LONG QUESTIONS:

Interior of the earth

 It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of
the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
 It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth
(The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
 Through mining and drilling operations we have been able to observe the earth’s
interior directly only up to a depth of few kilometers.
 The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for
setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.
 But still, through some direct and indirect sources, the scientists have a fair idea about
how the earth’s interior look like.
Sources of Information about the interior of the earth
Direct Sources:
1. Rocks from mining area
2. Volcanic eruptions
Indirect Sources
1. By analyzing the rate of change of temperature and pressure from the surface
towards the interior.
2. Meteors, as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
3. Gravitation, which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
4. Gravity anomaly, which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of
material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
5. Magnetic sources.
6. Seismic Waves: the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves)
give us information about the state of materials in the interior.
Structure of the earth’s interior
Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and
core.
Crust
 It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
 It is brittle in nature.
 Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
  The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different.
Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about
30kms).
 Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is
often termed as SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the
region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
 The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
 The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed as the Conrad
Discontinuity.

Mantle
 The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
 The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as the Mohorovich
Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
 The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
 Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the
mantle.
 The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it
is also termed as SIMA.
 The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
 The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute
the Lithosphere.
 The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak
and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the
lithosphere.
  The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the
lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
 The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantle is known
as Repetti Discontinuity.
 The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but
above the core is called as Mesosphere.
Core
 It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
 The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
 It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
 The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
 The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between
9.5-14.5g/cm3.
 The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
 The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
 The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann
Discontinuity.
 Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole
interior.
Temperature, Pressure and Density of the Earth’s Interior
Temperature
 A rise in temperature with increase in depth is observed in mines and deep wells.
 These evidence along with molten lava erupted from the earth’s interior supports that
the temperature increases towards the centre of the earth.
 The different observations show that the rate of increase of temperature is not uniform
from the surface towards the earth’s centre. It is faster at some places and slower at
other places.
 In the beginning, this rate of increase of temperature is at an average rate of 1 0C for
every 32m increase in depth.
 While in the upper 100kms, the increase in temperature is at the rate of 12 0C per km
and in the next 300kms, it is 200C per km. But going further deep, this rate reduces to
mere 100C per km.
 Thus, it is assumed that the rate of increase of temperature beneath the surface is
decreasing towards the centre (do not confuse rate of increase of temperature with
increase of temperature. Temperature is always increasing from the earth’s
surface towards the centre).
  The temperature at the centre is estimated to lie somewhere between 3000 0C and
50000C, may be that much higher due to the chemical reactions under high-pressure
conditions.
 Even in such a high temperature also, the materials at the centre of the earth are in
solid state because of the heavy pressure of the overlying materials.
Pressure
 Just like the temperature, the pressure is also increasing from the surface towards
the centre of the earth.
 It is due to the huge weight of the overlying materials like rocks.
 It is estimated that in the deeper portions, the pressure is tremendously high which
will be nearly 3 to 4 million times more than the pressure of the atmosphere at sea
level.
 At high temperature, the materials beneath will melt towards the centre part of the
earth but due to heavy pressure, these molten materials acquire the properties of a
solid and are probably in a plastic state.
Density
 Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials like Nickel and Iron
towards the centre, the density of earth’s layers also gets on increasing towards the
centre.
 The average density of the layers gets on increasing from crust to core and it is nearly
14.5g/cm3 at the very centre.
What is the Moho Discontinuity?
The Moho discontinuity, or "Moho," is the boundary between the crust and the mantle. The
red line in the diagram shows its location.
In geology, the word "discontinuity" is used for a surface at which seismic waves change
velocity. One of these surfaces exists at an average depth of 8 kilometers beneath the ocean
basin and at an average depth of about 32 kilometers beneath the continents. At this
discontinuity, seismic waves accelerate. This surface is known as the Mohorovicic
discontinuity or often simply referred to as the "Moho."The Mohorovicic discontinuity marks
the lower limit of Earth's crust. As stated above, it occurs at an average depth of about 8
kilometers beneath the ocean basins and 32 kilometers beneath continental surfaces.
Mohorovicic was able to use his discovery to study thickness variations of the crust. He
discovered that the oceanic crust has a relatively uniform thickness, while continental crust is
thickest under mountain ranges and thinner under plains.

Dynamic Triaxial testing is performed on soils when it is necessary to evaluate their strength
and deformation properties under cyclic loading conditions. These conditions might include
dynamic loading coming from earthquakes, passing vehicles and trains, sea waves, wind,
vibration machines etc. There are many variations of Dynamic Triaxial tests and the user
should select the one that is most accurately simulating the conditions in the field.
This guide, published by VJ Tech Ltd, is intended to give a brief introduction on the basic
principles of cyclic Triaxial testing to the technicians that perform dynamic testing in
geotechnical laboratories. Among others, it includes a description of the apparatus used in
these tests, common and advanced testing procedures. It is strongly advised that the
laboratory staff who undertake testing using the Dynamic Triaxial apparatus, have been
trained on the equipment, have a basic knowledge in soil mechanics and understand the
required testing procedures before attempting actual tests. In the last section of this guide,
books for further reading are suggested.
1.1  Apparatus & Accessories
A Dynamic Triaxial apparatus is usually an advanced version of a static Triaxial system. A
sketch of a typical Dynamic Triaxial system is shown in Figure 1. It comprises the following
components:
·           Load Frame
This needs to be sturdy enough to withstand the amount of load applied to the sample without
deforming significantly. Also, it needs to withstand the vibration of the dynamic actuator and
cope with the sudden changes in load during a cyclic test. Some variations of load frames can
be used for both, Static and Dynamic Triaxial tests.
·         Dynamic Actuator
The dynamic actuator enables the load frame to apply cyclic load to the soil sample. It comes
in different load capacities (e.g. 5 to 500 kN) and frequencies (0.1 to 20 Hz). The selection of
the most suitable system will depend on the type of applications that the user is interested in
and the type of specimens to be used for testing. Table 1 presents some typical frequency
values for the most common applications. Normally, frequencies up to 1 Hz are considered
adequate for most applications.
 
There are two main types of servo controller available, Electromechanical and Hydraulic. The
Electromechanical controller uses electrical power to convert it into mechanical energy and
apply the load to the sample. On the other hand, a Hydraulic servo controller compresses oil
to move the piston and apply the load. The capacity of the cyclic Electromechanical motors
can range between 5 and 50 kN while a Hydraulic controller can reach capacities up to 500
kN. Regarding the frequency of the cyclic loading, the Electromechanical motors can reach a
maximum of 10 Hz (i.e. 10 cycles per second) while the Hydraulic ones can reach 20 Hz.
Finally, Electromechanical motors can be either one or three phase, with the latter achieving
higher load.
Dynamic actuators must have the ability to apply cyclic loading to the specimens using a
specified waveform. The most common type of waveform is the sinusoidal, but other types
might also be considered (Figure 2).
 
·         Triaxial Cell, specially modified for performing Dynamic tests
The Triaxial Cell that is used in Dynamic testing is a modified version of the static Triaxial
Cell. It uses an enhanced piston with a low friction seal to prevent overheating and reduce the
degradation during the cyclic movement of the ram. The Cells have usually three ports which
are used for the control of the Confining Pressure, the application of Back Pressure to the
specimen and one with a transducer for the measurement of Pore Water Pressure (PWP)
(Figure 1). Specially designed exit ports, that allow using internal sensors (On-Sample
transducers) mounted on the specimen or Bender Elements, might also be available. The Top
Caps that are used in Dynamic testing are usually fixed to the loading ram in order to allow
for tension (negative stress) and are connected to the Back Pressure controller through the
Back Pressure valve, from which the sample can be Saturated and Consolidated.
·         Automatic Pressure Controllers for adjusting Cell and Back pressure
During the cyclic loading of the sample, the loading ram is moving in and out of the cell
periodically. This causes the Cell Pressure to increase and decrease accordingly, altering the
horizontal and vertical total stresses. There are, typically, four ways to overcome this issue. In
the first case, an air pocket is left at the top of the cell which will “carry” the pressure
fluctuation due to its high compressibility (in comparison to the water which is practically
incompressible). The second method involves the use of a Pneumatic Pressure Controller and
an Air-Water Interface (Figure 3). With this configuration, the adjustment of the pressure is
very quick and allows the Cell Pressure to remain constant even at high loading frequencies.
Recent developments for the control of the Cell Pressure include very accurate Automatic
Hydraulic Pressure Controllers, with the ability to adjust quickly to pressure fluctuations, and
Dynamic Pressure Controllers which perform cyclic adjustment of the Cell Pressure. The
method chosen depends on the required accuracy and the available budget.

 
The Back Pressure controller is usually hydraulic and pumps water into the sample through
the top end. It is used to saturate the sample by pushing water in and therefore forcing the
pore air to dissolve into it. Back Pressure controllers often have the ability to measure the
volume of the water that moves in and out of the sample and, therefore determine the volume
changes of the sample after its saturation.
·         Load measuring sensor (Load Cell)
Load Cells are usually submersible (located inside the cell) in order to avoid the friction that
appears between the loading ram and the cell. Moreover, the use of submersible load cells is
considered essential in Dynamic Triaxial testing due to the fact that they are not affected by
the up thrust that is caused due to the increment of the confining pressure. Also, they are
firmly fixed to the top caps in order to allow for tension. The capacity of the Load Cell
depends on the sample size (the bigger the diameter of the sample the higher the load it can
withstand) and the accuracy that the user needs. Typically, the Load Cells used have
capacities between 1 kN and 50 kN.
·         Displacement measuring sensor
The Displacement Sensor must be mounted on the loading ram in order to follow the exact
deformation of the sample during the cyclic loading. They are usually Linear Strain
Conversion Transducers (LSCTs) and they can have a maximum stroke of 100 mm. An
alternative method of measuring the deformation of the soil sample is the use of the
electromechanical actuator pulses which are converted into displacement while the motor is
moving.
·         Pore Water Pressure measuring sensor
Pore Water Pressure is measured using a pressure sensor connected to a port at the bottom of
the soil sample. The pressure sensor used for this purpose must have the ability to measure
pressures at a higher rate (i.e. faster) than in a static Triaxial system.
·         Data Acquisition System (DAS)
The Data Acquisition System needs to be able to capture data at a high speed, up to 500
samples per second. In this way, the resultant waveforms are plotted very accurately and soil
behaviour can be captured in detail.
1.2  Testing standards
The most commonly used testing standards for Dynamic Triaxial tests are ASTM D5311-
13 and ASTM D3999-11. The first one refers on the procedure for cyclic Triaxial testing in
soils, under load control, to determine the cyclic shear strength or liquefaction potential of a
soil sample. The second method refers to the determination of the Secant Modulus and
Damping properties from a Cyclic Triaxial test. However, there are a wide range of test
variations that the user can adopt which can be found in the literature.
1.3 Testing procedures
a.     Sample Preparation
The preparation of a soil specimen, to be subjected into cyclic loading, is identical to the
preparation that is followed in static Triaxial tests (see also: Triaxial Testing – An
Introduction support document by VJ Tech). Special consideration should be given to the
state properties of the sample, such as the initial density, water content, compaction method
etc. as all these factors affect the results. The sample is sealed within a rubber membrane to
avoid direct contact between the soil and the confining fluid. Two saturated porous discs are
inserted at the top and bottom of the sample, in contact with the Top Cap and Base Pedestal,
respectively.
b.     Saturation
To saturate a soil specimen in Dynamic Triaxial tests, we follow the same procedure as in
static Triaxial tests, i.e. by gradually elevating the Back pressure so that pore air is dissolved
into pore water. Saturation checks are performed by elevating the confining pressure to the
specimen and keeping the drainage valve closed. The B-value is then calculated as the change
in the Pore Water Pressure to the change in the Confining Pressure:

where ΔU is the change in the Pore Water Pressure of the specimen which is caused when the
Confining Pressure changes by ΔCP.
Usually, when the B-value is greater than 0.95 the soil is considered fully saturated, though
for some soils lower values are considered acceptable.
c.      Consolidation
Consolidation of the soil specimen is necessary to establish the desired stress state and apply
the correct effective stresses prior to the cyclic loading. Consolidation can be either Isotropic
(i.e. σ1 = σ3, in other words no axial stress is applied to the sample through the ram and
deviator stress remains at 0 kPa) or AnIsotropic (σ 1 ≠ σ3, in other words the sample is loaded
to increase the vertical stress; therefore some deviator stress is applied to the sample). During
consolidation, the drainage valve remains open to allow drainage and dissipation of the
excess Pore Water Pressure.
            During Isotropic consolidation, the change in sample volume will be equal to the
volume of water that was removed from the sample, since this was already saturated in the
previous stage. Therefore, the volume of water that drains out of the sample is recorded and is
plotted against the square root of time  (Figure 4a). Moreover, the dissipation of the
excess Pore Water Pressure can be plotted against time (Figure 4b). Consolidation is
considered completed when either the excess Pore Water Pressure has been dissipated by
95% or when the volume change has ceased.
 

The type and level of Consolidation to be applied to the sample depends on the application in
which the test results will be used. Although Isotropic Consolidation is usually considered
adequate, it cannot replicate the exact stress conditions in the field. In general terms, soils are
subjected to a higher vertical than horizontal stress because of the weight of the overlaying
soil strata. This is expressed with parameter K, which is defined as the ratio between the total
horizontal stress (σh) and the total vertical stress (σv):

The higher the depth of a soil layer the lower the K value, as the weight of the overlaying soil
is increasing. In most cases, 0 < K < 1, however there are cases where K can become greater
than 1 (e.g. after an excavation). An example of an Anisotropic Consolidation test is shown in
Figure 5, where the ratio between the axial and horizontal effective stresses is equal to 0.75.
The application of deviator stress to the sample, during the Anisotropic consolidation, causes
an excess Pore Water Pressure which needs to dissipate completely. For this reason, the rate
of sample loading needs to be low enough to allow for this. Finer soils require much lower
loading rate than coarse ones. Sample volume change in Figure 5 indicates the volume of the
water draining out of the sample; therefore Anisotropic Consolidation is considered complete
when water drainage is finished.

d.     Cyclic loading
Cyclic loading can be applied to the specimen using the mechanical or hydraulic actuator of
the dynamic system. The amount of cyclic loading to be applied depends on several factors,
such as the effective stresses established after the Isotropic Consolidation (or the difference
between the cell and Back Pressure), the soil type, the soil state (density, moisture etc.) and
the loading characteristics (frequency, waveform type). As a general rule, the cyclic loading
is usually double the Isotropic effective stress, multiplied by a factor (i.e. Stress Factor).
Stress Factor usually ranges between 0 and 1 and its effect on the number of cycles that a soil
can withstand is shown in Figure 6. As an example; for a soil that has been isotropically
consolidated to an effective stress of 100 kPa, cyclic loading should be ±100 x SF Newton.
Note that in cohesionless soils (e.g. sands), the negative axial stress that is applied during the
cyclic loading should not exceed the effective stress that has been applied during
Consolidation, otherwise the top platen might detach from the top surface of the specimen.
For example, a specimen that has been isotropically consolidated at 100 kPa can accept
negative stress up to -100 kPa (ASTM, D3999-11).
 
During cyclic loading, Pore Water Pressure increases AS in the example shown in Figure 7.
The best way to evaluate this increment is to use the Pore Water Pressure ratio (ru) which is
defined as:

where   is the change in Pore Water Pressure and   the effective axial stress at the
beginning of cyclic loading. When ru=1, the excess Pore Water Pressure becomes equal to the
initial effective stress which indicates that the shear strength of the sample has become zero
and therefore failure initiates.

e.     Failure criteria
The most common failure mode that occurs in soil specimens that are subjected to cyclic
loading is liquefaction. Liquefaction is defined as the total loss of shear strength which
happens when pore pressure increases so much that it becomes equal to the total stress. Based
on Terzaghi’s definition for effective stress:
where  is the total stress acting to a soil element,  is the effective stress and  is Pore
Water Pressure. At the liquefaction state, total stress (σ) is equal to the Pore Water Pressure
(U), therefore the effective stress (σ’) becomes:

In other words, when liquefaction occurs, soil grains are no longer in contact with each other
(i.e. effective stress = 0) and the soil behaves like a liquid. Liquefaction mostly occurs in
loose sands under undrained conditions with a small proportion of silt/clay.
The definition of failure initiation in a sample is subjective. Many researchers have proposed
several failure criteria for cyclically loaded specimens. Some of them are:
·         When Pore Water Pressure ratio (ru) becomes equal to 1 (see section 4d)
·         When Double Amplitude or Single Amplitude shear strain (Figure 8) becomes 6% (Wu
et al, 2004)

The ground can be improved by adapting certain ground improvement techniques. Vibro-
compaction increases the density of the soil by using powerful depth vibrators. Vacuum
consolidation is used for improving soft soils by using a vacuum pump. Preloading method is
used to remove pore water over time. Heating is used to form a crystalline or glass product by
electric current. Ground freezing converts pore water to ice to increase their combined
strength and make them impervious. Vibro-replacement stone columns improve the bearing
capacity of soil whereas Vibro displacement method displaces the soil. Electro osmosis
makes water flow through fine grained soils. Electro kinetic stabilization is the application of
electro osmosis. Reinforced soil steel is used for retaining structures, sloping walls, dams etc.
seismic loading is suited for construction in seismically active regions. Mechanically
stabilized earth structures create a reinforced soil mass. The geo methods like Geosynthetics,
Geogrid etc. are discussed. Soil nailing increases the shear strength of the in-situ soil and
restrains its displacement. Micro pile gives the structural support and used for
repair/replacement of existing foundations. Grouting is injection of pumpable materials to
increase its rigidity. The jet grouting is quite advanced in speed as well as techniques when
compared with the general grouting.Ground Improvement TechniquesRapid urban and
industrial growth demands more land for further development. In order to meet this demand
land reclamation and utilization of unsuitable and environmentally affected lands have been
taken up. These, hitherto useless lands for construction have been converted to be useful ones
by adopting one or more ground improvement techniques. The field of ground improvement
techniques has been recognized as an important and rapidly expanding one.
Contents: [show]

Latest Ground Improvement Techniques

Following are the recent methods of ground improvement Techniques used for stabilization
of soil:
Vibro Compaction
Vacuum Consolidation
Preloading of soil
Soil stabilization by heating or vitrification
Ground freezing
Vibro-replacement stone columns
Mechanically stabilized earth structures
Soil nailing
Micro-piles
Grouting
Vibro-Compaction Method of Ground Improvement
Vibro-Compaction MethodVibro-compaction, sometimes referred to as Vibroflotation, is the
rearrangement of soil particles into a denser configuration by the use of powerful depth
vibration. Vibro Compaction is a ground improvement process for densifying loose sands to
create stable foundation soils. The principle behind vibro compaction is simple. The
combined action of vibration and water saturation by jetting rearranges loose sand grains into
a more compact state. Vibro Compaction is performed with specially-designed vibrating
probes. Both horizontal and vertical modes of vibration have been used in the past. The
vibrators used by Terra Systems consist of torpedo-shaped probes 12 to 16 inches in diameter
which vibrates at frequencies typically in the range of 30 to 50 Hz. The probe is first inserted
into the ground by both jetting and vibration. After the probe reaches the required depth of
compaction, granular material, usually sand, is added from the ground surface to fill the void
space created by the vibrator. A compacted radial zone of granular material is created
Advantages of Vibro Compaction Method:
Reduction of foundation settlements.
Reduction of risk of liquefaction due to seismic activity.
Permit construction on granular fills.
Vacuum Consolidation of Soil for Ground Improvement
Vacuum Consolidation of Soil for Ground ImprovementVacuum Consolidation is an
effective means for improvement of saturated soft soils. The soil site is covered with an
airtight membrane and vacuum is created underneath it by using dual venture and vacuum
pump. The technology can provide an equivalent pre-loading of about 4.5m high
conventional surcharge fill. Vacuum-assisted consolidation preloads the soil by reducing the
pore pressure while maintaining a constant total stress.
Applications of Vacuum Consolidation of Soil:
Replace standard preloading techniques eliminating the risk of failure.
Combine with a water preloading in scare fill area. The method is used to build large
developments on thick compressible soil.
Combine with embankment pre-load using the increased stability
Preloading or Pre-Compression of Soil for Ground Improvement
Preloading has been used for many years without change in the method or application to
improve soil properties. Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional
vertical stress on a compressible soil to remove pore water over time. The pore water
dissipation reduces the total volume causing settlement. Surcharging is an economical
method for ground improvement. However, the consolidation of the soils is time dependent,
delaying construction projects making it a non-feasible alternative.Preloading or Pre-
Compression of Soil for Ground ImprovementThe soils treated are Organic silt, Varved silts
and clays, soft clay, Dredged material The design considerations which should be made are
bearing capacity, Slope stability, Degree of consolidation.
Applications of Preloading of Soil
Reduce post-construction
Settlement
Reduce secondary compression.
Densification
Improve bearing capacity
Thermal Stabilization of Soil for Ground Improvement
Thermal Stabilization of Soil for Ground ImprovementHeating or vitrification breaks the soil
particle down to form a crystalline or glass product. It uses electrical current to heat the soil
and modify the physical characteristics of the soil. Heating soils permanently alters the
properties of the soil. Depending on the soil, temperatures can range between 300 and 1000
degree Celsius. The impact on adjacent structures and utilities should be considered when
heating is used. . Applications of Vitrification of Soil:
Immobilization of radioactive or contaminated soil
Densification and stabilization
Ground Freezing Technique for Ground Improvement
Ground Freezing Technique for Ground ImprovementGround freezing is the use of
refrigeration to convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice then acts as a cement or glue,
bonding together adjacent particles of soil or blocks of rock to increase their combined
strength and make them impervious. The ground freezing considerations are Thermal
analysis, Refrigeration system geometry, Thermal properties of soil and rock, freezing rates,
Energy requirements, Coolant/ refrigerant distribution system analysis.
Applications of Ground Freezing Technique
Temporary underpinning
Temporary support for an excavation
Prevention of groundwater flow into excavated area
Temporary slope stabilization
Temporary containment of toxic/hazardous waste contamination
Vibro-Replacement Stone Columns for Ground Improvement
Vibro-Replacement Stone Columns for Ground ImprovementVibro-Replacement extends the
range of soils that can be improved by vibratory techniques to include cohesive soils.
Reinforcement of the soil with compacted granular columns or “stone columns” is
accomplished by the top-feed method. The important Vibro-replacement stone columns are
Ground conditions, Relative density, Degree of saturation, Permeation.
Principles of Vibro-Replacement Technique
The stone columns and intervening soil form and integrated foundation support system
having low compressibility and improved load bearing capacity. In cohesive soils, excess
pore water pressure is readily dissipated by the stone columns and for this reason, reduced
settlements occur at a faster rate than is normally the case with cohesive soils. There are
different types of installation methods which can be broadly classified in the following
manner:
Wet top feed method
Dry bottom feed method
Offshore bottom feed method
Summary of Vibro Replacement Method
Principle
Reinforcement
Drainage
Applicable soil(s)
Mixed deposits of clay, silt and sand
Soft and ultra soft silts (slimes)
Soft and ultra soft clays
Garbage fills
Effect(s)
Increased shear strength
Increased stiffness
Reduced liquefaction potential
Common applications
Airport taxiways and runways
Chemical plants
Storage tanks & silos
Pipelines
Bridge abutments and approaches
Offshore bridge abutments
Road and railway embankments
Maximum depth
20-40 m
Land / offshore application
Both
Vibro-Replacement for Ground Improvement
Applications of Vibro-Replacement for Ground Improvement:
Reduction of foundation settlement
Improve bearing capacity/reduce footing size requirements
Reduction of the risk of liquefaction due to seismic activity
Slope stabilization
Permit construction on fills
Permit shallow footing construction
Ground Type

Relative Effectiveness

Sands Excellent
Silty sands Excellent
Silts Good
Clays Marginal to good
Minespoils Excellent (depending on gradation)
Dumped fill Good
Garbage Not applicable
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures
Mechanically Stabilized Earth StructuresA segmental, precast facing mechanically stabilized
earth wall employs metallic (strip or bar mat) or geosynthetic (geogrid or geotextile)
reinforcement that is connected to a precast concrete or prefabricated metal facing panel to
create a reinforced soil mass.
Principles of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures:
The reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers between successive layers of granular soil
backfill. Each layer of backfill consists of one or more compacted lifts.
A free draining, non plastic backfill soil is required to ensure adequate performance of the
wall system.
For walls reinforced with metallic strips, load is transferred from the backfill soil to the strip
reinforcement by shear along the interface.
For walls with ribbed strips, bar mats, or grid reinforcement, load is similarly transferred but
an additional component of strength is obtained through the passive resistance on the
transverse members of the reinforcement.
Facing panels are typically square, rectangular, hexagonal or cruciform in shape and are up to
4.5m ^2 in area.
MSEW- Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls, when the face batter is generally steeper than
70 degrees.
RSS- Reinforced Soil Slopes, when the face batter is shallower.
Applications of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures:
RSS structures are cost effective alternatives for new construction where the cost of
embankment fill, right-of-way, and other consideration may make a steeper slope desirable.
Another use of reinforcement in engineered slopes is to improve compaction at the edges of a
slope to decrease the tendency for surface sloughing.
Design: Current practice consists of determining the geometric reinforcement to prevent
internal and external failure using limit equilibrium of analysis.
Soil Nailing Technique for Ground Improvement
Soil Nailing as a Ground Improvement TechniqueThe fundamental concept of soil nailing
consists of reinforcing the ground by passive inclusions, closely spaced, to create in-situ soil
and restrain its displacements. The basic design consists of transferring the resisting tensile
forces generated in the inclusions into the ground through the friction mobilized at the
interfaces. Applications of Soil Nailing Technique:
Stabilization of railroad and highway cut slopes
Excavation retaining structures in urban areas for high-rise building and underground
facilities
Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes
Construction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with complex boundaries involving wall
support under piled foundations
Micropiles for Ground Improvement
Micropiles are small diameter piles (up to 300 mm), with the capability of sustaining high
loads (compressive loads of over 5000 KN).The drilling equipment and methods allows
micropiles to be drilled through virtually every ground conditions, natural and artificial, with
minimal vibration, disturbances and noise, at any angle below horizontal. The equipment can
be further adapted to operate in locations with low headroom and severely restricted
access.Micro Piles for Ground Improvement
Applications of Micropiles for Ground Improvement
For Structural Support and stability
Foundation for new structures
Repair / Replacement of existing foundations
Arresting / Prevention of movement
Embankment, slope and landslide stabilization
Soil strengthening and protection
Example of Micro Piles for Ground Improvement:
In India, in some circumstances steel pipes, coated wooden piles are used as cost-effective
Options in improving the bearing capacity of foundation or restrict Displacements to tolerable
levels and similar uses in stabilization of slopes, strengthening of foundations are common.
Sridharan and Murthy (1993) described a Case study in which a ten-storeyed building,
originally in a precarious condition due To differential settlement, was restored to safety
using micropiles. Galvanized steel Pipes of 100 mm diameter and 10 m long with bottom end
closed with shoe, driven at An angle of 60o with the horizontal were used and the friction
between the pile and the soil was used as the design basis in evolving the remedial measures.
General Grouting for Ground Improvement
Grouting is the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to change the
physical characteristics of the formation. Grouting selection considerations are Site specific
requirement, Soil type, Soil groutability, Porosity. Grouting can be prevented by Collapse of
granular soils, Settlement under adjacent foundations, Utilities damage, Day lighting.
Grouting can provide Increased soil strength and rigidity, reduced ground movement,
Predictable degree of improvement. Steps for General Grouting Technique for Soil
Stabilization
Identify underground construction problem.
Establish objectives of grouting program.
Perform special geotechnical study.
Develop initial grouting program.
Develop performance prediction.
Compare with other solutions.
Refine design and prepare specifications.
Grouting Techniques
The various injection grouting techniques used by grouting contractors for ground
improvement / ground modification can be summarized as follows:
Permeation
Compaction Grouting
Claquage
Jet Grouting
Jet Grouting Technique for Ground Improvement
Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to describe various construction
techniques used for ground modification or ground improvement. Grouting contractors use
ultra high-pressure fluids or binders that are injected into the soils at high velocities. These
binders break up the soil structure completely and mix the soil particles in-situ to create a
homogeneous mass, which in turn solidifies.Jet Grouting for Ground ImprovementThis
ground modification / ground improvement of the soil plays an important role in the fields of
foundation stability, particularly in the treatment of load bearing soils under new and existing
buildings; in the in-depth impermeabilization of water bearing soils; in tunnel construction;
and to mitigate the movement of impacted soils and groundwater.

SHORT QUESTIONS:
A static load is a constant steady load. A dynamic changes. Think of a floor, if you stand on it
without moving that is a static load. If you stand on the floor and jump up and down that is a
dynamic load. Dynamic means time variant. A load which changes in magnitude, direction
and position with respect to time is called dynamic loading. The response to a dynamic
loading will also be varying with time. A static load is time independent and has a single
response.

Stone Column is a vertical shaft form by back filling compacted and crushed stone gravel or
sand or moisture of these granular or material to form granular pile or 1. They are used for all
types of planned structures including building, foundations, damns, tanks, towers,
embankment, etc.The purpose of stone column as a ground improvement technique is
generally adopted in clayed soils and in soft cohesive soils having low bearing capacity.

Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near the ground
surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking. Liquefaction occurring
beneath buildings and other structures can cause major damage during earthquakes.

The fundamental frequency is just the lowest possible frequency among all the natural
frequencies of vibration of an object. In a natural vibration, you just excite the object once.
Then it will vibrate for a while. Those are the “natural” vibrations of the object.

A tsunami is an ocean wave triggered by large earthquakes that occur near or under the
ocean, volcanic eruptions, submarine landslides, or by onshore landslides in which large
volumes of debris fall into the water.

The Ru ratio is a crude way of describing pore-water conditions in a slope stability analysis.
A single Ru value can seldom, if ever, represent the actual field groundwater flow conditions.
Although it is rarely used in practice, Ru remains an option in SLOPE/W for legacy reasons.
Numerical Simulation.
Types of Seismic Waves
The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel
through the Earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the
planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes send out seismic energy as both body and surface
waves.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of soil are reduced by
earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. Liquefaction and related phenomena have been
responsible for tremendous amounts of damage in historical earthquakes around the world.
Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils, that is, soils in which the space between individual
particles is completely filled with water. This water exerts pressure on the soil particles that
influences how tightly the particles themselves are pressed together. Prior to an earthquake,
the water pressure is relatively low. However, earthquake shaking can cause the water
pressure to increase to the point where the soil particles can readily move with respect to each
other.

The seismic moment is a measure of the size of an earthquake based on the area of fault
rupture, the average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction
sticking the rocks together that were offset by faulting. Seismic moment can also be
calculated from the amplitude spectra of seismic waves.

Behaviour of soil in seismic loading: Soil liquefaction, also called earthquake liquefaction,
ground failure or loss of strength that causes otherwise solid soil to behave temporarily as a
viscous liquid. The phenomenon occurs in water-saturated unconsolidated soils affected by
seismic S waves (secondary waves), which cause ground vibrations during earthquakes.
Although earthquake shock is the best known cause of liquefaction, certain construction
practices, including blasting and soil compaction and vibroflotation (which uses a vibrating
probe to change the grain structure of the surrounding soil), produce this phenomenon
intentionally. Poorly drained fine-grained soils such as sandy, silty, and gravelly soils are the
most susceptible to liquefaction.
Granular soils are made up of a mix of soil and pore spaces. When earthquake shock occurs
in waterlogged soils, the water-filled pore spaces collapse, which decreases the overall
volume of the soil. This process increases the water pressure between individual soil grains,
and the grains can then move freely in the watery matrix. This substantially lowers the soil’s
resistance to shear stress and causes the mass of soil to take on the characteristics of a liquid.
In its liquefied state, soil deforms easily, and heavy objects such as structures can be
damaged from the sudden loss of support from below.
Buildings constructed on loose soil pitch and tilt easily when liquefaction occurs, since the
soil no longer supports the structures’ foundations. In contrast, structures anchored to bedrock
or stiff soils in earthquake-prone areas suffer less damage, because less vibration is
transmitted through the foundation to the structure above. In addition, buildings anchored to
bedrock have a reduced risk of pitching and tilting. Liquefaction may also contribute to sand
blows, which are also known as sand boils or sand volcanoes. Sand blows often accompany
the liquefaction of sandy or silty soil. With the collapse of the soil’s granular structure, the
density of the soil increases. This increased pressure squeezes the water out of the pore
spaces between the soil grains and expels wet sand from the ground. In addition, liquefaction
may also cause landslides. For example, during the Alaska earthquake of 1964, the
liquefaction of a sandy layer of soft clay beneath Turnagain Heights, a suburb of Anchorage,
caused a landslide in the mass of ground above that destroyed approximately 75 homes and
disrupted utilities.

Effect of (Soil-structure interaction) SSI and SSI provisions of seismic design codes on
structural responses
It is conventionally believed that SSI is a purely beneficial effect, and it can conveniently be
neglected for conservative design. SSI provisions of seismic design codes are optional and
allow designers to reduce the design base shear of buildings by considering soil-structure
interaction (SSI) as a beneficial effect. The main idea behind the provisions is that the soil-
structure system can be replaced with an equivalent fixed-base model with a longer period
and usually a larger damping ratio.[5][6] Most of the design codes use oversimplified design
spectra, which attain constant acceleration up to a certain period, and thereafter decreases
monotonically with period. Considering soil-structure interaction makes a structure more
flexible and thus, increasing the natural period of the structure compared to the corresponding
rigidly supported structure. Moreover, considering the SSI effect increases the effective
damping ratio of the system. The smooth idealization of design spectrum suggests smaller
seismic response with the increased natural periods and effective damping ratio due to SSI,
which is the main justification of the seismic design codes to reduce the design base shear
when the SSI effect is considered.
Detrimental effects
Using rigorous numerical analyses, Mylonakis and Gazetas [9] have shown that increase in
natural period of structure due to SSI is not always beneficial as suggested by the simplified
design spectrums. Soft soil sediments can significantly elongate the period of seismic waves
and the increase in natural period of structure may lead to the resonance with the long period
ground vibration. Additionally, the study showed that ductility demand can significantly
increase with the increase in the natural period of the structure due to SSI effect. The
permanent deformation and failure of soil may further aggravate the seismic response of the
structure.

When a structure is subjected to an earthquake excitation, it interacts with the foundation and
the soil, and thus changes the motion of the ground. Soil-structure interaction broadly can be
divided into two phenomena: a) kinematic interaction and b) inertial interaction. Earthquake
ground motion causes soil displacement known as free-field motion. However, the foundation
embedded into the soil will not follow the free field motion. This inability of the foundation
to match the free field motion causes the kinematic interaction. On the other hand, the mass
of the superstructure transmits the inertial force to the soil, causing further deformation in the
soil, which is termed as inertial interaction.[2]
At low level of ground shaking, kinematic effect is more dominant causing the lengthening of
period and increase in radiation damping. However, with the onset of stronger shaking, near-
field soil modulus degradation and soil-pile gapping limit radiation damping, and inertial
interaction becomes predominant causing excessive displacements and bending strains
concentrated near the ground surface resulting in pile damage near the ground level.

HOW ARE EARTHQUAKES RECORDED & DETECTED?

When the Earth trembles, earthquakes spread energy in the form of seismic waves. A
seismograph is the primary earthquake measuring instrument. The seismograph produces a
digital graphic recording of the ground motion caused by the seismic waves. The digital
recording is called a seismogram.

A network of worldwide seismographs detects and measures the strength and duration of the
earthquake’s waves. The seismograph produces a digital graphic plotting of the ground
motion of the event.

HOW IS EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE MEASURED?

An earthquake has one magnitude unit. The magnitude does not depend on the location where
measurement is made. Since 1970, the Moment Magnitude Scale has been used because it
supports earthquake detection all over the Earth.

Earthquake Measurements
To get a better idea of the strength of the shaking and damage, the Moment Magnitude Scale
was developed to capture all the different seismic waves from an earthquake to worldwide
seismic networks.

Earthquake intensity scales describe the severity of an earthquake’s effects on the Earth's
surface, humans, and buildings at different locations in the area of the epicenter. There can be
multiple intensity measurements. The Modified Mercalli Scale measures the amount of
shaking at a particular location.

Earthquake Magnitude Scale

An important piece of information to keep in mind is that the magnitude scale is logarithmic.
In other words, it is “comparing amplitudes of waves on a seismogram, not the strength, or
energy, of the quakes,” according to USGS. This helps us understand that while the size
(amplitude) differences between small and big quakes are big enough, it is the strength
(energy) differences that are meaningful. Try out USGS’s “How Much Bigger…?” calculator
to learn more about how to measure the magnitude of an earthquake.

The Richter Scale

From 1935 until 1970, the earthquake magnitude scale was the Richter scale, a mathematical
formula invented by Caltech seismologist Charles Richter to compare quake sizes.

The Richter Scale was replaced because it worked largely for earthquakes in Southern
California, and only those occurring within about 370 miles of seismometers. In addition, the
scale was calculated for only one type of earthquake wave. It was replaced with the Moment
Magnitude Scale, which records all the different seismic waves from an earthquake to
seismographs across the world.

Richter's equations are still used for forecasting future earthquakes and calculating
earthquake hazards.

Moment Magnitude Scale

Today, earthquake magnitude measurement is based on the Moment Magnitude Scale
(MMS). MMS measures the movement of rock along the fault. It accurately measures larger
earthquakes, which can last for minutes, affect a much larger area, and cause more damage.

The Moment Magnitude can measure the local Richter magnitude (ML), body wave
magnitude (Mb), surface wave magnitude (Ms).

Earthquake Magnitude Classes

Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from minor to great, depending on their
magnitude. What’s the difference between a light and moderate quake?

These terms are magnitude classes. Classes also provide earthquake measurement. The
classification starts with “minor” for magnitudes between 3.0 and 3.9, where earthquakes
generally begin to be felt, and ends with “great” for magnitudes greater than 8.0, where
significant damage is expected.

HOW IS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY MEASURED?

A second way earthquakes are measured is by their intensity. Earthquake Intensity
measurement is an on-the-ground description. The measurement explains the severity of
earthquake shaking and its effects on people and their environment. Intensity measurements
will differ depending on each location’s nearness to the epicenter. There can be multiple
intensity measurements as opposed to one magnitude measurement.

The Modified Mercalli Scale

The Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale is used in the United States. Based on Giuseppe
Mercalli's Mercalli intensity scale of 1902, the modified 1931 scale is composed of
increasing levels of intensity that range from observable quake impacts from light shaking to
catastrophic destruction. Intensity is reported by Roman numerals.

An earthquake intensity scale consists of a series of key responses that includes people
awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys and total destruction.

Intensity Shaking Description/Damage

I Not Felt Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II Weak Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may swing.
III Weak Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of
buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock
slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV Light Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some
awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like
heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. some dishes, windows
broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI Strong Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few
instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII Very Strong Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight
to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly
designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII Severe Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in
ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures.
Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX Violent Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-
designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with
partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
X Extreme Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures were destroyed with foundations. Rail bent.
Bender Element is a non-destructive test performed in soil specimens to determine the small-
strain shear modulus (Gmax) of the soil. Gmax is an important soil property which helps us
to understand the elastic behaviour of the soil and to evaluate its response to dynamic
loading, such as earthquakes, passing vehicles and vibrations.

Figure 1 presents the various tests available to determine the shear modulus, G, of a soil.
Shear modulus gets its maximum value (Gmax) at very small values of strain (within the
elastic deformation field and usually at shear strains less than 10-3 %) which can be achieved
only with a bender element test. This makes them very popular tests in soil mechanics.
Moreover, due to its nature, a Bender Element test can be combined with another, main soil
test on the same specimen (e.g. Triaxial or Consolidation) and can give estimations of the
shear modulus at various stages of the main test. The Bender Element test can be performed
multiple times on the same specimen as it does not cause irreversible damage.

This post intents to give a summary on the testing procedure of bender elements in triaxial
specimens of soil for the determination of the small-strain shear modulus, Gmax. It is advised
to the reader to use also the Glossary of Terms at www.vjtech.co.uk for the definition of the
terms used herein.

1.1 What is a Bender Element?

A bender element is a piezoelectric transducer which can convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy and vice versa. Practically, this means that whenever these elements are
supplied with a voltage they are deforming on a specific way. On the other hand, when they
are deforming they produce a small voltage. As such, bender elements are used to examine
the propagation of ground waves through a soil specimen and measure their velocity which
depends on its elastic properties. To do so, a bender element set consists of two elements
which are installed at the opposite sides of a soil specimen. One of the elements acts as a
transmitter and the other as a receiver. In simple terms, each element consists of a pair of two
ceramic plates which are separated by a thin metallic sheet. There is a specific way the two
ceramic plates are wired to allow them to deform crosswise, as shown in Figure 2 (left), when
they are supplied with a DC voltage. Usually, the DC voltage is supplied in the form of a sine
wave, as shown in Figure 2 (right). The sine wave is causing the bender element to deform on
the same way causing the soil particles to move as well. The movement of the particles is
producing a shear wave (S) that propagates towards the other side of the specimen and arrives
there after some time. When it arrives, the shear wave is causing the deformation of the
receiving element (the one at the top cap) and this produces a corresponding electrical signal,
many times smaller than the electrical signal than initiated the wave. By synchronising and
comparing the two electrical signals, the time of travel is obtained. Therefore, by knowing
that the distance of travel is the tip-to-tip distance between the two elements, the speed of the
shear wave, Vs, can be determined as:

Vs= L ⁄ t (1)

where t is the time of travel and L is the distance that the wave travels. L can be taken as the
distance between the tips of the two bender elements (transmitter and receiver).

The small-strain shear modulus, Gmax, is then calculated by the following equation:

Gmax=ρVs2 (2)

where ρ is the bulk density of the soil.

Bender elements are encapsulated within the base pedestal or top cap of the triaxial cell and
are sealed with an epoxy coating that insulates them. In this way, the received signal is not
interfering with any electrical noise that might occur during the process. Apart from the two
piezometric elements, two devices are needed to perform the Bender Element test.

Function generator: This is needed in order to create the sinusoidal curve of the transmitting
signal shown in Figure 2 that will produce the deformation of the transmitting element. The
user selects the desirable period (or frequency) and amplitude of this signal. In most of the
cases, frequency ranges between 1 kHz and 50 kHz and amplitude between 1V and 12 V. The
selection of the amplitude depends on whether the captured signal is clear enough to be used
for the determination of the travel time.
Digital oscilloscope: This acts as a data logger and is recording the signal captured by the
receiving element. Moreover, the oscilloscope synchronises the two electrical signals, i.e.
transmitted and received, in order to be comparable. The received signal can be as small as
10-4 times smaller than the transmitting signal; therefore the oscilloscope must be very
sensitive with low amplitude resolution (10-5 V). Also, its time resolution must again be very
low (in the order of 10-6 s) so that the signals are well defined. Finally, the oscilloscope can
incorporate averaging functions which will average a number of received signals to eliminate
the electrical noise.

1.2 Types of Bender Elements

Most frequently, bender elements are installed along the vertical axis of triaxial specimens
and are used to determine the shear modulus at the vertical direction; these are called Vertical
Bender Elements and consist of the transmitting element (Transmitter) at the base, which
produces the shear wave, and the receiving element (Receiver) at the top which captures the
shear wave. When there is a need to determine the shear modulus in different planes, mostly
to determine soil’s anisotropy, bender elements can also be installed at the mid-height of the
sample, at opposite sides with the elements looking at each other. These are called Horizontal
Bender Elements (Figure 2) and the shear wave is propagating on the horizontal direction.
The installation of the horizontal bender elements is a very delicate process and needs to
ensure the minimum disturbance of the soil. The horizontal bender elements are not
embedded in the pedestal and top cap, as the vertical ones, but they bring a rubber sleeve that
allows them to protrude the soil only by the minimum depth and avoid any leaks through the
elastic membrane. Usually, the horizontal bender elements are installed together with on-
sample transducers to provide comprehensive instrumentation of the triaxial specimen.
Finally, two sets of horizontal benders can be installed on the sample at an angle of 90°.

The anisotropy of the soil structure in the small-strain shear modulus is defined as the ratio
between the vertical shear modulus and the horizontal shear modulus. The horizontal small-
strain shear modulus is given from Equation (2) if Vs is the shear wave velocity determined
by the horizontal Bender Element test.

Apart from shear waves, bender elements can be used for the propagation of compression (P)
waves through the specimens. To produce this kind of waves, the elements have to be wired
differently than in the shear wave elements in order to deform parallel to the direction of the
wave propagation. Compression waves are faster than shear waves and their use can be useful
for indirect measurement of the saturation level of the sample. This can be done by
comparing the speed of the compression wave Vp that propagates through the specimen with
the speed of the compression waves when they propagate through water. Since it is known
that Vp=1450 m/s for water, the speed of the compression waves through a saturated
specimen should have an approximate value.
2. Standards

ASTM D8295 – Standard Test Method for Determination of Shear Wave Velocity and Initial
Shear Modulus in Soil Specimens using Bender Elements

3. Procedure
3.1 Apparatus preparation
To perform a Bender Element test on a triaxial apparatus, the base pedestal and the top cap
must have embedded a set of bender elements. Triaxial cells must be specifically designed for
bender element testing so that they allow the cables of the elements to pass through them
without any water leaks. Usually, pedestals and top caps in these cells are interchangeable
and can be replaced any time the user desires to run a Bender Element test.

Before using them, the bender elements must be checked in order to achieve the correct
polarity. If this is the case, then the transmitted and received signals will start on the same
direction at the time graph, i.e. they will both move initially upwards. This can be checked by
bringing the two element tips into contact and firing a signal; the results should be two
signals moving on the same direction (Figure 4). If the polarity is reversed, the received
signal will first move on the opposite direction from the transmitted signal. The reversed
signal should be avoided because it can be mixed up with the reversed first arrival seen in
received wave forms caused by the near-field effect (see section 3.3). When the correct
polarity is found, the base pedestal and top cap must be marked so that it can be visible the
correct orientation of the elements when installing them into the specimen.

Moreover, the bender elements must be checked for possible time delay between the
transmitted and received signals. This delay, although it is very low, it could be critical for
the correct calculation of the shear wave velocity, therefore it should be eliminated. The best
way to determine the delay between the two signals is to bring the two elements in direct
contact and firing a square-type signal. If no delay exists, the two signals should almost
match. If a delay can be detected, it should be determined and extrapolated from the actual
test results.
3.2 Specimen preparation
The preparation of the triaxial specimen is exactly the same as for normal triaxial tests (see
also Triaxial Testing - An Introduction support document by VJTech). The specimens are
undisturbed, coming from a borehole and trimmed to the right size, or reconstituted to
specific dimensions, density and moisture. If reconstituted, the specimens can be formed on
the base pedestal to avoid any disturbance during the installation.

The user must ensure a very good contact between the element tip and the soil sample so that
the deformation of the element produces a nice and clean shear wave. The sample placed on
the base pedestal with care to avoid any damage that might be caused during the penetration
of the element. Moreover, the size of the element must be small enough to prevent any cracks
occurred. The donut-shaped porous stone that is placed around the bender element helps to
leave exposed only the necessary length that will penetrate the sample. When the specimen
sits on the pedestal it should not be rotated because this can cause the loss of the good
contact. After the installation of the sample on the pedestal, the top cap is placed on the top
surface of the specimen and is slightly pushed so that the element penetrates. A rubber
membrane is placed around the sample to prevent any contact of the soil with the confining
fluid. Two O-rings are placed on the pedestal and top cap to seal the membrane against the
sample. Normally, the applied confining pressure will offer a better contact between the soil
grains and the elements and therefore test results will be better during the consolidation stage.

Another important consideration during the sample installation is the alignment of the bender
elements. As discussed in section 3.1, the pedestal and the top cap must be marked at the
outside so that they can be aligned during the installation. The two elements, transmitter and
receiver, must be parallel in order to achieve a good quality received signal.

In the case of horizontal bender elements, their installation happens after the sample has been
formed, placed on the based pedestal and wrapped with the rubber membrane. Two small
holes are formed on the membrane and the rubber sleeve with the element are passing
through it and pushed against the sample to establish a good contact. When they are in place,
the interface between the elastic membrane and the rubber sleeve is sealed with some
appropriate substance (e.g. silicone).

3.3 Test procedure

From a geotechnical point of view, Bender Element is a very simple test that takes no more
than a few seconds to be performed. However, care should be taken to the preparation of the
specimen and the correct installation of the elements which will ensure a good response from
the receiver element and clear captures of the received wave, as described in the previous
sections.

Initially, the triaxial sample is been prepared in the same way as in a normal triaxial test with
the inclusion of the bender element set at the base pedestal and top cap. Additional sets can
be installed in the specimen horizontally. The triaxial test starts by applying set values of cell
and back pressure in order to saturate and then consolidate the sample. At any point, during
this process, the user can select to fire a signal and measure the small-strain shear modulus,
Gmax, by using Equation 2. Normally, Gmax has to be determined after the end of the
consolidation process in order to evaluate the sample condition prior to its compression and
failure.

The Bender Element test starts by providing a sine wave signal to the transmitting element, as
shown in Figure 2. The element is then deforming towards one side, then to the other and
finally comes back to the starting position. The magnitude of this deformation is controlled
by the amplitude of the signal which usually ranges between 1 V and 12 V. The actual
movement of the element is very small and is not causing a plastic deformation to the sample.
If the received signal is not captured very clearly by the receiver, the user should increase the
amplitude. It is found that an amplitude of 10 V works well for specimens with a length of
140 mm. On the other hand, the speed of the movement is controlled by the set frequency of
the signal (= 1/T, where T is the period of the sine wave) which can range from 0.5 kHz and
up to 50 kHz. In order to get comparable results, both transmitter and receiver should operate
in the same frequency. Experimental results have shown that the received signal gets its
maximum amplitude when the input frequency matches the resonant frequency of the bender
elements. At higher frequencies, the received signal appeared to be weaker and more difficult
to interpret. Therefore, the resonant frequency of the bender element set is considered as the
optimum input frequency for the sine wave.

As soon as the shear wave reaches the receiver, the sine wave signal is captured by the
element. Ideally, the received signal will look like the one in Figure 4, with the first wave
being clearly identified and the subsequent ones gradually faded away. The first wave in the
received signal corresponds to the first arrival of the shear wave and is the one that is used to
determine the shear velocity. However, in reality, the received signal is not that clear but it
contains a number of deficiencies which will make it difficult to be distinguished. The cause
of these deficiencies might be one or more of the following:

Near-field effect (Figure 5): This is identified by a minor “drop” in the received signal which
could mistakenly be identified as a reversed first arrival of the shear wave. Also, can cause a
faulty identification of the shear wave if the method of the first arrival, for the interpretation
of the results, is adopted. In reality, though, the first arrival comes immediately after this
small drop. The near-field effect is caused by waves that are travelling with different
velocities through the sample and are coupled, producing this small “disturbance” in the
received signal (Arulnathan et al, 1998). The near-field effect is common in cases where the
two tips of the elements are very close, i.e. when the sample height is small. The property that
shows the susceptibility of a testing system to be affected is the wavelength ratio which is
defined as the ratio between the tip-to-tip distance and the wavelength of the shear wave.
When this ratio is greater than 2, near-field effect is smaller.
P-Waves: P-Waves travel much faster than S-Waves, therefore they might reach the receiver
element first. In this case, the time of travel can be overestimated. The best way to reduce this
effect is to place the two elements in parallel directions when setting up the triaxial specimen.
Noise: Electrical noise, caused by poor insulation of the bender elements, can interfere with
the transmitted signal and captured in the received signal. If the signal appears to be too
noisy, then the Bender Element system must be checked for damages. Also, noise can be
caused by mechanical movements, for example from the loading of the sample.

Normally, the transmitted signal includes a number of signals fired at small time intervals
(e.g. every 5 seconds). The final transmitted and received signals are then averaged in order
to produce smooth signals that will be easier to interpret. The averaging is obtained with the
use of applied filters with varied intensity. The strongest the filter the smoother the obtained
signal. However, the user should select the least heavy filter, which can produce reasonable
results.

3.4 Interpretation
The most difficult part in a Bender Element test is the interpretation of the results, i.e. the
correct determination of the travel time for the shear wave. Most of the cases, the received
signal contains noise and/or is affected by the arrival of other types of waves which makes
the shear wave difficult to be distinguished. For this reason, several methods have been
implemented to the interpretation of the Bender Element test. The most common methods are
going to be presented in this document, Peak-to-Peak and Start-To-Start methods. Other
methods can be found in the literature and are not covered in this document.

The transmitted and received signals must be synchronised, by the oscilloscope, and
presented on a single plot so that they can be analyzed. The time difference between those
two will define the time of travel for the shear wave. The transmitted signal is very well
defined and its characteristics can be seen very clearly, i.e. its start, its first peak etc. But the
received signal might not be very clear and so the user must make a judgement about what
method of interpretation must be used.
Peak-to-Peak: In this method, the time of travel is defined as the time between the peak of the
transmitted signal and the first peak of the received signal. This method is the most common
one, as it ignores the first arrival of the shear wave which can be due to the near-field effect.
However, in some cases this method is not ideal due to the difficulty to select the peak of the
received signal as it might be affected by the coupling of two or more waves. This can be
identified by the presence of two adjacent peaks, in which case the first one should be picked.
Start-to-Start: In this method, the time of travel is defined as the time between the start of the
transmitted signal and the start of the received signal. This method might produce better
results is the near-field effect is not affecting the waveform. Under normal circumstances, the
two methods will produce the same time of travel, therefore the user must select the method
which will work better and give more accurate results.