Improving Canada’s Digital Advantage:

Building the Digital Talent Pool and

Skills for Tomorrow
Research Team:
Wendy Cukier
Shelley Smarz
Amelie Baillargeon
Tom Rylett
Mariam Munawar
Cheryl Hsu
Charity Hannan
Margaret Yap

Diversity Institute,
Ted Rogers School of Management,
Ryerson University
About Ryerson’s Diversity Institute
Ryerson University’s Diversity Institute undertakes research with respect to diversity in the
workplace and its application to improve practices in organizations. The goal of the Institute is to
promote new, interdisciplinary knowledge and practice about diversity with respect to gender,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, and people with disabilities. The Diversity Institute works in
partnership with industry, government, not-for-profits and academics to:

- Research existing practices and evaluate programs;

- Explore barriers to full participation in the workplace;
- Develop fact-based policies and programs to attract, motivate and develop
under-represented groups in the workplace; and
- Provide customized training to support development of diversity strategies.

The Diversity Institute develops strategies that are customized to an organization’s context, stage
of development on the diversity continuum and specific needs.

Our approach is customized in terms of content and delivery including lectures, simulations and
exercised to meet learning objectives. The Diversity Institute has also focused attention on the
evaluation of a wide range of approaches including diversity and anti-racism training.

Contact Us
The Diversity Intitute in Management and Technology
Ted Rogers School of Management, Ryerson University
350 Victoria Street. Toronto, Ontario, M5B 2K3
Website: www.ryerson.ca/diversity
Email: diversityinstitue@ryerson.ca
Contents
Executive Summary ......................................................................................................... i
The Importance of a Digital Skills Strategy ................................................................... i
Definitions of Digital Skills ............................................................................................. i
Supply and Demand for Digital Skills ........................................................................... iii
Benchmarks to Assess Digital Skills ............................................................................iv
Stakeholders ................................................................................................................iv
Strategies Related to ICT and Digital Economy Skills ................................................. v
Overall Conclusions: Building the Digital Talent Pool and Skills for Tomorrow ............ v
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
Overview of the Project ................................................................................................ 1
Digital Skills, the Foundation of Our Digital Strategy ................................................... 1
Project Scope .............................................................................................................. 3
Methodology and Approach ......................................................................................... 3
Definitions of Digital Skills ............................................................................................... 5
Overview ...................................................................................................................... 5
Basic Digital Literacy ................................................................................................... 6
Digital Business/Technology Skills .............................................................................. 8
‗Deep‘ Technical and Content Skills ............................................................................ 9
Creativity and Content Creation ................................................................................... 9
Innovation and Entrepreneurship ............................................................................... 11
e-Learning Skills ........................................................................................................ 11
Conclusions and Further Research ........................................................................... 12
Supply and Demand for Digital Skills ............................................................................ 14
Overview .................................................................................................................... 14
Digital Divides ............................................................................................................ 14
Specific Skills Gaps ................................................................................................... 16
Temporary Foreign Workers ...................................................................................... 17
Skills Mismatch .......................................................................................................... 17
Conclusions and Further Research ........................................................................... 18
Benchmarks to Assess Digital Skills.............................................................................. 20
Overview .................................................................................................................... 20
Measurement of Digital Literacy ................................................................................ 20
Measurement of Business (MoT)/Technology Skills .................................................. 21
Measurement of ―Deep Technology‖ Skills ................................................................ 22
Other Skill Measurements ......................................................................................... 23
Conclusions and Further Research ........................................................................... 23
Stakeholders ................................................................................................................. 24
Overview .................................................................................................................... 24
Governments ............................................................................................................. 24
Education (K-12 and beyond) .................................................................................... 24
Business and Employers ........................................................................................... 24
Other Stakeholders .................................................................................................... 25
Quebec ...................................................................................................................... 25
Defining Roles and Responsibilities........................................................................... 25
 Conclusions and Further Research ........................................................................... 27
Strategies Related to ICT and Digital Economy Skills ................................................... 29
Overview .................................................................................................................... 29
Factors Affecting the Development of Digital Skills.................................................... 30
Initiatives to Promote the Development of Digital Skills ............................................. 31
Recommendations from Canadian Stakeholders ...................................................... 32
Conclusions and Further Research ........................................................................... 37
Overall Conclusions: Building the Digital Talent Pool and Skills for Tomorrow ............. 38
References .................................................................................................................... 39
Appendix 1: ICT and Digital Skills Strategies by Country .............................................. 50
Appendix 2: Academic Definitions of Digital Skills ......................................................... 52
Appendix 3: ST2L Indicators .......................................................................................... 55
Executive Summary
The Importance of a Digital Skills Strategy
Digital skills are the foundation of a world-class digital economy. For more than two
decades, there has been a great deal of discussion of Canada‘s critical skills shortage,
skill mismatches, and the digital divide. Canada‘s last comprehensive digital strategy,
developed by the Information Highway Advisory Council (IHAC), was instituted over a
decade ago (IHAC, 1998). Given the rapid pace of change in technology – and the skills
needed to use this technology – Canada requires a new digital strategy.

Digital skills are, arguably, the foundation upon which the other pillars of a national
digital strategy are built. While the development of physical infrastructure is an important
priority, advanced countries also recognize the need to develop their human skills
infrastructure. This ensures the population is able to take full advantage of the physical
infrastructure, access the government services and consume digital products and
services. Digital skills are critical to companies developing infrastructure, companies
requiring skilled workers to achieve their business objectives, companies creating new
products and services, as well as small companies striving to rise to the next level.
Research and innovation, fundamental to the growth of a world-class digital economy,
are dependent on a skilled workforce.

The focus of this project was to review the existing English and French language
literature, both Canadian and International, which address the following themes:
 Definitions of specific digital skills, including their similarities and differences;
 Benchmarks used to assess digital skills;
 Strategies related to information and communications technology (ICT) and digital
economy skills, including operative definitions, components, and evaluations (if any);
 Taxonomies of stakeholders as well as initiatives documented to promote digital
skills, including goals, tactics, and impacts; and,
 Potential models that may serve as a basis for further consultation with relevant
stakeholders.

Definitions of Digital Skills

The definitions of ―digital skills‖ and standards for assessing ―digital literacy‖ vary
considerably in the academic literature as well as in government and industry reports.
The categories of skills also vary – while many differentiate digital literacy from
workplace digital skills, business-technology and deep technical skills (typically STEM),
some also focus on content creation and entrepreneurial skills.

We suggest that digital skills can be understood at three basic levels.

 Basic Digital Literacy equips Canadians to participate in the digital economy;
 Business/Technology Skills build consumer and commercial markets for ICTs and
fuel the capacity to build businesses; and

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 ―Deep‖ Technical and Content Skills enable the development of ICT infrastructure,
products and services as content. (See Figure 2-2)

Figure 2-2: Levels of Digital Skills

Deep Knowledge, skills and awareness needed to:
Technical and -Develop innovative ICT infrastructure, products and
Content services
- Grow the ICT industry
-Create digital media content advantage

Business/ Knowledge, skills and awareness needed to use ICTs to:

Technology - Build consumer and commercial markets for ICTs
-Private sector productivity and competitiveness
Skills
-Public sector efficiency and quality
-Start up and build SMEs
-Capacity to innovate using digital technology

Basic Knowledge, skills and awareness needed by

Digital all Canadian to:
Literacy -Participate in the digital economy
-Enhance personal opportunities and quality
of life
- Use digital technologies to access
products and services

K-12 and PS Occupational Self-Study/Social

Education Training Interaction

Adapted from: Media Awareness Network, 2010

 Some define digital literacy as low level skills needed to access computers and the
internet; others expand the definition to include a wider range of skills; many use
digital literacy as the overarching framework for all digital skills, differentiating basic,
intermediate, and advanced digital literacy skills.
 Definitions are often in the eye of the beholder – for example, traditional IT
manufacturing and service providers are more likely to define skills in ways that
meet their employment needs and fit with their perceptions of how the market will
develop. Typically, they emphasize STEM and business technology skills. In
contrast, digital media, gaming and online companies such as Google are more
likely to emphasize the importance of creative and content skills.
 The framing of skills is infrequently linked to specific occupational requirements and
more work is required here.
 Most of the research on digital skills is not strongly grounded in evidence concerning
the demand for the skills; some of this research is linked to studies of the
measurement and assessment of these skills among different populations

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 More research is needed to analyse similarities and differences among the
definitions and to examine the link between these definitions and empirical evidence
of specific needs in the digital economy.

Supply and Demand for Digital Skills

 There is general agreement that there is a skills mismatch – that many jobs in the
ICT sector are unfilled while many professionals with high levels of skills are under-
employed.
 Labour force projections are seldom precise and are even more challenging within
the digital sector. Some have argued that, rather than trying to predict precise
demands, creating an agile and adaptive workforce is key.
 Because of differences in the definitions of the sector and occupational categories,
measurement is challenging. While the ICT sector, for example, is often conceived
of as the providers of hardware, software and services, many studies also include
ICT professionals working in end user organizations. Indeed some estimate that
there are almost as many ICT professional working outside of ICT companies as
inside.
 In addition the definition of the occupational classes presents considerable
challenges. Some labour market projections take broad definitions, ranging from
deep technology based occupations to technical writers, while others use narrower
definitions.
 Lack of digital skills in end user companies has been identified as an impediment to
technology adoption, particularly in SMEs.
 Lack of ―creative‖ or content related skills coupled with business skills are another
gap.
 Gaps in the available expertise to develop small companies or ideas into successful
enterprises have also been identified. There has been considerable discourse about
the need to build an entrepreneurial culture to advance innovation.
 Labour force projections are seldom precise and in the digital sector are even more
challenging. Some have argued that rather than trying to predict precise demands
creating an agile and adaptive workforce is important but considerably more
research is needed to understand ICT labour force dynamics and ―matching‖ of the
available workforce.
 Many stakeholders have identified a ―digital divide‖ in basic digital literacy based on
demographics, socio economic status, geography, etc.
 Some have focused on under-representation of certain segments of the population
(women, visible minorities, aboriginal people, and people with disabilities) among
workers with digital skills.
 There is also significant evidence of the under-employment of skilled immigrants
even in areas where demand for these skills is high.
 While there is extensive academic research exploring some of these issues, there is
limited interrogation of the claims about skill gaps or an empirical investigation of
perceptions about required skills, available skills and future skill requirements.

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 We need a more in-depth and nuanced understanding of the factors affecting career
choice and ways to attract and retain more young people and particularly women
and aboriginal people in the sector.

Benchmarks to Assess Digital Skills

 Just as the definitions of digital skills vary, so do the approaches to measurement.
Many countries which have a digital skills strategy do not have benchmarks; only a
handful have concrete goals.
 There is some empirical data which attempts to operationalize definitions and
measure performance at the macro-level (e.g., among countries), the meso-level
(e.g., among particularly occupational groups or organizations) and the micro-level
(e.g., among specific segments of the population)
 Many of the indices being used have not been validated. In fact the limitations with
some measures, such as the metrics used to measure basic digital literacy, have
been challenged.
 There is evidence of disparities among industrialized countries but also within
industrialized countries based on age, gender, geography, ethnicity, socio-economic
status, etc., suggesting that reported national averages may hide huge disparities
 Although they are essential, content creation and entrepreneurship skills are often
excluded from the taxonomies of digital skills and more attention needs to be paid to
measuring these so appropriate targets can be set.
 Consideration should be given to measuring e-learning skills so appropriate targets
may be set, given that learning in many disciplines now depends on these skills.
 More research needs to be done to clarify the definitions being used and to compare
indices in order to benchmark Canada‘s progress.

Stakeholders
 Customary stakeholders to be engaged in the development of a digital skills strategy
are governments, educational institutions (K-12, colleges, polytechnics, universities,
training organizations), employers and other stakeholders (community organizations,
libraries, organizations representing specific groups etc.)
 Understanding specific issues and orientation of segments of stakeholders are key –
for example, at universities, the perceptions of administrators may differ than those
of faculty and those of students. There are huge variations among disciplines,
regions and leaders in the adoption of technology, etc. Consequently a detailed and
nuanced understanding of these stakeholders and their interests is important.
 Similarly within the corporate sector there are important differences between the
perceptions of large ICT providers and content providers, between large
organizations and SMEs and between companies which are primarily users of
technology.
 There are also a range of stakeholders who have shown interest in the issues
around digital skills and specific efforts should be made to include those that
represent groups on the have-not side of the digital divide.
 More research is needed to develop a nuanced understanding of differences among
stakeholders.

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 More work is needed to ensure that the implementation strategy developed to
support the digital skills component of the strategy has clear targets, responsibilities
and measures of success.

Strategies Related to ICT and Digital Economy Skills

 There is a wide range of digital strategies with varying degrees of specificity in
recommendations for the development of digital skills
 Through collaboration with multiple stakeholders and across levels of government,
develop a national digital skills strategy which defines needs, defines skill
requirements, sets benchmarks and provides a plan of action.
 Ensure a basic level of digital literacy for all Canadians, attending to digital divides
based on age, geography, social economic status, gender, etc.
 Provide cradle to grave opportunities to acquire and upgrade skills through a range
of formal and informal educational opportunities in partnership with educational
institutions, industry, libraries and community organizations.
 A standardized curriculum of digital skills training must be developed and
implemented in kindergarten and continue until high school graduation.
 Invest in programs that provide incentives to train and retrain workers.
 Encourage the development of content creation and creative skills.
 Support development of skills needed to promote the adoption of digital technology
by SMEs.
 Support development of skills needed to set up small businesses and digital
enterprises along with the skills needed to take these to the second stage of
development
 Encourage the development of professionals with hybrid skill sets that combine
technology and management skills.
 Create experiential learning opportunities, internships, etc.
 Use digital technology in innovative ways to support the development of education
and skills in other areas – establish targets for e-learning experiences among post
secondary students.
 Dramatically increase the number of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics graduates.
 Support further research into real versus perceived needs, taxonomies of skills and
forms of measurement, as well as evaluations of programs aimed at promoting
digital skills.
 Support collaborative, inter-disciplinary, and cross-sectoral research and learning
opportunities at all levels.

Overall Conclusions: Building the Digital Talent Pool and Skills for
Tomorrow
The body of literature relevant to digital skills development is extensive – more than
2000 academic articles as well as hundreds of policy papers by governments and other
stakeholders address the issue.

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Our systematic review of this literature raises as many questions as it answers but our
observations include the following:
 There is a high level of consensus on the need for a digital skills strategy as part of
an integrated digital strategy.
 There are different definitions of ―digital skills‖ and priorities concerning the focus on
basic digital skills, business-technology digital skills or ―deep‖ technology and
content skills.
 The focus tends to reflect the orientation of the organization - in some cases, critical
skills sets such as content creation and entrepreneurial skills have been neglected
even though these are essential.
 While there are many sectors claiming that there are skills shortages or gaps, more
precision on the nature of these gaps is needed as well as the factors which
influence choices concerning digital skills development both at the basic literacy and
advanced levels.
 There continues to be evidence of under-representation among certain groups in the
ICT sector as well as evidence that bridging programs and attention to diversity can
help address shortages. However, there is limited research on the efficacy of
different approaches.
 Clearer definitions must be established with benchmarks at each level.
 There are a wide range of stakeholders who should be engaged in policy
development. Beyond the obvious players – government, education, industry and
industry associations – community organizations, and libraries.
 Many other jurisdictions have developed comprehensive digital strategies which
include digital skills and systematic analysis not just of the strategies but of their
efficacy would be useful to inform Canadian efforts in this area.

vi | P a g e
Introduction
Overview of the Project
Digital skills are the foundation of a world-class digital economy. Not only do they
ensure an innovative and effective talent pool, but they also stimulate both economic
and social development. Citizens with digital skills drive innovation in both consumer
and industrial markets. Canada faces several challenges in terms of developing a
comprehensive strategy to increase digital skills and competencies in its population. In
part, this challenge is exacerbated by varying definitions of digital skills as well as an
unclear understanding of Canada‘s position on the competitive global stage. Over the
past two decades, there has been a great deal of discussion of Canada‘s critical skills
shortage, skill mismatches, and the digital divide. Our proposed paper will review and
synthesize the English and French language literature, published both in Canada and
internationally, on the spectrum of digital skills needed to fuel Canada‘s growth.

Digital Skills, the Foundation of Our Digital Strategy

In the consultation paper (Government of Canada, 2010), the digital strategy was
structured around several inter-related dimensions or themes:
 Capacity to innovate using digital technologies;
 Building a world-class digital infrastructure;
 Growing the information and communications technology industry;
 Creating Canada‘s digital content advantage (i.e., digital media content); and
 Building digital skills for tomorrow.

Digital skills are the foundation upon which the other four pillars of the strategy rest. The
capacity to innovate using digital technologies requires deep technology skills, design
and content development skills, and skills associated with the entrepreneurship,
innovation and commercialization of technology. Building a world class infrastructure
rests on deep technical skills to create it and basic digital literacy to use it. Skills
shortages or mismatches have plagued the ICT sector for two decades and an
increasingly nuanced understanding of the skills requirements in the sector is emerging.
Demands for a range of digital skills exist in not only in the companies that sell
technology but also in the companies that use technology. Hence there is a need for
virtually all workers to have an understanding of business technology applications; there
is a need for people who can develop technology solutions to meet business needs in
order to promote adoption and effective use of technology, and there is the need for
deep technology skills in both supplier and user companies. Creating Canada‘s digital
content advantage requires technology skills, creative and content related skill and
entrepreneurial and management skills. In other words, building human infrastructure
and capacity is at least as important as building technological infrastructure in
advancing Canada‘s digital strategy and should, therefore, be addressed in said digital
strategy. We have prepared the following figure to visually represent the elements of our
proposed digital strategy and how they interconnect.

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Figure 1-0: Elements of Canada’s Digital Strategy

Physical Infrastructure

Digital Skills

Capacity to Innovate
Content Advantage
Strong ICT Industry

The deployment of broadband networks across Canada is critical as it enables the use
of new digital technologies fuelling innovation and productivity. However, access to
infrastructure is only one factor that drives use. Research shows that training and skills
development drive technology adoption by consumers and in organizations (Boothby et
al., 2010).

Canada has, historically, underinvested in digital technologies and, as a result, has an

underdeveloped ICT industry when compared to our key competitors. For example, the
size of Canada‘s ICT sector is less than the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) average (Government of Canada, 2010). In order to be truly
competitive in a global digital economy, Canada has to strengthen its ICT sector. One of
the ways in which it can do this is to invest in research, development and technology
innovation. Digital skills are integral to utilizing existing technology as well as inventing
new technologies. Without a workforce that is digitally literate, Canadian companies will
be unable to compete.

At the same time, studies have shown that access to technology and basic skills do not
guarantee usage. Factors such as socio-demographics and location of access are
important as is social support and technical support during learning (Brandtweiner,
2010). There has been extensive research into the ―digital divide‖ and its dimensions
(Crête, 2008; Goode, 2010). In addition extensive research has focused on gender
differences in adoption and the factors affecting them (Divjak et al., 2010; Hargittai,
2010).

Studies have also explored the impact of disabilities and access to technology which
has shown that people with disabilities tend to have less access to digital technology
and use it less often, although there are contributing factors such as socio-economic

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status (Caldwell, 1999; Egan et al., 2004; Seymour, 2005; Brotcorne &Valenduc, 2008;
Vicente & Lopez, 2010).

Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that different skills development strategies are
needed for learners of different ages (Broady et al., 2010). For example, barriers facing
older learners include: lack of background knowledge (Dickinson et al., 2005); confusion
regarding procedures; fear of the unknown (Hawthorn, 2007); lack of confidence
(Marquie, 2002); and lack of the perceived value (Rice et al., 2007).Research on digital
literacy among seniors has highlighted that new technologies provide powerful coping
mechanisms, intellectual stimulation and increase interpersonal relations for that
population (Michel et al.,2009).

Some studies have demonstrated that e-learning systems for skills development are
significantly associated with overall job outcomes (Clarke, 2002; Chen, 2010).

Digital skills are, arguably, the foundation of the other pillars of a national digital
strategy. While development of physical infrastructure is an important priority, advanced
countries also recognize the need to develop their human skills infrastructure to ensure
that they have a population that is able to take advantage of the physical infrastructure.
Digital skills are crucial for several sets of stakeholders: the government (i.e., providing
services and consuming the products provided) as well as companies developing the
infrastructure, using it to support their business objectives, creating new products and
services and for taking small companies to the next level.

Project Scope
This project has reviewed the existing English and French language literature, from
Canada and across the globe, to explore the following themes:
 Definitions of specific digital skills, including their similarities and differences;
 Benchmarks used to assess digital skills;
 Strategies related to ICT and digital economy skills (i.e., digital skills), including
operative definitions, components, and evaluations (if any);
 Taxonomies of stakeholders as well as initiatives documented to promote digital
skills, including goals, tactics, and impacts; and,
 Potential models that may serve as a basis for further consultation with relevant
stakeholders.

Methodology and Approach

Our methodology included textual analysis tools as well as established approaches to
meta-analysis. Our corpus is comprised of academic literature as well as ‗grey literature‘
– reports produced by governments and industry associations.

Our procedure was structured in the following way:

1. To search the selected databases (Academic Search Premier, CBCA Complete,
ProQuest Research Library, and Web of Science) for English language documents,
we used the following Boolean search string: (digital or ICT or “information

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 technology”) AND (skill* or literac* or e-skill*). From those results, we created a
database of 18,452 non-unique results.
2. To search the selected databases (ProQuest Theses and Factivia) as well as the
federated search engine, Google Scholar, we searched for French language
documents using the following Boolean search string: (numérique or TIC or
"technologies numériques" or technologies or “fracture numérique” or “didactique de
l’Information”) AND (alphabétisation or compétence or habileté). From those results,
we created a database of 1,892 unique results.
3. We scrubbed the database for both the French and English language documents to
remove all duplicate results. This left us with 17,488 unique results
4. After systemically coding these results and eliminating all non-relevant documents
for the purposes of this report, we were left with 2,829 unique results. A table and
graph representing these findings, by year, is found below.
5. In addition, we searched ―grey literature‖ for relevant documents and examined
national strategies for the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the European Union, Britain, China, Singapore, Australia,
New Zealand, the Asia Pacific Region, the United States and California. We found
81 international, regional, and national reports.
6. We also mined the submissions to the Government of Canada‘s Digital Economy
Consultation to identify stakeholder organizations in Canada who have addressed
these topics from a variety of perspectives. We coded and identified 107 documents
that were relevant to our report.

The complete bibliography of relevant articles is a separate document.

Table 1-0: Article Search Results Summary

1980- 2010-
Total 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
1999 2011
Relevant
Articles 2,829 312 88 97 113 112 180 208 324 344 426 387 238
(Total)
Non-
Duplicated
17,448 3,399 706 837 823 838 1,046 1,177 1,338 1,446 1,681 1,378 887
Articles
(Total)

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Definitions of Digital Skills
Overview
While most countries‘ digital strategies focus primarily on expanding the infrastructure of
digital technology, a review of ICT development strategies in 100 countries revealed
that a substantial proportion also address digital skills training and digital skills (see
Figure 2-0 below, and Appendix 2 for a detailed analysis)

Figure 2-0 Summary of ICT Development Strategies in 100 Countries

ICT Development
Countries

95 99

47

12

ICT Strategy/Policy Infrastructure Digital Skills Training Digital Skills

Expansion Definition

* The Global Information Society Watch (APC & Hivos, 2009), the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference Policy
statements from the 2006 conference (ITU 2006) and the 2009/10 Digital Review of Asia-Pacific. (Akhtar
Arinto, 2009) Additional documentation was included (Doğan, 2005; Uçkan, 2009, Peterson, 2007).

While almost all of the countries reviewed had a national ICT strategy; some were far
more comprehensive than others. Most countries were in the process of expanding their
infrastructure and nearly half were focused on digital skills training. Many of the
countries that lacked training policies had little ICT infrastructure in place. Ten of the 12
countries that had explicitly stated digital skills definitions were in the European Union
and, therefore, use the EU‘s definition. The other two countries with digital skills
definitions were the USA and United Kingdom.

In many cases digital skills are essentially defined based on access to digital technology
infrastructure. However, researchers have maintained that access to technology is not
enough. The investment in digital literacy programs and development may cost ten
times as the technological investment to increase digital access (Media Awareness
Council, 2010).

Digital skills have been broadly defined as the ability to access, evaluate, manage,
integrate, and create information using digital technology (ETS, 2007). Some definitions
of digital skills include progressive categories that increase in the level of required
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technological expertise and complexity. For example, a range of digital skills might
include: basic digital literacy, digital business skills and deep technology/content
development skills, which describe highly specialized technical ICT skills (Bresnahan et
al., 2002; see also Canadian Coalition for Tomorrow‘s ICT Skills (CCICT), 2010). The
UK digital skills strategy defines digital skills in terms of the required level of complexity
and expertise for four categories of workers: technology professionals, content
professionals, technology-capable business people, and ‗every individual‘, who has a
basic level of digital skills regardless of vocation (Sambell, 2009). Canada‘s major
technology associations define digital literacy, digital management skills and specialized
or ‗deep‘ ICT technology skills (see also: CCITC, 2010; ITAC, 2010). The European
Commission on e-skills also identifies three areas of focus: ICT practitioner skills, ICT
user skills and e-business skills (Ala-Mutka, 2009). Content skills and
entrepreneurial/creative skills are rarely recognized as important aspects in the
definition of digital skills (E-Skills UK, 2009). California has one of the most
comprehensive digital strategies, with six elements: access, manage, integrate,
evaluate, create, and communicate (California Emerging Technology Fund (CETF),
2008). Based on our research, we have summarized the categories and definitions of
digital skills in Table 2-1.

Table 2-0: Overview of Digital Skills Definition Areas

Skill Area General Definition
Basic User Skills Ability to use a computer to do basic office software, access
and use websites and use e-mail.
Job Specific User The ability to effectively use specific hardware and software for
Skills in an individual‘s workplace, such as advanced enterprise
systems or graphic design software
Creation Skills The ability to use ICTs to create new content which can be
used and developed by others
Advanced or ―Deep‖ Post-secondary training in developing on a large and small
ICT skills scale ICT technologies, providing the ICT technologies for the
rest of society
Digital Citizenship A more open-ended concept, focusing on an individual‘s
comfort and awareness of living within a digital world.
e-Business Skills The ability to understand the potential of ICTs in developing
and improving a business, government or non-profit agency

Basic Digital Literacy

Definitions of basic digital literacy vary (DTI, 2009). According to CCITC, 2010, digital
literacy is:
a skill set that every citizen needs in order to make effective use of digital media.
It is the 21st century version of the 19th century‘s 3Rs – reading, writing and
arithmetic. Digital literacy includes understanding of the nature and uses of
various digital media and technologies, how to communicate effectively via digital
media, creativity, etiquette, safety, health, etc. (ITU, 2006)

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Examining the various definitions show two tracks are taken, one type, such as the
Canadian Media Awareness Network‘s (2010), is focused on the intellectual
understanding of ICTs on a larger scale. Other definitions, such as that of the EU, break
the definition down by job skills, differentiating between those who have basic ICT skills
and those who effectively use ICTs to create. Some definitions, such as the UK‘s, have
definitions around basic literacy, content creation and technology in business without
discussing ICT professionals.

While great emphasis is placed on the ability to access information, it is also important
to ensure that Canadians have the skills to navigate and interpret the information they
access (George, 2004). Some academic definitions focus on information literacy in
general, rather than emphasizing the cognitive steps of information search and
processing, or on the levels of interaction in a digital environment (Sharma & Mokhtar,
2005). Others emphasize media literacy as well as information literacy (Fernandez-
Villavicencio, 2010). Some have included protection from cybercrime and cyber-bullying
must also be included among essential digital skills. The Ontario Media Development
Corporation (OMDC) (2010) maintains that digital literacy should also include
knowledge about intellectual property rights, specifically, learning about ethical digital
behaviour, and, in particular, a respect for content creators and their right to establish
and profit from ownership of their creative works. Others include digital skills among the
learning outcomes for skills in the new economy (Lemke, 2003). Issues linked to the
multiple translations, definitions and significations of literacy in other languages have
been raised. (Le Deuff, 2008). Academic definitions also include advanced a notions of
e-competence including technological literacy, media literacy, digital literacy,
informational literacy and e- awareness.

Figure 2-1: Digital Literacy Definition

(Peña-López, 2009)

This definition includes several types of literacy:

 Technological Literacy: The skills to interact with hardware and software

7|Page
 Informational Literacy: The competences to deal with information, normally by
applying Technological Literacy.
 Media Literacy: Skills and competences to deal with several media, make them
interact and integrate them in a single output.
 Digital Presence: The digital skills to monitor and establish a digital identity, and the
skills to actively define it and use it for interacting with other people digitally
 e-Awareness: The most strategic (even philosophical) stage is the one related with
being aware on how the world and our position — as a person, group, firm,
institution — varies because of digital technologies (Peña-López, 2009).

The Media Awareness Network (2010) defines that for an individual to be digitally
literate that they have three key skills: the ability to use, to understand, and to create
using ICT technology. This definition is conceptually similar to many others but there is
no single definition of digital literacy that has been agreed upon internationally, and
various academics and governmental bodies have established their own definitions,
most of which share common characteristics (See Appendix 2 for a more detailed
overview of academic definitions of digital literacy). The majority of definitions accept
that digital literacy is more than simply the basic computer skills related to basic
productivity tasks (i.e., word processing), surfing the Internet or sending email. See
table 2-0 for a distillation of the various areas covered by digital skills definitions.

Digital Business/Technology Skills

Beyond digital literacy skills, digital business skills include ―the knowledge, skills, and
personal qualities to lead and support the effective, competitive use of information
technologies‖ (CCICT, 2010, p. 8). In other words, these are the skills needed to
facilitate and support the use of ICT effectively as well as successfully leveraging the
benefits from integrating technology with business practices. Integration offers a more
in-depth understanding of business management, the performance of vertical markets
(i.e., education, financial services, retail) or functions within the organization (i.e.,
marketing, human resources, accounting). The successful integration of business
management skills with ICT also represents a new type of digital skill: the hybrid
technology skill set. Research shows that organizations that invest in skills at the same
time that they invest in new technology reap greater productivity gains (Boothby et al.,
2010).

Professionals who have this skill set are defined in England‘s digital economy strategy,
which describes them as ―Technology-capable business people, who understand the
strategic implications of technology and have the ability to realise its potential for
business innovation, productivity and competitiveness.‖ (E-Skills, 2009). These types of
skills are highly sought after and can increase an organization‘s competitive advantage
as hybrid skill sets enable the organization to effectively invest in technology, increase
levels of innovation, productivity and, eventually, spur growth. This skill set has been
identified as a priority by several of Canada‘s ICT associations (CCICT, 2010; ITAC,
2010). Also known as T-Shaped Skills (York University, 2010), hybrid or combination
technology skills are also becoming increasingly important as traditional ICT careers are
being outsourced and globalized (see also: Gantz, 2000; Arellano, 2006; Bancino &

8|Page
Zevalkink, 2007; Galt, 2007). CCICT (2010) estimates that 45% of ICT professionals are
employed outside of the ICT-sector. Reflecting this change, the Information and
Communication Technology Council (ICTC) (2010) has estimate a need of 65,000 new
hires with hybrid skills by 2017.

Academic research has confirmed a need for boundary spanners between Business
and IT (Eckhardt & Rosenkranz, 2010). The European Certification of Informatics
Professionals (EUCIP) has defined 21 job profiles and 145 individual skills (Eckhardt
and Rosenkranz, 2010).

The adoption of continuous training solutions can play an important role in promoting
adoption of ICTs in SMEs (Barba-Sánchez et al., 2007). Building awareness of the
potential of ICT to impact the bottom line in the short term and long term is essential.

‘Deep’ Technical and Content Skills

Traditionally, digital skills have been synonymous with engineering, computer science,
engineering, and mathematics. Previous benchmarks for assessing digital skills have
included the production of advanced degrees in this area (DTI, 2009). However, the
traditional skill sets of ICT professionals are changing; they are becoming more
sophisticated, specialized and complex. These professionals ―focus deeply on an ICT
discipline (like analytics, engineering or security)‖ (CCICT, 2010, p. 13) and use this
knowledge in order to lead the industry in both innovation and increased productivity.

In addition, even in highly technical professions, growing emphasis has been placed on
the importance of ―soft skills‖ as well as management skills to be successful. Programs
aimed at integrating Internationally Educated Professionals often focus as much on
these skills as updating technical knowledge, vocabulary and standards.

While much of the discussion on highly specialized or ―deep‖ ICT skills have previously
focused on computer science and engineering degrees and professions, some studies
(Polytechnics Canada, 2010) have stressed the importance of retraining technologists
and technicians, especially if they are low- to mid-skilled workers.

Creativity and Content Creation

While Canada‘s consultation on the digital economy paper (Government of Canada,
2010) recognizes the critical importance of digital media content creation, traditional
taxonomies rarely emphasize this within broader definitions of digital skills. In contrast,
while Singapore was one of the first nations to develop a national educational strategy,
it has since broadened its science-driven innovation model to focus more on promoting
creative and entrepreneurial activities (Asia Competitiveness Institute (ACI), 2009).

An essential piece in the digital skills puzzle is the role of content creation, design, and
design thinking. Various roadmaps for digital skills have paid little attention to these
three aspects and how they relate to the acquisition and development of a digital skill
set. However, specific stakeholders‘ – such as game developers, culture industries, and
artists – use the creation of digital content as a key indicator of digital skills. For

9|Page
example, Joseph Crump, Executive Creative Director of Razorfish (Microsoft) describes
how creativity drives innovation: ―Usability—once fetishized—is now merely the price of
entry, like seat belts in a car. Desirability is the new Holy Grail of switched-on brands,
from airlines to banks to T-shirt makers. The bar is getting raised everyday for the way
an object or an experience looks and feels, its tone of voice, its personality‖ (Avenue A
Razorfish, 2008; 2010).

In other words, growth and prosperity in the economy is linked to innovation, the
development of technology and the promotion of co-operation among all stakeholders.
Increasing innovation through the use of digital technology to create digital content will
increase the need for and encourage skills development as well as creating new jobs
(Carte Routiére Technologique (CRT), 2010). As digital innovators and content creators
produce digital content for all platforms, they reach both Canadian and global
audiences. Most Canadian companies devoted to developing new digital content are
SMEs and they face specific challenges when it comes to maintaining the skill-levels
necessary for digital transformation. Similarly, due to the constant evolution of the
required digital skill set for content creation, pre-determined skill standards cannot be
set by a governing body (OMDC, 2010). A proposed solution to this is to create state-of-
the-art ―living laboratories‖ to create a network and community of constituents who can
come together for ―experimentation with high quality leading edge applications and
collaborators‖ (Société des arts technologiques (SAT), 2010, p. 36).

Despite these challenges, content creators are key indicators of a society‘s level of
creativity, which is necessary for the development of new technologies and new ways of
learning, especially in terms of digital literacy and scientific learning. Design and art are
now interconnected with technology, engineering, science, and mathematics, further
demonstrating the need for a class of creative designers and artists. In other words,
―Fostering and supporting the capacities of new media artistic creativity, digital media
production skills and innovative design must be a fundamental backbone of the
Canadian digital economy strategy‖ (Ontario College of Art and Design (OCAD), 2010).

The Cultural Human Resources Council (CHRC) in its Digital Media Content Creation
Technological Roadmap has set out a general description of the types of skills that will
be needed for digital content creation and provides some recommendations for how to
ensure that content creators acquire those skills. The skills identified and the skills
related to them are:
1. ―Soft‖ skills are those skills that are required for all types of projects or jobs. These
are generally learned either through formal or informal workplace training. These can
include leading or working within a multidisciplinary team; digital communication
skills; and entrepreneurial thinking.
2. ―Hard‖ skills are skills that are required for all types of projects or jobs. These skills
are gained through formal education, however, some will be acquired either formally
or informally on the job. These include: narrative design for platforms; knowledge of
copyright; evaluating and negotiating contracts; finance and project management.
3. Technical skills, however, are specific to the individual job or project being worked
on at the moment. Acquired through specialized technical education, there is also a

10 | P a g e
 commitment to keep those skills up-to-date given the rapid pace of change in ICTs.
These skills may include: Creating HD or 3D display technology; Recording and
editing sound for multi-channel surround sound technology; creating updated control
and input interfaces; security and encryption; working knowledge of compression
technologies; knowledge of hardware; and a basic knowledge of Web design (i.e.,
animation, video, programming) (CHRC, 2009, pp. 20-26).

Innovation and Entrepreneurship

Distinct from typical ICT-skills, digital skills that encourage innovation and
entrepreneurship are closely linked to those skills related to content creation. Developed
in an experiential learning environment, discussions of these skills are – like digital
content creation skills – limited. Using the extensive corpus related to the development
of general entrepreneurial skills and applying this knowledge to digital skills
development, some key characteristics are highlighted. Typically, the literature on
general entrepreneurial skill development focuses on the key factors related to the
development of a general ―entrepreneurial mindset‖ typically through experiential
learning (Sexton & Upton, 1987; Henry et al., 2005). According to Drucker (1985), an
individual with the entrepreneurial mindset ―shifts economic resources out of an area of
lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield‖ (Foster & Lin, 2003, p.
456). Similarly, this mindset can be expanded to focus on strategies to build an
organizational culture that is entrepreneurial in nature. Similarly, many pilot projects –
such as Ryerson‘s Digital Media Zone (DMZ) – and incubators to marry entrepreneurial
skills to digital innovation have also been developed and deployed. Finally, an
entrepreneurial mindset is closely connected to and, when combined with digital or ICT
skills, enables organizations to leverage the rapid change of technology and the skills
associated with that technology. In other words, change, for an entrepreneur, becomes
an opportunity to not only increase productivity but also profit.

e-Learning Skills
Strategies note that digital skill development is not just for ICT professionals, but for
every individual in society. As a result, particular attention has been focused on e-
learning skills. This was supported by our literature review: hundreds of articles (in both
languages) were focused on the use of technology to develop skills at every level of the
educational system, for virtually every profession, for every training need; the ultimate
goal of which was to facilitate lifelong skill training and development. Technological
innovation – specifically social networking platforms such as MySpace and Facebook –
has highlighted the potential use of new media in facilitating, enhancing, and
encouraging digital skills training. However, as training and skills development becomes
linked to digital competence, there is a potential that the skills gap, or digital divide, will
widen as not everyone has access, the ability, or the motivation to engage in e-learning
opportunities in a quick and efficient way (Brotcorne & Valenduc, 2008). In other words,
special care must be taken to ensure that those who lack digital skills do not fall behind.
Several benchmarks have been used to ensure that this does not occur as well as
several initiatives have been implemented to overcome this divide. For example, e-
learning training programs have been audited to ensure that they are effective in
developing a core set of skills in a formal educational setting (Davidson & Eliot, 2007).

11 | P a g e
Training programs have also been developed in order to address individuals who are
outside of the formal education system (Unwin et al., 2007; Kadhem & Ala‘a Al-Din,
2008), as well as those directed at groups who are most at risk to be disadvantaged due
to the digital divide, such as women in low-status, low-skilled professions (Messmer &
Schmitz, 2004; Vandenbroeck et al., 2008).

Conclusions and Further Research

The definitions of ―digital skills‖ and standards for assessing ―digital literacy‖ vary
considerably in the academic literature as well as in government and industry reports.
The categories of skills also vary – while many differentiate digital literacy from
workplace digital skills, business-technology and deep technical skills (typically STEM),
some also focus on content creation and entrepreneurial skills.

We suggest that digital skills can be understood at three basic levels.

 Basic Digital Literacy equips Canadians to participate in the digital economy;
 Business/Technology Skills build consumer and commercial markets for ICTs and
fuel the capacity to build businesses; and
 ―Deep‖ Technical and Content Skills enable the development of ICT infrastructure,
products and services as content. (See Figure 2-2)

Figure 2-2: Levels of Digital Skills

Deep Knowledge, skills and awareness needed to:
Technical and -Develop innovative ICT infrastructure, products and
Content services
- Grow the ICT industry
-Create digital media content advantage

Business/ Knowledge, skills and awareness needed to use ICTs to:

Technology - Build consumer and commercial markets for ICTs
-Private sector productivity and competitiveness
Skills
-Public sector efficiency and quality
-Start up and build SMEs
-Capacity to innovate using digital technology

Basic Knowledge, skills and awareness needed by

Digital all Canadian to:
Literacy -Participate in the digital economy
-Enhance personal opportunities and quality
of life
- Use digital technologies to access
products and services

K-12 and PS Occupational Self-Study/Social

Education Training Interaction

Adapted from: Media Awareness Network, 2010

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 Some define digital literacy as low level skills needed to access computers and the
internet; others expand the definition to include a wider range of skills; many use
digital literacy as the overarching framework for all digital skills, differentiating basic,
intermediate, and advanced digital literacy skills.
 Definitions are often in the eye of the beholder – for example, traditional IT
manufacturing and service providers are more likely to define skills in ways that
meet their employment needs and fit with their perceptions of how the market will
develop. Typically, they emphasize STEM and business technology skills. In
contrast, digital media, gaming and online companies such as Google are more
likely to emphasize the importance of creative and content skills.
 The framing of skills is infrequently linked to specific occupational requirements and
more work is required here.
 Most of the research on digital skills is not strongly grounded in evidence concerning
the demand for the skills; some of this research is linked to studies of the
measurement and assessment of these skills among different populations
 More research is needed to analyse similarities and differences among the
definitions and to examine the link between these definitions and empirical evidence
of specific needs in the digital economy.

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Supply and Demand for Digital Skills
Overview
Fundamental to a digital skills strategy is the matching of talent (supply) to employment
needs (demand). As the consultation paper on the digital economy (Government of
Canada, 2010) noted, the task at hand is: ―growing the labour force by reducing
barriers; improving the quality of the labour force by supporting skills development; and
enhancing labour market efficiency through facilitating labour mobility and adjustment.‖
In Canada, several studies have focused on labour market projections and skill
requirements in the ICT sector. ICT organizations continue to claim that there is a skills
shortage or, at the very least, a skills mismatch (ITAC & IDC, 2002; Valliancourt, 2003;
Wolfsan, 2003; ICTC, 2007; Boisvert, 2008; ICTC 2008a). This is exacerbated by a
limited investment in ICT training and may contribute to the more general gap in ICT
investment between Canada and the US (Centre for the Study of Living Standards
(CSLS), 2005). While the ICT sector saw an employment downturn in 2008,
organizations are still reporting that they are having difficulty attracting skilled ICT
workers.

The academic literature on this subject in Canada is limited or focused on specific

dimensions, often with conflicting conclusions. While there have been some large and
comprehensive ICT labour market surveys (e.g., Gunderson et al., 2005; Boisvert,
2008), much of the research to date has been fragmented, in part, because of differing
definitions, objectives, and conceptual models. Often it is based on surveys of Chief
Information Officers (CIOs) in terms of plans to expand their hiring (Canada Newswire,
2010).

Industry, academics and policy makers have commented on the challenges of gathering
and analyzing workforce data. Supply, demand and employment data in many sectors is
inadequate and in ICT is compounded by the inconsistencies in boundaries and
definitions as well as the rapid rate of change. For example, CCICT (2010) argues that
the categories defined in the National Occupation Code (NOC) are incomplete and out
of date with ―information systems analysts‖ accounting for a large agglomeration of
occupations. As well, the categories of ICT-related and hybrid occupations is arbitrary;
some sectoral specialists are included while others are ignored. CCICT also identifies
other important dimensions of the data including: occupation distribution by
industry/sector, gender data, data on internationally educated professionals, supply side
data on graduates by program and educational institution as well as mapping to
eliminate clusters.

Digital Divides
In addition to the problem of a skills gap or mismatch, attention has focused on the
digital skills among of certain groups, such as women, visible minorities, aboriginal
people, and people with disabilities. Evidence of a digital divide among individuals,
based on geography, gender, age, socio-economic status, disability, and/or education
level (Sciades, 2002; Hargittai, 2010).

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Much has been written about generational differences in computer skills and use
(Tapscott, 2009; Buchanan, 2010). Certainly surveys of internet use have shown
significant differences in technology access and use by age. More importantly it reveals
distinct differences in the ways in which the technology is used. Younger respondents,
for example, are more like to have engaged in content creation activities (developing
blogs, posting videos, etc.) than older respondents. At the same time, others have
suggested that the notion of younger people being ―digital natives‖ is overstated and
that there are significant gaps within age groups in terms of skill levels (Barron, et al.,
2009; Hargittai, 2010).

While women are 47% of the Canadian workforce, they are only 29% of ICT workers.
Females represent only 9% of engineers and 16.7% of programmers compared to
36.8% of analysts and 60.8% of graphic designers and illustrators (Gunderson et al.,
2005). In 2009, 10% of professional engineers in Canada were women (Guay, 2010)
and females comprised 17.1% of total undergraduate enrolment in engineering
programs, a decline since 2000 (Engineers Canada, 2010). Females dominate some
ICT occupational groups such as information science (Gunderson et al., 2005). Some
industry associations have maintained that attracting and retaining women in the ICT
sector is a key strategy for addressing the skills gap (CCICT, 2010; ITAC, 2010).

Complex factors affect the participation of women in ICT and there are extensive
theoretical debates about strategies to change this. Socialization and early education
which affect the self efficacy and confidence, the development of preferences and
choices. Systemic barriers in schools include pedagogical approaches to science and
mathematics which are insufficiently applied and the absence of role models, negative
perceptions of computing and related work including the stereotypes and notions that
ICT work is programming. Systemic barriers in post-secondary institutions are similar
and have been well documented as creating a ―chilly climate‖ for female engineers and
computers scientists (Wasburn & Miller, 2006). In addition, there have been barriers
identified to finding employment which include closed recruitment processes and narrow
definitions of skills and requirements. Within organizations there are issues related to
career advancement, access to training, mentoring, exclusion from informal networks,
the absence of role models, stereotypes, communication and negotiation styles and
work-life balance issues (Cukier et al., 2009). Some literature also considers broader
socio-political-cultural forces and practices which form the institutional environment of
organizations but these issues receive limited attention (ICTC, 2007). Scholars
(Ramsey & McCorduck, 2005) have begun to probe beyond the barriers, and to explore
issues related to professional identity in the face of systemic stereotyping, dualism, and
devaluation. Many women articulate an interest in 'computing with a purpose' as
opposed to 'hacking for hacking's sake.' Females tend to be more interested in the
application of technology than ―the technical bits‖ (Rosser, 1990; Grundy, 1996). There
are also issues of perceptions – both male and female respondents lack information
about the nature of the work, and overwhelmingly perceive it as a masculinized
domain—the females mainly see IT courses as boring and difficult (Beekjuyzen et al.,
2003; Trauth et al., 2003). Although there have been significant investments in

15 | P a g e
promoting women in technology, participation in computer science and engineering
programs, major pipelines to the ICT industry have actually fallen dramatically in recent
years. Retention is also an issue (Engineers Canada, 2010). Related research explores
the under-participation of women in technology start-ups and SMEs (Orser et al., 2006).

Given demographic trends, it has been suggested that employment of immigrants could
meet the gap in supply over the next decade. The Information Communications
Technology Council (ICTC) is projecting that there will be approximately 7,585 new
computer science and engineering graduates which will meet 49%-75% of demand. The
remaining needs will be filled through immigration with approximately 7,588 immigrants
with ICT skills entering Canada annually. In other words, in terms of numbers, supply
will meet demand (ICTC, 2008a). Programs have been put in place to increase in the
number of Temporary Foreign Worker (TFW) work permits for foreign-trained ICT
workers.

However, many still face exclusionary practices – such as failing to recognize

international credentials and experience – and discrimination or bias (Bauder, 2003;
Arellano, 2006; Esses et al., 2007; Creffier, 2008, Cukier et. al, 2009). In spite of being
better educated than Canadian-born workers, immigrants face higher unemployment
rates than non-immigrants (Creffier, 2008).

Increasingly, immigrants to Canada are coming from non-traditional countries of origin.

While all immigrants are not visible minorities and all visible minorities are not
immigrants, there is considerable overlap. Visible minorities are 13% of the workforce
but only 10% of ICT workers (ICTC, 2007). Igbaria and Wormley (1992) that African
Americans working in the ICT sector received less career support than whites and
tended to have lower levels of met expectations and lower levels of career satisfaction
than whites. Recent research (Cukier et al, 2009) based on a survey of 7110 mid-career
professionals in large ICT firms who have worked in Canada for at least 10 years
confirms that gaps persist in Canada and that visible minorities in the ICT sector
perceive impediments to their advancement at many levels. This is important because
it has implications for the capacity to attract and retain professionals to the sector.

Aboriginal Canadians are also under-represented CCICT (2010) reported that in 2006,
Aboriginal Canadians, made up only 1% of that workforce.

Specific Skills Gaps

The shortage of entrepreneurial skills translates into a shortage of professionals who
cannot see the big picture, that of the product or service being offered in its totality.
Without entrepreneurial skills, professions only look at the technical challenges the
product or service presents. Therefore, in order to have a business model that will
attract funding, a wide range of nontechnical activities and skills are required which may
include: negotiating partnerships, arranging distribution, and securing adequate funding.
As with the business technology managers, a combination of creative and business
skills is an essential part of entrepreneurial digital skills

16 | P a g e
The specific skills defined at a particular point in time also vary (Collett, 2010). For
example in 1995 the focus was on engineering and computer science, while several
years later the focus shifted to soft skills. A recent projection defined categories of skills
including programming or application development, project management, help desk or
technical support, networking , security, data centre, web 2.0, telecommunications,
business intelligence, collaboration architecture, business acumen and communication
skills. A recent consultation led by the CCICT (2010), defined in some detail the
learning outcomes and skills required for business technology management graduates
to bridge technology and management functions.

Some challenge the notion that digital skills can be defined in a fixed way, asserting that
with the frequency of change and redundancy it is difficult to anticipate the skills that will
be required in the future.

Temporary Foreign Workers

In order to resolve the issue of the skills gap, the Government of Canada‘s Temporary
Foreign Worker (TFW) initiative enables the temporary entry of foreign workers into
several ICT industries. This program has grown over the last several years. As Figure 3-
0 below indicates, there has been a jump in the number of temporary work permits
issued for ICT-specific occupations from 4,663 in 2006 to 11,845. This represents a
154.02% increase over a three-year period (CCICT, 2010).

Figure 3-0: Number of Temporary Work Permits Issued for ICT-Specific

Occupations, 2006-2009
12,000
11,845
10,000

8,000

6,000 7,092

4,000
4,663

2,000

0
2006 2007 2008

(CCICT, 2010)

Skills Mismatch
Some suggest that this is a consequence of a skills mismatch, whereby prospective
employees have the formal qualifications required of the job but lack the necessary
skills and experience that the job requires. For example, while skills shortages are
identified, there are, at the same time, a large number of underemployed highly skilled
17 | P a g e
immigrants (Bauder, 2003; Lysecki, 2006; Creffier, 2008). Some suggest that
internationally educated workers face impediments because of the growing demand for
―soft skills‖ and that bridging programs can successfully address these gaps (Career
Bridge, 2010; Toronto Region Immigrant Employment Council (TRIEC), 2006).
However, a number of studies (Arellano, 2006; Lysecki, 2006; Esses et al., 2007;
Creffier, 2008) also indicate that many workers with foreign credentials face
underemployment and deskilling because of cultural and language barriers. Therefore,
any strategy that aims to meet the demand for skilled ICT workers must include the
implementation of a variety of initiatives that address all of these issues.

Conclusions and Further Research

 There is general agreement that there is a skills mismatch – that many jobs in the
ICT sector are unfilled while many professionals with high levels of skills are under-
employed.
 Labour force projections are seldom precise and are even more challenging within
the digital sector. Some have argued that, rather than trying to predict precise
demands, creating an agile and adaptive workforce is key.
 Because of differences in the definitions of the sector and occupational categories,
measurement is challenging. While the ICT sector, for example, is often conceived
of as the providers of hardware, software and services, many studies also include
ICT professionals working in end user organizations. Indeed some estimate that
there are almost as many ICT professional working outside of ICT companies as
inside.
 In addition the definition of the occupational classes presents considerable
challenges. Some labour market projections take broad definitions, ranging from
deep technology based occupations to technical writers, while others use narrower
definitions.
 Lack of digital skills in end user companies has been identified as an impediment to
technology adoption, particularly in SMEs.
 Lack of ―creative‖ or content related skills coupled with business skills are another
gap.
 Gaps in the available expertise to develop small companies or ideas into successful
enterprises have also been identified. There has been considerable discourse about
the need to build an entrepreneurial culture to advance innovation.
 Labour force projections are seldom precise and in the digital sector are even more
challenging. Some have argued that rather than trying to predict precise demands
creating an agile and adaptive workforce is important but considerably more
research is needed to understand ICT labour force dynamics and ―matching‖ of the
available workforce.
 Many stakeholders have identified a ―digital divide‖ in basic digital literacy based on
demographics, socio economic status, geography, etc.
 Some have focused on under-representation of certain segments of the population
(women, visible minorities, aboriginal people, and people with disabilities) among
workers with digital skills.

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 There is also significant evidence of the under-employment of skilled immigrants
even in areas where demand for these skills is high.
 While there is extensive academic research exploring some of these issues, there is
limited interrogation of the claims about skill gaps or an empirical investigation of
perceptions about required skills, available skills and future skill requirements.
 We need a more in-depth and nuanced understanding of the factors affecting career
choice and ways to attract and retain more young people and particularly women
and aboriginal people in the sector.

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Benchmarks to Assess Digital Skills
Overview
To measure progress on the different dimensions of digital skills, benchmarks have
been developed to assess some dimensions of digital skills, particularly basic digital
literacy and ―deep‖ ICT skills (DTI, 2009).

Measurement of Digital Literacy

A weakness in the literature concerning ICTs, the digital economy, and digital literacy, is
that it does not address concrete ways of measuring digital literacy. The lack of a single,
agreed-upon definition of digital literacy hampers attempts to create benchmarks to
evaluate levels of digital skills within a population. Instead, there is a focus on levels of
access to mobile and broadband technologies, along with frequency of use, rather than
determining skills levels within a population (Commission of European Communities,
2009). Some data is available regarding the level of completion of training programs run
for private citizens (Morris, 2009), and within companies – which is usually software-
specific and very low level of training usefulness – there is no data on the level of
knowledge retention from even the most general of training courses (Ala-Mutka, 2009).
There have been surveys where people self-report their levels of computer literacy (Ala-
Mutka, 2009); however, these have been found to be highly inaccurate (van Dijk, 2006).
Ideally digital literacy would be tested by running test in a controlled environment, where
a representative cross-section could be tested on a range of knowledge (van Dijk,
2006).

Furthermore, digital literacy is often benchmarked using simple questionnaires that

measure usage, or self-reported data. European strategies for developing e-skills often
rely on supporting connections with industry, and benchmark based off number of
industries connected to broadband and some basic self-reported questions (Aceto et al.,
2009, p. 23-26)

This approach has been critiqued as being too narrow – ignoring media competence
(Brandtweiner, 2010). Efforts are currently being made by the OECD to gather
information globally on digital skills. The Programme for the International Assessment of
Adult Competencies (PIAAC) survey will be conducted in 2011 to assess how adults of
working age are able to apply their technological competence in workplace and social
situations (OECD, 2010) A range of tools based on different assumptions have also
been developed to assess technological literacy (Hohfield et al., 2010). Their Standards
for Technological Literacy (STL) consisted of six sections: software use and file
manipulation, ethics, safety and acceptable use, graphs, presentation and video editing,
spreadsheets, browser use and email, word processing and flowcharts (See STL
indicators in Appendix 3, Hourcade et al., 2010, Huang et al., 2010).

A report by Statistics Canada (2008) on Internet use rates echoes the international
evidence in indicating that digital experience in Canada varies by income, education
and age. Essential skills, such as literacy, are also strongly connected with digital

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abilities, and improving essential skills will be a key part in assuring that Canadians
have adequate digital skills. The Government of Canada‘s Office of Literacy and
Essential Skills (OLES) works with a wide range of partners to improve the literacy and
essential skills (LES) of adult Canadians to help them enter, succeed and make
transitions in the workplace, as well as contributing to their communities and families.
The mandate of OLES complements provincial and territorial investments in education
and training through research on what works, the development of tools and the
promotion of partnerships.

While much of the discussion on digital literacy has been on the skills gap – or
mismatch – in the labour force and the need to attract highly skilled talent in order to
remain competitive in an information society as well as ensuring that the population
attain a key set of skills in order to establish a basic level of digital literacy among all
Canadians. Some (eBay & Google, 2010) have defined digital literacy as a knowledge
of and basic ability to use the myriad of tools and applications available. However,
digital literacy – much like digital skills – cannot be measured simply by measuring
usage of ICTs: ―True digital literacy implies an ability to find and organize digital
information and to communicate, create, and conduct business using online applications
and services‖ (eBay & Google, 2010). Digital literacy, in other words, includes the ability
to understand and assess the risks and benefits associated with using specific ICTs and
make an informed decision as to whether or not they will use these applications or
access digital content. Some studies have defined digital literacy in terms of
engagement in online activities including email, e-commerce, downloading documents,
looking for information about training, downloading learning content, completing an
online course, finding health information, getting information about health lifestyles,
obtaining information about a specific disease or getting information about health
services (Vincente & Lopez, 2010).

Measurement of Business (MoT)/Technology Skills

A range of benchmarking studies have been undertaken on information literacy as it
applies to the work environment noting that in an knowledge-based economy, every
organizational member must generate, critically analyse and disseminate knowledge.
One study, for example (Heinrichs & Lim, 2010) focused on word and PowerPoint skills.
Some studies focus on particular vertical markets – e.g., health infomatics (Hersh et al.,
2010)

The European e-Skills Forum defines e-Business skills as ―strategic and related in
particular to innovation management, rather than technology-management‖ (Korte et al.,
2007). Mitrovic (2010) also describes them as the capabilities needed to exploit modern
information systems to build business opportunities, and to enable an organization‘s
efficient and effective performance in the digital economy. There is an overall
recognition that technology should be aligned with business strategy in order to enable
innovation and open new markets. Therefore, assessment of digital skills in the
business environment is not just important for research, but is a business model by
which companies can be informed on which digital skills to train and how often in order
to maximize profitability (Goodwin, 2006). The Skills Framework for the Information Age

21 | P a g e
(SFIA) is an effective tool produced to benchmark the skills needed to develop
Information Systems (IS) that make use of Information Communication Technologies
(ICT) (See also: Dugger, 2001). Its common language and sensible functionality makes
it accessible to a wide range of businesses that can harness it as a common framework
of reference for the development of HR activities (SIFA, 2010).

The United Kingdom has specific measures associated with programs dealing with the
Management of Technology (e-Skills, 2009). These programs recognize the importance
of non-technical skills that must compliment technical competence in order to create
capable managers of technology. Many post-secondary institutions have begun to offer
degree programs that ―focus on the unique challenges presented by integrating
constantly changing technology into core business functions‖ (Tynan, 2006). Mallick and
Chaudhury (2000) outline the skills necessary for successfully manage technology.
They include: the ability to apply analytical techniques; the ability to apply theoretical
knowledge; effective communication skills; solving problems on a timely basis;
managing risk and uncertainty, handling data gaps and conflict; facility in human
relations; achieving implementation; identification of new technological opportunity; and
the ability to integrate ICT with the organization‘s overall business strategy. Individuals
in MoT programs should be provided a well-rounded education that includes both
intensive technical training and opportunities to develop thinking skills, communication
and teamwork skills, and as well as a passion for lifelong learning. Further to the focus
of ICT literacy skills in the higher education environment, the ICT Literacy Assessment
is a comprehensive test of ICT proficiency developed by Educational Testing Services
(ETS); it considers not only knowledge of technology, but the ability to use critical
thinking skills (ETS & Academic Consortium, 2005).

Measurement of “Deep Technology” Skills

Internationally, rates of ‗deep‘ technology skills have been historically benchmarked
based on the production of advanced degrees in engineering and computer science or
by measuring basic digital skills (ACI, 2009). In other word, the measurement of a
country‘s digital skills is reflective of the number of computer scientists and engineers.

The United States of America, for example, uses this narrow method of measurement to
assess the level of digital skills and have been preoccupied with the shrinking number of
US college students studying computer science and engineering, especially when
compared to the growing numbers of Chinese and Indian engineering students. Michael
Porter has labeled this drop as ―the single greatest threat to American prosperity‖
(Luftman, 2008). Canada has also seen shrinkages in enrolment into computer science
and engineering degrees. Furthermore, we have been unable to raise levels of interest
in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. This poses a serious threat to
Canada‘s potential to be a leader in the digital economy (ITAC, 2010). Canada‘s rating
for ICT sectors among OECD nations is mediocre – we are currently ranked 20th in
terms of producing graduates with advanced technological degrees, A digital strategy
must, therefore, renew interest in the science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) disciplines and to encourage the pursuit of scientific and
technological research. To effectively compete in the 21st century digital economy,

22 | P a g e
Canada must pursue better outcomes in these areas, especially in promoting
opportunities for groups that have been historically underrepresented (i.e., women,
visible minorities, aboriginal people, and people with disabilities) in these professions. In
order to increase access, in other words, studies have proposed that indicators should
be disaggregated to allow under-represented groups to examine measures of
participation. Similarly, CCITC has set a specific target of doubling the number of
women in technology (2010).

Other Skill Measurements

As we have seen, content creation and entrepreneurial skills are essential to achieving
the lofty goals of the digital economy, yet these are often absent in the taxonomies
developed. Where there is a focus on these, the measures are usually tied to outputs –
eg. the production of content or the number of small businesses created. More nuanced
analysis is needed to assess how to measure the attitudes, knowledge and skills
needed to produce success in these areas.

While it is broadly recognized that digital skills are now foundational to learning in other
areas because of the growing emphasis on e-learning, few jurisdictions have concrete
measures in this area. We did find several examples of target setting for post secondary
students – for example, requiring all graduates to complete at least one on-line course.
However, more work needs to be done as this is emerging as a critical area.

Conclusions and Further Research

 Just as the definitions of digital skills vary, so do the approaches to measurement.
Many countries which have a digital skills strategy do not have benchmarks; only a
handful have concrete goals.
 There is some empirical data which attempts to operationalize definitions and
measure performance at the macro-level (e.g., among countries), the meso-level
(e.g., among particularly occupational groups or organizations) and the micro-level
(e.g., among specific segments of the population)
 Many of the indices being used have not been validated. In fact the limitations with
some measures, such as the metrics used to measure basic digital literacy, have
been challenged.
 There is evidence of disparities among industrialized countries but also within
industrialized countries based on age, gender, geography, ethnicity, socio-economic
status, etc., suggesting that reported national averages may hide huge disparities
 Although they are essential, content creation and entrepreneurship skills are often
excluded from the taxonomies of digital skills and more attention needs to be paid to
measuring these so appropriate targets can be set.
 Consideration should be given to measuring e-learning skills so appropriate targets
may be set, given that learning in many disciplines now depends on these skills.
 More research needs to be done to clarify the definitions being used and to compare
indices in order to benchmark Canada‘s progress.

23 | P a g e
Stakeholders
Overview
The successful execution of any digital strategy requires that multiple stakeholders
support and participate in its implementation. Each of these stakeholders has a distinct
set of roles and responsibilities and it is only through their collaboration that the goals of
a digital strategy can be realized.

Governments
It is not surprising that the countries with the most integrated digital skills strategies tend
to be smaller with fewer levels of government involved in the process. In Canada,
federalism and the division of powers present a level of complexity that can be daunting.
Nevertheless that cannot be a reason for inaction. The federal government needs to
work with the provinces (which have responsibility for education) as well as local
governments (which often have ties to organizations in the community) in order to
develop a shared vision and framework for action.

Education (K-12 and beyond)

Educational stakeholders and business industry stakeholders play several key roles in
the successful implementation of digital literacy strategies and the development of a
spectrum of formal and information education, training and professional development
programs. Formal educational settings (i.e., elementary and secondary schools;
universities and colleges) are especially important to ensure that digital skills are not
only taught but also practiced in a systemic way from students‘ entry into the formal
education system until their exit. Furthermore, such training reinforces the notion that
digital skills training needs to be self-monitored and kept up to date, encouraging
lifelong learning and further development of the students‘ digital literacy capabilities
(Canadian Urban Libraries Council (CULC), 2010). Therefore, teachers, teacher aides,
and teacher-librarians – both current and future – must have the digital skills to facilitate
the development of those skills in their students. Not only must students have training in
digital skills throughout their education but they must also be educated in the ethical use
of ICT, safety within the digital world, as well as intellectual property rights (i.e.,
copyright, file sharing/piracy, plagiarism) so that they can use these skills in the most
socially responsible manner possible. Universities, polytechnics (Polytechnics Canada,
2010) and community colleges (CETF, 2008) have produced a number of training
strategies as well as policies that will directly address the skills gap/mismatch. Private
training and professional development organizations also have important roles to play.

Business and Employers

Having long recognized the need for a workforce to be digitally literate, business leaders
are another important stakeholder. These leaders have identified a skills gap or
mismatch that needs to be rectified so that the economy can remain competitive in a
global digital economy. In order to meet these needs, national strategies have been
established to ensure that new workers have the skills they need to participate in the

24 | P a g e
workforce upon entry. Organizations representing large ICT companies have long
attended to the issues of digital skills shortages and will continue to provide important
insights. In addition, it is important to recognize that the skill requirements of companies,
large and small, engaged in content creation may be slightly different than those
focused on the development of hardware, software and services. It has also been
noted that end user companies employ almost as many ICT professionals as
companies providing products and services, yet these organizations and the
associations representing various vertical markets (retail, banking, manufacturing, etc.)
have been largely silent on the digital skills question. Given the importance of digital
skills to the adoption of digital technologies (enabling innovation, building digital markets
etc.) is also important to engage them to better understand their needs. Particular
attention should be focused on Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) as under-
adoption of the technology in this sector has been identified as a critical issue to
economic growth and job creation. Access to skills would seem to be as much of a
factor as access to capital and more attention should be directed to them.

Other Stakeholders
The consultation processes in Canada and other countries has also surfaced a wide
range of other stakeholders with an interest in developing digital skills. Professional
organizations for engineers, librarians, game makers, writers, content producers,
publishers, programmers, artists, and others have significant interests in this discussion.
At the level of basic literacy skills, there are a wide range of community organizations
that play an active role and have expertise that is highly relevant. Public libraries in
Canada and elsewhere have provided ―hubs‖ where access to technology and skills
development can take place particularly for vulnerable segments of the population. In
addition, organizations serving particular constituencies – women, immigrants,
aboriginal people and persons with disabilities – need to be engaged in discussions
about developing basic digital skills, business-technology skills needed for employment
as well as improving representation in professions requiring ―deep‖ technology and
content development skills.

Quebec
To date the engagement of Quebec based organizations in the digital strategy has been
limited and there is less French language research than one might expect. More
representation from is important because of specific needs for French-language training
and content.

Defining Roles and Responsibilities

For almost two decades governments have developed strategies for the ICT sectors, for
the ―information highway‖, for innovation and for the digital economy. Many of these
strategies have had grand visions but have not fully achieved their goals. Plans remain
words on paper without ensuring the buy in of the players needed to implement the
strategies, without the specific targets and accountabilities needed to ensure action.
Consequently, attention to stakeholder engagement is critical. In Canada, this is
particularly complex because of the multi-jurisdictional, multi-stakeholder nature of the
issue of developing digital skills. Limited research has focused on the implementation

25 | P a g e
gap as it applies in this context although there is extensive research on the
development of educational policy and strategies generally.

The challenge facing governments that seek to implement a digital strategy is to bring
each of these shareholders in-line with ―a shared vision, common definition of ICT digital
literacy, and with ‗buy-in‘ for the proposed continuum for digital literacy aligned to
assessments, standards and certification‖ (CETF, 2008, p. 8). The chart below
reproduces the CETF‘s (2008) matrix of stakeholder and their roles which was informed
by a review of international best practices.

Table 4-0: Matrix of Multiple Stakeholders

K-12, Business and
State Level Local Entities Colleges, and Other Key Individuals
Universities Stakeholders
Adopt policies
Lead strategic
in support of an
Develop a alliances to Demonstrate a
ICT Digital Adopt ICT digital
California support willingness to
Literacy literacy skills
Performance economic seek training
Roadmap for framework for
Skills policies based for employment
Success that education and
Framework for on a ICT digital in ICT related
meet globally workforce
K-20 education literacy jobs
recognized
foundation
standards
Provide an ICT Work with
literacy vision government, K-
Provide up to
st and needed 12, and
21 date meaningful
leadership Initiate local industry to
Century statistics and Be flexible in
projects based on develop ICT
Economy benchmarks to employment
existing best ICT skills
track and opportunities
Conduct ICT practices competencies
reduce the
literacy census needed for the
skills
workforce and
high school exit
Infuse digital
Require
literacy into
standardized
Build public-private teacher
skills, Seed models of Use technology
sector education
certifications, innovation in the home
partnerships curriculum and
and
professional
assessments
development
Align Increase
assessments decentralized Be willing to
Adopt an ICT Add ICT literacy to
and workforce engage in
Digital Literacy school board
st certifications to training by digital literacy
21 definition and education exit
global initiating pilot skills
Century elements based requirements
standards with projects in acquisition and
Learning on global based on ISTE-
supporting digital literacy lifelong
and standards NETS standards
diagnostics and with local learning
Workforce
curriculum entities
Encourage a Develop teacher Require digital Promote the job Show ambition
citizenry qualifications for literacy training in ICT to learn new
mindset of mastery of ICT competencies digital literacy methods and

26 | P a g e
 lifelong learning digital literacy for teacher skills ICT related
credentials skills
Incorporate
Enhance digital literacy
Recognize the
understanding competencies
Increase ICT need for
of statewide into vocational
training and continuous
qualification training
certification Seed pilot improvement
structures to Adopt ICT
opportunities for projects and self-
facilitate digital literacy
workforce assessment in
workforce requirements
development digital literacy
opportunity and for high school
capabilities
mobility exit
requirements
Foster the use
Promote a Recognize ICT
Foster dialogue of ICT in social
digitally literate skills for
st with diverse environments
21 century professional and
stakeholders and family
citizenry vocational training
groups.
Promote
Advance e-
lifelong learning Collaborate Participate in
government
and e-learning with e-learning at
and ICT Provide incentives
Government on home, in
applications for for retraining
a Public libraries and
health, employees
Awareness community
environment
st Effort centres
21 and e-learning
Century Work with local
Citizenry Provide equal entities to train
opportunities by the long term
Encourage Apply digital
supporting unemployed
underrepresented Require ADA literacy skills to
policies that and other target
groups to acquire compliance for access health,
eliminate the groups in key e-
digital literacy assistive e-government,
digital divide skills for
skills (i.e., women, devices, banking, and to
business
long-term software design support a
Support
unemployed, the and curriculum Establish a healthy
universal
disabled) statewide pool environment
access to
of digitally
broadband
literate workers
technologies
(CETF, 2008, p. 9)

Conclusions and Further Research

 Customary stakeholders to be engaged in the development of a digital skills strategy
are governments, educational institutions (K-12, colleges, polytechnics, universities,
training organizations), employers and other stakeholders (community organizations,
libraries, organizations representing specific groups etc.)
 Understanding specific issues and orientation of segments of stakeholders are key –
for example, at universities, the perceptions of administrators may differ than those
of faculty and those of students. There are huge variations among disciplines,
regions and leaders in the adoption of technology, etc. Consequently a detailed and
nuanced understanding of these stakeholders and their interests is important.
 Similarly within the corporate sector there are important differences between the
perceptions of large ICT providers and content providers, between large

27 | P a g e
 organizations and SMEs and between companies which are primarily users of
technology.
 There are also a range of stakeholders who have shown interest in the issues
around digital skills and specific efforts should be made to include those that
represent groups on the have-not side of the digital divide.
 More research is needed to develop a nuanced understanding of differences among
stakeholders.
 More work is needed to ensure that the implementation strategy developed to
support the digital skills component of the strategy has clear targets, responsibilities
and measures of success.

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Strategies Related to ICT and Digital Economy Skills
Overview
As noted above, there is a broad assumption that ―if we build it they will come‖ that
underpins many digital strategies around the world. Certainly there is evidence that
infrastructure is a key driver of ICT adoption and the development of digital skills. Figure
5-0 below demonstrates that access to infrastructure is only the foundation of a digitally
literate population.

Figure 5-0: The Relationship between Technology Infrastructure and Digital

Literacy Training

ICT INNOVATION STRONG ICT INDUSTY

CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT
(in ICT / with ICT) CANADA’ CONTENT ADVANTAGE

Cultural Empowerment
Rights & Responsibilities Citizenship
Social Awareness & Identity Research/Information Fluency
Pooling Knowledge Distributed Cognition
Judgment Appropriation

CREATE

Problem Solving Creativity

Reflection Synthesizing UNDERSTAND Networking Simulation
Safety & Security Decision-Making

USE Multi-Tasking
Navigation Skills Input/output Skills
Accessing Skills Tools & Text Skills

ACCESS
OPPORTUNITY COMPETENCE

Distribution, Infrastructure, Tools

Media Awareness Network, 2010

29 | P a g e
Factors Affecting the Development of Digital Skills
Research has been undertaken to explore the interactions among factors likely to
influence the development of digital skills or what Brandtweiner et al. (2010) describe as
e-competence. Their model, adapted from other technology adoption models (TAMs)
suggests that attitudes (e.g., perceived usefulness), objective hurdles (e.g., access) and
social influence affect motivation. Motivation, along with self-efficacy, quality of access
and social support, in turn, affect e-competence (see Figure 5-1). This research has
significant implications for the development of effective strategies to develop digital
skills in Canada.

Figure 5-1: Determinates of e-Competence

Quality of access

Attitudes (e.g.
perceived Social support
usefulness)

e-Competence
Knowledge, skills &
Intermediate Digital
awareness needed to
Literacy
participate in the digital
Motivation
economy (e.g. access)

Social influence Self-efficacy

Brandtweiner et al., 2010, p. 817

More research is needed on the role of social support, especially distinguishing between
problem solving assistance (technical support) and affective support (CRISP, 2000).

Similarly, models have been developed that attempt to explain the choice of ICT
careers. For example, Besecke and Reilly (2006) suggest a range of factors affect
choices of STEM careers. They identified personality variables (math and science
aptitude, need for achievement, academic performance, self esteem, gendered self-
concept); parental family variables (supportive of choices, absence of discouragement
of non-traditional career choice); and transforming experience (mentors and role
models, enriching opportunities, exposure to a range of career choices). But little of this
has been empirically tested and there is scant research evaluating the impact of
interventions aimed at encouraging STEM career choices.

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Initiatives to Promote the Development of Digital Skills
A plethora of initiatives have been introduced over the past twenty years, aimed at
understanding barriers and developing programs at various stages in the ICT career
pipeline. These include:
 Promoting ICT education choices (for all students, but particularly women); Ensuring
all graduates possess the ICT skills needed to succeed;
 Developing educational programs aimed to help individuals with both managerial
and technical skills meet industry needs;
 Utilizing skilled talent to the fullest (especially immigrants).

Canada has a key competitive advantage as an attractive and receptive place for the
best and brightest to come from all parts of the world. But we are not doing as well as
we should to integrate immigrants into our ICT companies, particularly SMEs – which
have limited resources. We need to vigorously pursue integration programs to address
the following issues:
 Develop skills to promote innovation and the commercialization of technology in
order to fuel the development of SMEs and to accelerate the adoption of technology
in vertical markets;
 ‗Upskilling‘ employees in all sectors as users of technology, particularly in SMEs;
 Providing ICT skills development for workers in transition, particularly employees
returning to the workforce and employees changing careers and industries (ITAC,
2010).

Specific roadmaps to skills have been included among them the Sectoral Council
Program (SCP), Focus on Information Technology (FIT) (ICTC 2008a; 2008b), and
Cultural Human Resources Council (CHRC) Technology Road Maps (CHRC, 2009).

Using technology to develop skills for example discuss the importance of exploring new
approaches to pedagogy including games (Doshi, 2006; Markey et al., 2008; Annetta et
al., 2010: Beavis et al., 2010; Chang & Kim, 2010; Hsu & Wang, 2010) and the notion of
cultivating new literacies through gaming literacy, the use of which has been associated
with ―accelerating learning, increasing motivation and supporting the development of
higher order cognitive thinking skills‖ (De Freitas & Jarvis, 2007). Recent research has
also focused on using avatars and virtual environments, (Falloon, 2009; Padiotis &
Mikropouls, 2010; Lee & Fang, 2010; Savin-Baden, et al., 2010). Online and blended
learning is also the subject of extensive research (So & Bonk, 2010). For example,
some countries have established standards to ensure that all university students take at
least a portion of their curriculum online. Other studies focus on the use of social media
to support learning (Smythe & Neufeld, 2010) and mobile learning. Studies have also
examined the adoption of technology among instructors (Soffer & Eshet-Alkalai, 2009)
noting variances by faculty and discipline.

There are also a plethora of initiatives aimed at attracting and retaining under-
represented groups in the industry (ICTC, 2007). Many ICT companies have undertaken
targeted outreach to immigrants and visible minorities. In Canada, many large ICT
companies are federal contractors or federally regulated and so have well-developed

31 | P a g e
reporting mechanisms for groups designated under Employment Equity legislation
(visible minorities, women, aboriginal people, people with disabilities). Large ICT
companies have been at the forefront of advocating ―the business case for diversity‖
(Cukier et al., 2008).

Once they are recruited, companies have a range of programs aimed at supporting
under-represented groups in the workplace. Some companies offer mentoring
programs, language and communications skills programs on site, and affinity networks
to support women, immigrants, aboriginal people and others. Some companies have
policies on diversity in the supply chain and have adopted voluntary codes of conduct
(Cukier et al., 2009). Evaluations of best practices in the sector have been undertaken
(CATAWIT Forum, 2009) but rigorous empirical research is lacking.

Similarly, extensive attention has been focused on various mentoring and support
programs (ICTC, 2009). While empirical data on the impact of these programs is limited
but there are some promising practices. The Toronto Region Immigrant Employment
Council (TRIEC), a multi-stakeholder council which offers services for skilled immigrants
matching them with established professionals in the same field, and reports significant
success in the ICT sector. While the control group (without a mentor) got jobs more
quickly, their searches were less focused and the employment they secured in lower
skilled lower paid jobs. In contrast, the mentored group spent more time researching
companies and landed more interviews and were more likely to attain suitable
employment and higher salaries (TRIEC, 2006).

Finally, and most challenging, are initiatives aimed at shaping societal views.
Hireanimmigrant.com for example, is a campaign aimed at challenging assumptions
and stereotypes. Large companies can use their spheres of influence to help shape the
media representations of under-represented groups and to use their purchasing power
(Cukier et al., 2009).

Recommendations from Canadian Stakeholders

A review of industry positions on digital skills suggests that there is consensus on the
importance of addressing technological competencies. A number of stakeholders have
proposed that the Canadian Government needs to work with international organizations,
like OECD and the ITU, in order to establish international standards related to digital
skills. Furthermore, research needs to be done to assess the effectiveness of teaching
and learning practices that use technological interventions to assess the usefulness of
these new tools in these areas of learning. As many of these technological
intermediaries (i.e., social networking) are fairly recent additions to the digital toolkit, we
cannot know how effective they will be in the educational context (both informal and
formal and across a number of curriculums). Similarly, as these new technologies are
still in their infancy, an emphasis on Internet safety must be part of the digital literacy
curriculum for young persons (i.e., cyberbullying, protection from predators, and
privacy). This new emphasis ensures that not only will future generations have the
digital skills necessary to succeed but also that they will be able to evaluate the risks

32 | P a g e
and rewards associated with the information society and the digital world (University of
Toronto, 2010).

Canadian Research Alliance for Community Innovation and Networking (CRACIN)

argue that the community plays an important role in fostering digital literacy.
Specifically:
that community networks and other community‐based organizations provide both
technological and social infrastructures for ICT access, adoption and use.
Community networks also act as important sources of local economic
development and innovation. Through training programs, for example, they help
ensure that all Canadians, particularly those most at risk of being left behind,
have the necessary skills to participate in the networked economy. (Sinclair et al.,
2006, p.7‐43)

Providing service to over 100,000 people daily, Canada‘s network of 3,500 community
technology centres helps its clients to successfully incorporate ICT into their lives
(Sinclair et al., 2006, c. 8) in a cost-effective way (Ekos Research Associates, 2004).
Staffed by volunteers and a variety of young facilitators, these community centres offer
training on:
 Job search;
 Software;
 Technology literacy programs
 Access to community services; and,
 Opportunities for cultural integration.

Furthermore, these centres often build relationships with several private and public
sector organizations to provide services and experienced staff. This benefit is two-fold.
Not only do thousands of people (particularly youths) gain job experience while
acquiring digital skills. This program is especially concerned with bridging the digital
divide.

Increased innovation and productivity are an often touted benefit of increasing a

population‘s digital literacy. Since the community facilitates the development of digital
literacy, those involved in such programs can leverage the networking opportunities in
order to develop new business relationships. Furthermore, with input from a variety of
technical experts, academics, and policy makers, the development of a nation‘s digital
strategy occurs on at the macro-level. However, it is at the local level that these
strategies are adapted and implemented in a way that best benefits the local
constituency‘s needs and wants. In other words, while national strategies to increase
infrastructure and access have the possibility of facilitating the proliferation of digital
literacy to a population, it is the community that transforms that possibility into reality. As
the community plays an integral role in the success of fostering digital skills, those
developing the national digital strategy must not only be aware of its importance but
also to ensure that their policy reflects the importance of the local.

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 Furthermore, when it comes to skills training and development, a distinction is often
made between hard and soft skills. The former are usually acquired through formal
training or education; the latter are learned on the job. Hard skills, it should be noted,
include technical skills and can be applied in a general or in a more specialized manner
(OMDC, 2010).

An important part of a national digital economy policy is that provisions be made – such
as the Temporary Foreign Worker Program – to ensure that Canada continues to have
access to qualified ICT workers, especially those who have management-level
knowledge and expertise. By accepting foreign training and accreditation, Canada
increases its desirability against a country that requires retraining or recertification for all
immigrants.

The Canadian Film Centre (CFC)‘s Media Lab was established to develop a starting
point in policy development for digital media. Developing creative talent, supporting the
development of digital media producing organizations, and creating numerous projects,
the Media Lab quickly established itself as a content creation hub, focusing on the use
of new ICTs to create a variety of media content. Since it was established the Media
Lab has sought to advance digital entrepreneurship in a number of ways, including
implementing their Interactive Art & Entertainment Programme (IAEP). This program
combats the shortage of creative talent in the industry by combining the technological
and business skills needed to succeed. In addition, the IAEP provides these
entrepreneurs with the opportunity to build prototypes of their product. Upon finishing
the program, 50% of those involved started their own business; eventually, half of these
start-ups become successful SMEs with up to five additional employees (CFC Media
Lab, 2010). As well as supporting new talent, the IAEP has also instituted a number of
programs for traditional media professionals to develop their own ability to be
entrepreneurial and to increase their level of innovation. These programs to develop
digital literacy are also meant to spur innovation and to encourage creative risk taking in
order to remain on the cutting edge of content creation. Together, these initiatives have
attempted to cast Canada as a leader in digital media content creation which, in turn,
increases the reputation of other industries.

Table 5-0: Strategies proposed by Canadian stakeholders

Aim: Examples: Sources:

Develop a Includes plans for action as well as strategies regarding the ITAC, 2010
national digital collection of metrics, benchmarks, and data about all aspects of
skills strategy for the digital labour market
Canada
Ensure digital Promote enrolment into post-secondary education or training Polytechnics
inclusion/Increase programs for lower socio-economic groups Canada, 2010
access for under- Establish scholarships and graduate research fellowships to CARL, 2010
represented encourage high-achieving students Réseau ACTION
groups TI, 2010
Expand and support a system to acknowledge foreign credentials AUCC, 2010
Engineers
Canada, 2010

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 Remove barriers that prevent foreign workers with the necessary CIAIC, 2010
education, training, and experience from working
Attract immigrants by providing newcomer orientation and CULC, 2010
integration programs that include some form of ICT training CARL, 2010
Increasing the visibility and participation of women in ICT-related AUCC, 2010
and technical careers through mentorship and training programs Engineers
Canada, 2010
Double female enrolments to high value programs by 2017 ITAC, 2010
Educate, inform, and assist Aboriginal youth into educational AUCC, 2010
programs in science, technology, and engineering Engineers
Canada, 2010
Adaptive technology and different skill training to increase access CNIB, 2010
for disabled individuals CARL, 2010
Increase access to the infrastructure needed to develop and use CULC, 2010
digital skills by providing computer and Internet access at libraries Réseau des
and through Internet Community Access Centres (CACs) and free SADC du
wireless Internet zones Québec, 2010
Subsidies (i.e. vouchers, tax incentives, etc.) to ensure that Microsoft Canada,
everyone has access to technology that has core digital education 2010
tools
Government action to ensure that by 2015 90% of residents and CEFRIO, 2010
organizations have a fixed Internet connection of 100 Mbps or
more and firm commitment to ensure that the remaining see the
quality of their Internet connection improve considerably.
Invest in Expand existing (Canada Social Transfer program, specialized Polytechnics
programs for HRDC training) and develop new training programs Canada, 2010
training and re- By 2017, increase total number of digital economy college and ITAC, 2010
training workers university seats by 20%
Promote STEM literacy through a national campaign; improve ITAC, 2010
performance in producing science and engineering graduates
moving from our current OECD to top 5 by 2016
Work experience to provide youth with both the job experience and Sinclair et al.,
skills training necessary to succeed 2006
Prioritize regularly updating current training programs to ensure Réseau ACTION
accurate development of competencies. TI, 2010
APFTQ, 2010
Encourage flexible learning environment (time and location) to RFAVQ, 2010
enable workers to undergo trainings to stay abreast of latest Barbot et al., 2006
technology.
Endorse proven For those training service providers (i.e., universities, colleges, and Polytechnics
training service polytechnics) that have a proven track record when it comes to Canada, 2010
providers training or retraining workers should be publically endorsed by the
government in order to increase their visibility as well as their
expertise in ICT skills training
Establish Support programs that promote common industry standards for CIAIC, 2010
common industry training outcomes for specific competencies in close consultation
standards and with the industry.
definitions
Encourage and Digital content creation drives consumers to adopt new CRT, 2010
fund digital technologies which have driven the development of new OMDC, 2010
content creation technologies as well as the skills to use these technologies
Nurture the creation and development of digital content using new CFC Media Lab,
ICT technology in order to make Canada a leader in the area of 2010
digital content creation

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 Technology and art/design are inextricably connected; need to OCAD, 2010
foster creative skills in the use of ICTs to create content ADISQ, 2010
Ensure SMEs Develop programs so that SMEs can keep up with changes in OMDC, 2010
keep up with digital skills so that they can remain competitive against larger
changes in digital organizations that have the time and money to constantly retrain
skills its workforce to keep pace with evolving skill requirements
Engage in knowledge co-creation; focusing on current issues York University,
engages and educates employees to support future innovation 2010
Using tax incentives and online skills development to update skills CARL, 2010
Commit to the In order to keep up with the evolution of digital technology and the Engineers
pursuit of speed of the global marketplace Canada, 2010
continuous RFAVQ, 2010
professional Ensure that digital skills and literacy programs are included in both CULC, 2010
development and formal and informal education streams
lifelong learning Ensure that every individual in the workforce remains proficient in Microsoft Canada,
digital skills, regardless of vocation 2010
Support Support collaborative, inter-disciplinary, and cross-sectoral AUCC, 2010
collaboration research and learning opportunities at all levels of government, Polytechnics
industry, educational institutions, trade associations, and sector Canada, 2010
councils in order to develop critical thinking, analytical and digital Microsoft Canada,
skills 2010
Create state-of-the-art ―living laboratories‖ to create a network and SAT, 2010
community of users and developers
Create a skills marketplace to drive market agility and innovation ITAC, 2010
Target and match governmental funds with private sector CFC Media Lab,
commitments to build regional centres of excellence to develop 2010
digital skills
Build both formal and informal collaborative networks which builds CFC, Media Lab,
trust and to increase the level of technical, creative, and business 2010
knowledge among their members
Create a ―creativity transfer fund‖ to support faculty and student Polytechnics
research at polytechnics Canada, 2010
Research collaboration and the need for multi- and inter- Barbot et al., 2006
disciplinary education
Develop Develop a national internship program which will address the ICTC, 2010
programs to labour shortage facing some reasons while also addressing the
increase digital skills gap between the skill sets of new graduates and those skills
skills required by the industry
Invest in knowledge transfer programs, mentorships, and Canadian
apprenticeships to facilitate continued digital skills training Conference of the
Arts, 2010
ACPFT, 2010
Use digital games to develop educational content Canadian
Federation for the
Humanities and
Social Sciences,
2010
Placement programs provide opportunities for mentoring new ACPTF, 2010
talent, bridging the digital divide as well as guaranteeing
succession planning
Support and drive collaboration among research institutes, post- Polytechnics
secondary educational institutes as well as the public and private Canada, 2010
sector to connect education with industry and to ensure that CARL, 2010
training produces job-ready workers

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 Aggressively build awareness, supports, incentives and ITCT, 2010
partnerships to drive change (i.e., infrastructure in place to deliver
training may be prohibitively expensive).
Support early Develop a foundation of math and science skills to facilitate later Microsoft Canada,
education education in computer science, engineering, science, and 2010
opportunities mathematics
Use technology to facilitate a more dynamic, personalized learning Microsoft Canada,
environment that takes student‘s needs and individual 2010
characteristics into account
To promote lifelong learning, make digital skills acquisition a ITCT, 2010
priority from primary school onwards eBay & Google,
2010

Conclusions and Further Research

 There is a wide range of digital strategies with varying degrees of specificity in
recommendations for the development of digital skills
 Through collaboration with multiple stakeholders and across levels of government,
develop a national digital skills strategy which defines needs, defines skill
requirements, sets benchmarks and provides a plan of action.
 Ensure a basic level of digital literacy for all Canadians, attending to digital divides
based on age, geography, social economic status, gender, etc.
 Provide cradle to grave opportunities to acquire and upgrade skills through a range
of formal and informal educational opportunities in partnership with educational
institutions, industry, libraries and community organizations.
 A standardized curriculum of digital skills training must be developed and
implemented in kindergarten and continue until high school graduation.
 Invest in programs that provide incentives to train and retrain workers.
 Encourage the development of content creation and creative skills.
 Support development of skills needed to promote the adoption of digital technology
by SMEs.
 Support development of skills needed to set up small businesses and digital
enterprises along with the skills needed to take these to the second stage of
development
 Encourage the development of professionals with hybrid skill sets that combine
technology and management skills.
 Create experiential learning opportunities, internships, etc.
 Use digital technology in innovative ways to support the development of education
and skills in other areas – establish targets for e-learning experiences among post
secondary students.
 Dramatically increase the number of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics graduates.
 Support further research into real versus perceived needs, taxonomies of skills and
forms of measurement, as well as evaluations of programs aimed at promoting
digital skills.
 Support collaborative, inter-disciplinary, and cross-sectoral research and learning
opportunities at all levels.

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Overall Conclusions: Building the Digital Talent Pool and Skills
for Tomorrow
The body of literature relevant to digital skills development is extensive – more than
2000 academic articles as well as hundreds of policy papers by governments and other
stakeholders address the issue.

Our systematic review of this literature raises as many questions as it answers but our
observations include the following:
 There is a high level of consensus on the need for a digital skills strategy as part of
an integrated digital strategy.
 There are different definitions of ―digital skills‖ and priorities concerning the focus on
basic digital skills, business-technology digital skills or ―deep‖ technology and
content skills.
 The focus tends to reflect the orientation of the organization - in some cases, critical
skills sets such as content creation and entrepreneurial skills have been neglected
even though these are essential.
 While there are many sectors claiming that there are skills shortages or gaps, more
precision on the nature of these gaps is needed as well as the factors which
influence choices concerning digital skills development both at the basic literacy and
advanced levels.
 There continues to be evidence of under-representation among certain groups in the
ICT sector as well as evidence that bridging programs and attention to diversity can
help address shortages. However, there is limited research on the efficacy of
different approaches.
 Clearer definitions must be established with benchmarks at each level.
 There are a wide range of stakeholders who should be engaged in policy
development. Beyond the obvious players – government, education, industry and
industry associations – community organizations, and libraries.
 Many other jurisdictions have developed comprehensive digital strategies which
include digital skills and systematic analysis not just of the strategies but of their
efficacy would be useful to inform Canadian efforts in this area.

38 | P a g e
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Appendix 1: ICT and Digital Skills Strategies by Country
Country ICT Strategy/Policy Infrastructure Digital Skills Digital Skills
Expansion Training Definition
Afghanistan Yes Yes No No
Algeria Yes Yes Yes No
Argentina Yes Yes Yes No
Australia Yes Yes Yes No
Azerbaijan Yes Yes No No
Bangladesh Yes Yes No No
Benin Yes Yes No No
Bhutan Yes Yes No No
Botswana Yes Yes No No
Bosnia and Yes Yes Yes No
Herzegovina
Brazil Yes Yes No No
Brunei Darussalam Yes Yes Yes No
Bulgaria Yes Yes Yes EU
Burkina Faso Yes Yes No no
Burundi Yes Yes No no
Cambodia Yes Yes No No
Cameroon Yes Yes Yes No
Central African Yes Yes No No
Republic
Chad Yes Yes No No
Chile Yes Yes No No
China Yes Yes Yes No
Colombia Yes Yes No No
Congo Yes Yes No No
Cuba Yes Yes Yes No
Croatia Yes Yes Yes No
Cyprus Yes Yes Yes EU
Dominican Republic Yes Yes Yes No
Ecuador Yes Yes No No
Egypt Yes Yes Yes No
El Salvador Yes Yes No No
Ethiopia Yes Yes Yes No
France Yes Yes Yes EU
Gabon Yes Yes No No
Gambia Yes Yes No No
Germany Yes Yes Yes EU
Greece Yes Yes Yes EU
Honduras Yes Yes No No
Iceland Yes Yes Yes No
India Yes Yes No No
Indonesia Yes Yes No No
Iran Yes Yes No No
Italy Yes Yes Yes EU
Jamaica Yes Yes Yes No
Japan Yes Yes Yes No
Jordan Yes Yes No No
Kazakhstan Yes Yes No No
Kenya Yes Yes No No
Kiribati Yes Yes No No
Korea Yes Yes Yes No
Kuwait Yes Yes Yes No
Kyrgyz Republic Yes Yes No No
Lao No Yes No No

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Country ICT Strategy/Policy Infrastructure Digital Skills Digital Skills
Expansion Training Definition
Lebanon Yes Yes Yes No
Macau Yes Yes No No
Malawi Yes Yes No No
Malaysia Yes Yes No No
Maldives Yes Yes Yes No
Mali Yes Yes No No
Malta Yes Yes Yes EU
Mexico No Yes No No
Mongolia Yes Yes No No
Morocco Yes Yes Yes No
Myanmar Yes Yes Yes No
Namibia Yes Yes No No
Nepal Yes Yes No No
Netherlands Yes Yes Yes EU
New Zealand Yes Yes Yes No
Nigeria Yes Yes No No
Pakistan Yes Yes No No
Paraguay No No No No
Philippines Yes Yes Yes No
Romania Yes Yes Yes EU
Rwanda Yes Yes Yes No
Saudi Arabia Yes Yes Yes No
Singapore Yes Yes Yes No
Somalia No Yes No No
South Africa Yes Yes Yes No
Spain Yes Yes Yes EU
Sri-Lanka Yes Yes Yes No
Suriname Yes Yes No No
Switzerland Yes Yes No No
Syrian Arab Republic Yes Yes No No
Taiwan Yes Yes Yes No
Tajikistan No Yes No No
Tanzania Yes Yes No No
Thailand Yes Yes Yes No
Timor Leste Yes Yes No No
Trinidad & Tobago Yes Yes Yes No
Tunisia Yes Yes Yes No
Turkey* Yes Yes No No
Uganda Yes Yes No No
United Arab Yes Yes No No
Emirates**
United Kingdom*** Yes Yes Yes Yes
Uganda Yes Yes No No
Uruguay Yes Yes Yes No
USA Yes Yes Yes Yes
Uzbekistan Yes Yes No No
Viet Nam Yes Yes Yes No
Zambi Yes Yes No No
Zimbabwe Yes Yes No No

*Doğan, 2005; Uçkan, 2009

** Peterson, 2007
***E-Skills UK, 2009

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Appendix 2: Academic Definitions of Digital Skills
Region Definition of Digital Skills/Literacy Ways of Measuring of Digital Skills/Literacy Source
Technological Literacy: The skills to interact with hardware
and software
Informational Literacy: The competencies to deal with
information, normally by means of ICTs (applying
Technological Literacy). This is in two stages: how to get
(relevant) information, and how to manage that information.
Media Literacy: Skills and competences to deal with several
media make them interact and integrate them in a single Ala-Mutka,
International

output. A lower level, multimedia, where interaction would be 2009; Peña-

more mechanical, and a higher one, cross media, where López, 2009;
interaction and integration respond not to technical Media
possibilities but to a strategic design, building an ecosystem of Awareness
different media (and not a simple multimedia output) Network,
Digital Presence: Is centred in the person. These are the 2010
digital skills to monitor and establish a digital identity, and the
skills to actively define it and use it for networking or
interacting with other people digitally
e-Awareness: The most strategic (even philosophical) stage is
the one related with being aware on how the world and our
position — as a person, group, firm, institution — varies
because of digital technologies
Digital Literacy: what the most basic ITC user should know
about computers, software and basic communication
technologies. This level is not vocationally oriented but serves
United States and International

as a common knowledge base upon which more advanced

computer and communication skills can be developed. Tasks
at this level could include: cellular telephone usage, turning
the computer on and off safely, saving files, using e-mail,
using a web browser, and very basic word processing.
Digital Proficiency: average office worker with average Ala-Mutka,
computer and communication skills whose skills include 2009
moderate levels of word processing, spreadsheets,
presentation software, e-mail, Internet usage, cellular
telephony and cellular applications and very basic
troubleshooting and cell phone maintenance.
Digital Competency: The initial ICT specialist skills needed to
work as an ICT professional
Digital Expertise: The highest degree of ICT knowledge and
skills necessary for any given profession.

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Intellectual Process of Information Use Definitions
Region Definition of Digital Skills/Literacy
Recognises the nature and extent of information
needed
Accesses the needed information effectively and
efficiently
Evaluates information and its sources critically and
incorporates selected information into own
East and South East Asia and International
knowledge base and value system
Strives for excellence in information seeking and
knowledge generation
Uses information appropriately and creatively
Understands many of the economic, legal and social
issues surrounding the use of information, and
demonstrates ethical and legal access and use
of information
Contributes positively to the learning community and
the society, and recognises the importance of
information in a society
53 | P a g e
Ways of Measuring of Digital Skills/Literacy Source
 Defines and articulates the need for information
 Identifies a variety of information sources
 Understands the purpose, scope and appropriateness of a variety of information
sources and resources
 Knows and considers the costs and benefits of obtaining the needed information
 Selects the most appropriate investigative methods or information
 retrieval systems for finding the needed information
 Constructs and uses well-planned search strategies
 Retrieves information using a variety of methods
 Assesses the information obtained
 Summarises main ideas extracted from the information obtained
 Articulates and applies initial criteria for evaluating information and its sources
 Validates understanding and interpretation of information through discourse with
other individuals, subject area experts and practitioners
 Determines if the initial query should be revised
 Understands bias and authority issues when obtaining information
 Recognises the differences between accurate and inaccurate information,
reliable and unreliable information Sharma,
 Continues to seek and revise search strategies and methods until the information 2008; Ala-
need is aptly and accurately met Mutka,
 Generates main ideas to construct new concepts 2009
 Compares new information with prior information to determine value-addedness,
contradictions and other unique characteristics
 Applies new and prior information to the planning and construction of new
knowledge or product
 Reassesses and revises the development process for the new knowledge or
product
 Communicates the new knowledge or product effectively to others
 Adheres to laws, regulations, institutional policies and etiquette related to the
access and use of information sources
 Acknowledges the use of information sources in communicating new knowledge
or product that is generated
 Honours and acknowledges the ownership of information
 Recognises and respects differing opinions in discussions as well as print and
non-print information sources
 Proactively seeks to understand different perspectives in order to have an
informed opinion
 Shares knowledge and collaborates with others to generate new ideas or
products that benefit the learning community and the society
Region Definition of Digital Skills/Literacy Ways of Measuring of Digital Skills/Literacy Source
(i) The definition of the information task,
(ii) The formulation of strategies to search for information,
(iii) Strategies for the location of and access to information,
(iv) The use of acquired information,
(v) The synthesis of knowledge from prior and current
information, and
(vi) The evaluation of the information process.
(i) The initiation or perception of an information need,
(ii) The selection of a topic for further investigation,
Global

(iii) The exploration of the required information in order to have

Sharma, 2008
a better understanding of the topic,
(iv) The formulation of the specific information need,
(v) The collection of relevant information, and (vi) the
information search closure.
(i) The information technology conception,
(ii) The information sources conception,
(iii) The information process conception,
(iv) The information control conception,
(v) The knowledge construction conception,
(vi) The knowledge extension conception, and
(vii) The wisdom conception.

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Appendix 3: ST2L Indicators
Level The student can:
1. Use help functions within an application for assistance
2. Respond appropriately to information presented in dialog box (e.g., replace a
file dialog)
3. Select correct printer
4. Use print preview
5. Change page orientation between landscape and portrait
6. Print a specific page range
7. Demonstrate practical keyboarding skills
I. Essential
8. Identify and locate the standard menu bar
Operational Skills
9. Toggle between two open software applications
10. Create a new file
11. Locate and open a specific file
12. Rename a file
13. Move a file to a different location
14. Search for specific files
15. Use ―Save As…‖ to change the name of a working file
16. Use ―Save As…‖ to save a file to a different location
1. Select the best device to complete a given task, such as digital cameras,
scanners and external storage devices
2. Select appropriate uses for word processing software
3. Use the ordered and unordered list features of a word processor
4. Use the table creation feature of a word processor
5. Insert a hyperlink into a document
6. Insert an image into a document
7. Set page margins within a word processing document
8. Adjust line spacing within a word processing document
II. Constructing 9. Insert an object using the drawing tools feature of a word processor
and Demonstrating 10. Edit images within software using cropping
Knowledge 11. Edit images within software using resizing
12. Edit images within software using rotating
13. Edit images within software using brightness/contrast
14. Edit images within software using duplicating
15. Select appropriate uses for Web browser software
16. Identify a Web browser
17. Identify and use the address bar in a Web browser
18. Identify and use the back function in a Web browser
19. Identify and use the Refresh function in a Web browser
20. Identify and use the bookmarks/favourites elements in a Web browser
1. Use e-mail to send a message
2. Use e-mail to receive/open a message
3. Use e-mail to forward a message
4. Use e-mail to reply to a message
5. Use e-mail to add attachments to a message
III. Communication 6. Select appropriate uses for presentation software
and Collaboration 7. Create new slides within presentation software
8. Enter content within presentation software
9. Play a slide show within presentation software
10. Perform basic digital video editing by removing a section of video
11. Perform basic digital video editing by adding narration
12. Perform basic digital video editing by adding music

55 | P a g e
 13. Insert an edited video clip into presentation software
1. Perform Web searches that produce relevant results
2. Use the advanced search features of search engines (e.g., Boolean, date
limits, language, etc.)
3. Access information through online resources including encyclopedias,
libraries, education and government websites, and electronic catalogs (a.k.a.
card catalogs)
4. Evaluate Internet sites for accuracy
5. Select appropriate uses for graphic organizer software
IV. Independent 6. Create flowcharts as a learning strategy
Learning 7. Create concept maps as a learning strategy
8. Select appropriate uses for spreadsheet software
9. Enter data into a spreadsheet
10. Format data in a spreadsheet
11. Delete data in a spreadsheet
12. Use spreadsheets to compute basic formulas
13. Use spreadsheets to create a graph
14. Import and export data (e.g., copying and pasting from spreadsheet to
presentation software)
1. Differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate use of school computers
(acceptable use policy)
2. Use and appropriately cite electronic references
3. Understand and follow copyright laws pertaining to software and/or Internet
resources, including duplicating and/or plagiarizing text and media files
4. Identify an appropriate procedure to follow when a peer is using the computer
inappropriately
5. Identify an appropriate procedure to follow when inappropriate content is
encountered on a computer
6. Display an awareness of potentially inappropriate language while using
technology
7. Display an awareness of potentially inappropriate media use in regards to
V. Ethical, Legal,
technology
and Safety Issues
8. Display an awareness that technology is in a state of continual
change/advancement
9. Identify security risks that are involved with giving out personal information
(e.g., fake eBay sign-in to steal password)
10. Understand that there is no guarantee of privacy on a network
11. Recognize and report potential online predators (e.g., strangers asking
inappropriate questions)
12. Recognize the risks of downloading files and documents
13. Recognize the permanency of electronic data
14. Maintain password security
15. Understand the need for virus scans, pop-up blockers, spyware blockers,
firewalls and filters
Hohlfeld et al., 2010, pp. 387-389

56 | P a g e
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