(5), 753-775.
333
SOI Model of Learning to Tablet Instructional

Implication Generating
Wanwisa WANNAPIPAT*, Sumalee CHAIJAROENb & Anucha SOMABUTc

a,b,c
Education Faculty, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
*wanwisa.w@kkumail.com
Abstract: Presented the constructivist SOI model of learning concepts for the new device as
a tablet, in the view of instructional implication generative. However, SOI conceptualized
used in tablet applications to foster the knowledge construction via textbook-based
instruction, SOI was the most meaningful learning in media design. It best enhanced the
learners' cognitive processes on active sense-making environment.
Keywords: SOI model, tablets, generating of instructional implication
Introduction
The instruction implication as SOI model is the text-based design based on the
constructivism learning theory. The processes for text design were suggested for a tablets
device designer who however mainly work on media and learner interaction. Not only to
focus on media design, but also textbook-based learning since the SOI on tablets encourage
knowledge construction via direct instruction.
SOI model of learning to tablet instructional implication generating
SOI is the individual constructivist method where the learning takes place in learners'
activity in working memory by making the sense out of the represented materials (Mayer,
1999). Porter (2010) states that the touch interaction can have a closer experience to print
than any other digital device. The environment designs should focus on ubiquitous learning
which concern text touchable screen relevant to the information. For tablet design in S
process, design the different font and the weigh by each application default, use the contrast
of scale (size) to help more understandable, but the scale must be support the tablet layout.
334
Making the content simple and removing irrelevant information out. The learner can feel
directly speaking to the tablet who interactively smart and consistently. Use short and
simple words in which active verbs and common nouns, and create the icon bar for action
and notification to have a relevant resource. For the O process design, make the content
brief, simple, and precise by characterizing limit space and using of headings along with the
set of graphic for the density on tablet screen. Also use icon, graph, structure, or bitmap to
create a verbally and visually based model. For the I process, use the categories for tablet
content as prior knowledge integration, the brief introduction of each content or icon as a
connectors for existing knowledge, the efficient examples to make a connection between
what organized and the prior knowledge. So, SOI on tablets could help the learner to foster
cognitive process which the ubiquitous use of personal and shared technology are
considerably selected for the learning application on tablet based on the constructivism.
Acknowledgements
We thank you the precious support from Education faculty, Khon Kaen university. Also for
Richard E. Mayer who inspires us towards learning in this 21st century learning.
References
Belina Caissie. 1-2-1 Mobile Media Tablet Project. http://121mobiletabletproject.
wikispaces.com/ 01+Intro.+to+Project (2012). January 28, 2013.
Porter, M. (2010). Why do publishing companies need design now, more than ever. In
Higher Institute for Education and Science and Polytechnic Institute of Tomar, 1st
International Conference on Design and Graphic Printing (CIDAG). Lisbon, Portugal
27-29 October 2010.
335
An Examination of Students’ Perceptions

toward Small Group Work Activities in a Fully
Online Course
Yi-Chun HONG & Robert KLEINSASSER
Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University, U. S. A.
shelly.hong@asu.edu
Abstract: Small group work activities in fully online courses provide learners a sense of
belonging, an opportunity to reason what is being learned, and to negotiate with each other
while receiving peer feedback. However, some students are not satisfied with such
experiences. The study explores graduate students’ perceptions toward online small group
work and summarizes critical factors leading to successful online collaborative learning.
Keywords: Collaborative learning, Asynchronous Learning Environment, Group Work,

Interaction, Engagement
Introduction
More universities and colleges offer not only online courses but also fully online degree
programs to meet the growing flexibility and convenience demands of students pursuing
higher academic degrees (see also Allen & Seaman, 2013).
1. Challenges of On-line Learning
Asynchronous internet-based technologies are touted as the most widely used technology
for online course instructional delivery (Parsad & Lewis, 2008). Yet, numerous researchers
find online learners are less satisfied with group interaction processes and quality of group
discussions in asynchronous learning environments (Ocker & Yaverbaum, 1999). Several
reasons contributing to this include difficulties to complete tasks efficiently, restrictions to
text only messages, and lack of group members’ contributions (Curtis & Lawson, 2001;
Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004; Swan, Shen, & Hiltz, 2006).
336
2. Theoretical Framework
Johnson and Johnson (2007) argue successful online collaborative learning experiences
should build around five essential elements to reach its potential: positive interdependence,
individual and group accountability, promotive interaction, appropriate use of social skills,
and group processing.
3. Research Purpose and Questions
The study explores factors that contribute to successful collaborative learning experiences
through students’ perspectives and discourse and responds to the following two research
questions: 1) How does an online small group work activity affect students’ perceptions of
the online small group work activities in a fully online course? 2) What factors are central to
the students’ level of engagement in a small group work activity in a fully online course that
uses asynchronous discussion board as the major communication tool?
4. Research Context, Data Collection and Data analysis
The participants are online graduate students enrolled in a fully online Bilingual Language
Education (MA) program at a Southwestern university. Instructors assigned participants
into groups consisting of three members who are all provided with a discussion board.
Participants use the platform to discuss and develop their small group work project that
provides an evaluation and improvement of a teacher developed language assessment.
Qualitative data sources include: participants’ contributions to their groups’ designated
discussion boards and participants’ responses to an open-ended perception survey toward
online small group work (the survey is completed twice, once before and once after the
group work activity). The data will be analyzed by adopting a grounded theory approach
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and discourse analysis (Ochs, 1979; Saville-Troike, 2002).
337
A Deductive Conceptual Learning System to

Online Cooperative Learning
Meng-Rong LEEa, Chin-Yun LINa, Wan-Chun LEEb, Fei-Chun CHENGa,

Yuan-Chen LIUa & Han-Yao CHANGa
a
Dept. Computer Science, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei, Taiwan
b
Ren-Ai Elementary School, Taipei, Taiwan
*monemo12@gmail.com
Abstract: This paper is a report on the findings of a study conducted on a graduate level
virtual conference summer school course. Discourse analysis techniques were used to
examine the resulting transcript of texts for evidence of a democratic discourse within a
community of learners. Findings indicate that gender is not masked in the text driven
discussions on the Internet. Distinctive discursive styles are often sex class linked. Like face
to face or classroom contexts, status is accorded unequally within discourse communities.
Educators need to take a serious and wary approach to accepting claims of ensured
democratic participation in computer mediated communication formatted classes.
Keywords: democratic discourse, online learning, remedial learning, cooperative learning

Introduction
This study attempts to analyze students’ learning achievement through the vague artificial
neural network. After the degree of a student’s conceptual understanding of a course is
identified, the system through its search function will help the student locate his fellow
students online who can help him with his studies. Through online cooperative learning, his
missing concepts can be found and the purpose of remedial learning can be attained.
1. Outcome of Research
There is significant positive correlation between the introduction of the system employed by
this study and progress in written tests and diagnosis of concept learning. That means the
system can effectively identify students’ progress in concept learning, and serve as a tool to
help teachers diagnose students’ achievement in concept learning.
338
Following the intervention of the system, the pre-test and post-test students take show
significant progress in concept learning. The system is in fact effective in helping students
with their concept learning.
After students become familiar with this system, the number of system visitors increase with
time, showing that students are willing to use this system as tool for engaging in
conversations with their peers and that it’s helpful in online cooperative learning.
Through the satisfaction survey questionnaire we learn that the students are willing to use
this system in learning.
References
Jehng, J. C. (1997). The psycho-social processes and cognitive effects of peer-based
collaborative interactions with computers. Journal of Educational Computing Research,
17(1), 19-46.
Slavin, R. E. (1996). Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know,
what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 43-69
339
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Proceedings of

AECT International Conference

June 18 - 20, 2013

Conference General Chairs

Local Organization Chairs

Foremost e-Learning Research Topics

AECT-ICFER 2013 is a meta-conference, comprised of five-interrelated tracks and

Track 1: Digital Classrooms: From Dream-based Research to Practice-based Research

An Array of Distinguished Scholars in e-Learning Research

AECT-ICFER 2013 expressly invited 14 distinguished scholars from 9 countries in the

Table 1 List of the Keynote Speakers and Invited Speakers

Speech Types Speakers Title of the Speech

A Rich Opportunity for Exchange of Ideas

Table 2 Distribution of PC Members and Authors

Table 3 Distribution of Paper Submission

A Unique Opportunity to Have Your Research Published in Special Issues

Table 4 Distribution of Paper Acceptance

Conference General Chairs

Tzu-Chien Liu Yueh-Min Huang Marcus Childress

Transforming Textbooks to E-Textbook and

Dr. Gwo-Dong Chen

The Benefits of Mobile Technologies for K-12:

Dr. Elliot Soloway

Ubiquitous Learning Analytics for Adaptive

Games, Learning, Instruction, and Research

Dr. Jonathan Michael Spector

Processing Science Illustrated Texts to

Dr. Lucia Mason

Dr. Tak-Wai Chan

Learner-Centered Learning in Digital

Dr. Siu Cheung Kong

Supporting Experiential Learning with Mobile

Dr. Hiroaki Ogata

Designing the Next Generation Personal

Dr. Daniel Spikol

Beyond Wow Effect: Making Fun Experience

Dr. Masanori Sugimoto

Reframing Game-Based Learning to Foster

Dr. Mingfong Jan

Assessing and Supporting Learning using

Dr. Bradley Love

What the Eye-Tracking Technology can Tell

Dr. Fang-Ying Yang

Invited Speeches xvii

Integrating CSCL to Improve math Concept Learning: An Example of

Pedagogical Strategies for Using Interactive Whiteboards in K-12

Exploring a Self-generated Drawings Environment to Facilitate Children’s

Designing Knowledge Building Classrooms 37

Online Participation in Digital Classroom 41

Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills via a Primary School Blog + Webquest

Gender Differences in Adopting Motion Controller for Mental Rotation

The Development of an Innovative E-book Reading System to Enhance

Exploring the Principles of Constructing Physical Classroom for Digital

The Effects of Cognitive Styles on M-learning: Adaptability vs. Adaptivity 73

Designing an Online Mobile Learning Course for Hawaii’s Public Schools

Generic Learning Outcomes for Mobile-enhanced Learning in Children: A

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