F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Some of the Considerations for Materials

Operating Under High-Voltage, Direct-
Current Stresses
Key Words: HVDC, stress inversion, breakdown strength, material reliability, space charge, defects,
transients, interfaces

Introduction
T he most important feature of any electrotechnical material
is that it can complete its function within the device with
the required level of reliability for the whole of the design life.
To use materials in DC applications that fulfill these criteria, it is
essential that three questions can be answered:
• What is the electrical stress distribution that the materials will
experience within the device?
• What are the breakdown strengths of the materials under these
stresses, and how do these determine the device reliability?
• How does the reliability change through the life of the device
as a result of a reduction in the material breakdown strength
(aging) and a change in the electrical stress distribution?
The efficient underground transmission of electrical power
over long distances (>100 km) requires that direct current (DC)
rather than alternating current (AC) is used [1]–[5]. This is
­because the AC capacitive current becomes prohibitively large
at long distances, and this limits the amount of power that can be
carried. By comparison, there is no capacitive current in a DC
insulation. There are two main classes of dielectrics presently
used as DC insulations: lapped and extruded types (Figure 1).
Lapped insulations are preferred for high power (EHVDC) ap-
plications (>350 MW); extruded solutions have been shown to
be very practical for HVDC display attractions for lower (<350
MW) power levels [1], [6]–[11].
Thus there is a strong economic and technical reason to un-
derstand and master the use of materials in HVDC applications.
The basic electrotechnical data have been reported often, yet the
ways in which they can be usefully combined have been addressed
less frequently. This article addresses the ways in which the data
might be used under DC conditions. A description then is provided
of how the electrotechnical data can be combined in a coherent
manner to enable estimates to be made of the device reliability.
Typical data for a range of insulation classes have been extracted
from the sources available and are presented here to illustrate the
calculations. Areas of further useful work also are identified.
R. N. Hampton
National Electric Energy Testing, Research
& Application Center (NEETRAC), School of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia
Tech, Atlanta, GA
This article identifies the important
electrical parameters that need to be
measured and understood to establish
the reliability of devices operating
under DC voltages.
Initial Electrical Stress Distribution
The electrical stress distribution within a device, under steady
state DC conditions, is determined by the local resistance, and
thus the resistivity [2], [4], [8], [11]. The AC stress distribution
is determined by the capacitance/permittivity. Table 1 shows the
resistivity of a number of electrotechnical materials at selected
temperatures [2]–[4], [6], [8], [12]–[14].
Inspection (Figure 2) shows that, in the temperature range
of 20°C–60°C, the resistivity can change by 2 to 3 orders of
magnitude. The dependence of the resistivity ρ on stress E and
temperature T can be characterized equally well by using the
formats of equations (1) or (2) [2], [4], [8], [9], [14].
ρ = ρ0 exp(αT – βE), (1)
ρ = ρ0 exp(–αT)E–g, (2)

January/February 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 1 0883-7554/07/$25/©2008IEEE 5

 Table 1. Typical values of resistivity (1012 Ωm) of various electrotechnical
materials at selected temperatures and stresses. The figures in italics refer
to the descriptions in the key.

Stress Temperature
Sample details
(kV/mm) 20°C 60°C 80°C
Lapped
10 300 20 3
Paper 1
20 300 10 4
Polypropylene Paper 20 50000 1600 300
1
Laminate (PPL) 30 40000 1000 200
Polymeric
2 — 8000 400 50
3 — 200 2 1
Thermoset
4 5 500 60 5
4 7 40 20 3
5 60 30 0.3 0.03
Thermoplastic 6 20 140 1.8 —
6 30 28 1.3 —
Key:
a) 1 Low viscosity impregnant
2 Electrical, extrusion and mechanical properties designed and optimized for
EHV and HV DC operation
3 Standard material used for HV AC operation
4 Flexible material designed for both MV AC and HV DC operation
5 Ethylene-based polymer, compound stabilized for extrusion and long life
6 Propylene-based polymer, compound stabilized for extrusion and long life

different from the AC case in which the stress is determined by

the permittivity, and this parameter changes by <1% over the
working temperature range [2], [4]. The equilibrium electrical
stress distribution under working DC conditions can be calculated
through knowledge of:
• stress and temperature dependence of resistivity,
• device geometry,
• temperature distribution.
Tables 2 and 3 show the parameters of the resistivities upon
electrical stress and insulation temperature using the best fit of
(1) to the data presented in Table 1.
The electrical stress distribution Er across the cable insulation
at radius r can be calculated in two ways as:
b)
Method 1 [7]:
Figure 1. Typical DC cable designs using (a) lapped and (b)
extruded insulations. (3)

where ρo is the resistivity at a reference temperature, α is the
temperature coefficient, and β and γ are the stress coefficients
of the insulation.
The consequences of the stress and temperature dependen-
cies described by (1) and (2) are that any thermal gradients will
significantly modify the electrical stress distribution. This is very
(4)
where λ is the thermal conductivity, r1 is the conductor shield ra-
dius, r2 is the radius over the insulation, W = I2R is the conductor
loss, and V is the working voltage. The α and β parameters are
extracted from the resistivity data using (1).

6 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 2. Dependence of resistivity upon temperature of various
electrotechnical materials at selected stresses. The figures in italics refer to
the descriptions in the key of Table 1.
Temperature dependence
Sample details Stress α
(kV/mm) (1/°C)
Paper 1 10 0.074
20 0.086
PPL 1
30 0.093
2 — 0.084
Thermoset 3 — 0.072
4 5 0.101
5 60 0.115
Thermoplastic 6 20 0.104
6 30 0.114

Figure 2. Resistivity (from Table 1) of selected insulations at

different temperatures.
Method 2 [1]:
The reduced field distribution (the ratio of the actual field to
the Laplace field) across the cable insulation can be given by:
(5)
where x is the reduced radius:
x = r/rˉ with rˉ = (r1r2)0.5,
Ψ = (γ + A)(γ + 1), (6)
with the coefficient γ being given by (2),
A = α∆T/k and k = ln(r2/r1). (7)
It is interesting to note that, in these models, the electrical
stress distribution is determined by the α and β values, and the
leakage current through the insulation is determined by the ab-
solute magnitude of the resistivity at the operating temperatures.
Typical leakage currents are given in Table 4. If the leakage cur-
rents are too high at the specific temperature/stress condition,
dielectric heating can occur. This heating can lead to a thermal
runaway condition either through the whole insulation or at a
single point. If this condition persists for long enough, melting
and thus failure will occur.
Methods 1 and 2 give very similar results and now make it
possible to calculate the electrical stress distribution for selected
system parameters. Table 4 details the stresses at the conductor
and core calculated for a 100 kV DC cable geometry (500 mm2,
6 mm wall) using parameters for different materials given in
Tables 2 and 3 and Method 1. Table 4 includes the leakage cur-
rent calculated for the material combinations. The detailed stress
distribution for the full load case is shown in Figure 3. As can be
seen, for a given design and set of thermal conditions the electric
stress distributions can be quite different.
When a cable is under DC voltage but not on load, the radial
field distribution differs from the AC case. This difference between
the AC and DC fields is normally small and arises from the elec-
trical stress dependence of the conductivity. The radial DC field
distribution is identical only to the AC distribution if the insulation
conductivity is stress independent (β = 0 or γ = 0).
The stress calculations for this set of cable and material param-
eters show that an inversion (the case when the highest electrical
stress transfers from the conductor to the insulation shield) occurs
for all materials, and that the no-load conductor stress and the
loaded core stress are of the same order. Figure 3 clearly shows
that the magnitude of the inversion is dependent upon the materials
used, with the polymeric solutions selected here showing a lower
level of inversion than the lapped ones.
One of the challenges that remain to be addressed can be seen
by inspection of (3) and (5). The methods assume that the dielec-
tric is homogeneous and consider single values of the parameters α
and β. Tables 2 and 3 show that α and β are stress and temperature
dependent, respectively. Thus, in normal operation the values of
α and β will vary across the insulation. Therefore, these stress
and temperature effects must be considered to produce the best
estimates of the stress distribution. Sensitivity studies (Table 5)
using the cable parameters used to obtain the results in Table 4
Table 3. Dependence of resistivity upon stress of various electrotechnical
materials at selected temperatures. The figures in italics refer to the
descriptions in the key of Table 1.
Stress dependence
Sample details β
(mm/kV)
20°C 60°C 80°C
Paper 1 0.028 0.018 0.029
PPL 1 0.0238 0.0296 0.0416
Thermoset 2 — — 0.0645
Thermoplastic 6 0.128 0.06 0.034

January/February 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 1 7

 Table 4. Stresses at the conductor (kV/mm) and insulation shield calculated for Table 5. Sensitivity study showing selected stress calculations for PPL using α
a 100 kV DC cable geometry. The figures in italics refer to the descriptions in and β values for different stresses and temperatures.
the key of Table 1.
α=0.086 α=0.093 α=0.086 α=0.093
Thermoset Thermoplastic Stress (kV/mm) β=0.024 β=0.024 β=0.030 β=0.030
Stress (kV/mm) 2 6 Paper PPL
No load
AC Conductor 22.6 22.6 22.4 22.4
Conductor 23.7 23.7 23.7 23.7 Insulation shield 18.6 18.6 18.7 18.7
Insulation shield 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7
Load
DC no load Conductor 17.0 16.6 17.2 16.9
Conductor 21.8 21.8 22.7 22.4 Insulation shield 23.9 24.3 23.6 24
Insulation shield 19.2 19.2 18.5 18.7
DC Load
Conductor 19.4 18.9 17.8 17.2
Insulation shield 21.3 21.8 23 23.6
I (µA/km) 0.2 4 7 0.04 greatly modify the local stress variation within the structure. With
skill, the divergences can be managed to provide an optimum
stress distribution within the devices. However, such manage-
ment requires advanced calculation methods for the temperature
inversion. Research has demonstrated that such methods enable
show that, with the temperature limited to 60°C, the temperature
inhomogeneities to be included in the calculations.
coefficient α plays a larger role in determining the electrical
At this point, it is worth noting that temperature gradients and
stresses than the stress coefficient β, to a first order approxima-
increased resistivity effects described here for an operational
tion. The uncertainty in the stress calculations due to the declared
DC case are likely to operate when AC cables are subjected to
variations in α and β are of the order of 3%.
DC voltages. Consequently, aged cable, which may well have
Resistivity inhomogeneities [12], [13] can occur in practical
experienced water ingress, may be subjected to unrealistic stress
cases through such events as water ingress (decrease in resistivity)
levels and stress distributions under a DC test. These effects are
or removal of crosslinking byproducts (increase in resistivity). The
quite separate and in addition to the space charge effects that will
effects of these changes on the stresses within a cable are shown
be discussed later.
in Figure 4. Such effects can be very significant and demonstrate
the additional considerations that need to be made when design-
ing, manufacturing and operating DC systems. Breakdown Strength
Another source of inhomogeneity arises in lapped systems The generally accepted statistical method of determining the
when different laminates [i.e., paper and polypropylene/paper likelihood of electrical failure at a given stress [S in (8) – time,
laminate (PPL) or different types of paper] are used in the same number of cycles, and electrical stress) is to fit a distribution to a
construction [5]. In these cases, the differences in local resistivi- series of failure data. The results are then most commonly ana-
ties can be 1 to 2 orders of magnitude. The effect of this is to lyzed using the general Weibull distribution [15] given in (8):

(8)

Figure 3. Electrical stress distribution, under load, for a 100 kV Figure 4. Modification of the equilibrium stress (base case
DC cable manufactured using different insulations. The power for 100% at the conductor shield) for selected increases and
loss W is the same for all designs. decreases in resitivity at both shields.

8 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine


Figure 5. Breakdown data for a low-viscosity impregnated
paper insulation presented in the Weibull format.
Using the Weibull equation, it is possible to estimate the reli-
ability, R, as:
R = 1 – Pfailure. (9)
The primary concern associated with the stress modifications
discussed above is that the increased electrical stresses which
result could adversely affect the reliability of the structure within
the high-electrical stress region. This either could increase the
risk of failure or increase the rate of electrical aging. The mag-
nitude of this effect can be estimated by making an assessment
of the breakdown strength of the insulation and estimating the
reliability (R) for the higher stresses. Figure 5 shows typical ramp
breakdown data in a Weibull format. Table 6 details the results of
breakdown analysis for a number of insulations.
The results in Table 6 refer to tests on thin sheet samples,
typically 0.1–0.2 mm, which tend to exhibit breakdown data that
are higher than those seen in full-size tests. Experimental data
on cables attempt to get closer to the practical strength; however,
constraints in the test equipment almost always ensure that either
the thickness or length is smaller than those used in practice. An
estimate of the breakdown strength of cables can be obtained
through the use of a transform [16] on the scale parameter, (10),
which models the performance of the cable dielectric in terms of
a stack of N thin sheets. In this case, N = 60 for a 6 mm insulation
thickness. The failure criterion in the model is that the failure of
a single sheet will cause the whole stack to fail:
(10)
The transform (scaleA to scaleb), therefore, enables the rela-
tive performances of different insulation materials at thicknesses
January/February 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 1 9
Table 6. Typical Weibull parameters for DC ramp breakdown tests on thin
sheets of insulation. The figures in italics refer to the descriptions in the key
of Table 1.
Scale Shape Transformed scale for a 6-mm
(kV/mm) stack (kV/mm)
Thermoset 2 400 6 202
Thermoplastic 6 320 6 162
Paper 1 160 11 110
PPL 1 220 19 177
of practical use to be assessed. The analysis reported in Table 6
demonstrates that the breakdown performance of PPL cables is
estimated to be superior to ones insulated with thermoplastic 3,
even though a contrary effect might be inferred from the thin
sheet data.
The transform described for cable thicknesses assumes that
elements of whole stack are identical to the thin sheets. This is
a reasonable assumption for thin sheet tests of a lapped or ther-
moplastic dielectric; but probably is unreasonable for extruded
thermoset insulations. This is because the crosslinking process
can introduce a population of defects (ambers, gels, and byprod-
ucts) that are not present in thin sheets. However, many of these
issues are taken care of if tests are carried out on models (small
versions) of the complete structure, then a more limited scaling
is carried out. Thus, this transform is useful for most insulations
when appropriate initial data are used.
Time Dependence of Material Reliability
Once the initial stress distribution has been estimated (allowing
for geometric and resistivity effects), then consideration needs
to be given to how the reliability is modified as a function of the
device lifetime. The modification under DC has two elements:
• changes in the stress distribution due to space charge effects,
• changes in the ability of the device material to withstand the
applied electrical stresses—aging.
One procedure used to consider these issues takes the initial
stress distribution, allowing for inversion effects, E(x) and makes
a modification for the likely space charge effects S(E,t). This gives
an estimate as a function of stress and time of the actual stress
distribution (Emod(x)) in the device at some later time (Emod(x) =
E(x)*S(E,t)). This new stress distribution is used as input into the
Weibull equations to estimate the probability of failure and hence
the device reliability. The parameters of the Weibull distribution
are further adjusted (scalemod and shapemod) to account for the
reduction in breakdown strength as a function of the operating
history and aging (temperature, electrical stress) of the device.
Expression (11) describes one method in which the space charge
(encompassed in Emod) and aging effects (encompassed in scalemod
and shapemod) can be combined to make estimates of the device
reliabilities:
(11)
 A. Modification of the Stress Distribution –
Space Charge Effects
Over the last few years, there has been considerable interest
in the measurement of the space charge distributions within di-
electrics under both AC and DC stress conditions. Space charge
is the term given to electrical charges that become localized
(trapped) within the bulk of a dielectric. These charges can occur
in power cables as a result of an electric potential applied across
the insulation [17], [18]–[24].
A key feature of the space charge present in a dielectric is that
it will modify any electrical stress that may be applied across it. At
high voltages the trapped space charge interacts with the applied
electric stress, such that the stress may be increased in one area
and decreased in another. As a result, the electric stress within
an insulation cannot be predicted by standard methods, and thus
there is added complexity in the design of electrical systems. The
increased stress leads to increased rates of electrical aging and
accelerated failure [19], [22], [24].
Studies have shown that space charges can modify the electrical
stresses over two time ranges [20], [21]:
• short term—charges modify the electrical field but decay
quickly on removal of the voltage,
• long term—charges modify the electrical field but decay very
slowly on removal of the voltage, these charges can influence
the material strength and aging.
Thus, it is the charges that develop following long-term elec-
trification that have the largest impact upon the electrical stress
distribution.
A number of studies have shown that the space charge build-up
under both short and long times are highly dependent upon the
materials [22], [24] and the process history [14], [19]. Table 7 indi-
cates typical magnitudes of the stress modification that have been
reported as resulting from long-term space charge build-up.
Table 8. Reduction in electrical breakdown strength scale parameter of a
6-mm stack after aging. The figures in italics refer to the descriptions in the
key of Table 1.
Time Virgin (kV/mm) 1 Year (kV/mm)
Thermoset 2 202 95
Thermoplastic 6 162 79
PPL 1 177 99
Paper 1 110 63
Thus, when using the Weibull equation to calculate the reliability
of a structure after 1 year of aging, the scale parameter needs to be
modified as described in Table 8 for thermoset 1, the scale parameter
of a 6 mm stack reduces from 202 kV/mm to 95 kV/mm. The data
on which these estimates are based have been analyzed using the
Inverse Power Law Model.
Device Reliability
The estimation of the device reliability can now proceed us-
ing (11). The individual steps are detailed in Table 9. The stress
distribution is determined based on dimensions and temperature.
This is further modified by the space charge component, thus
providing a “good estimate” of the stresses within the structure
(Emod(x)). Then the breakdown strength (scalemod) is estimated for
the particular thickness of insulation or lengths for some time in
the future. At this point, the Weibull approach is used to estimate
the future reliability (R = 1 – Pf) at the modified stress.
The analysis described in Table 9 indicates that thermoset and
thermoplastic solutions have essentially identical reliabilities, but
that PPL insulation provides significantly higher reliabilities (low-
er probability of failure). Inspection of the individual contributions

B. Change in the Material Breakdown Strength

A number of studies [14], [22], [24], [25] have demonstrated
that the breakdown strength of a variety of materials decreases Table 9. Steps for estimating device reliability. The figures in italics refer to the
with the time of the applied DC stress. Table 8 shows the changes descriptions in the key on Table 1.
in breakdown strength that have been estimated for aging under Thermoset Thermoplastic
applied DC. Parameter 2 6 PPL
In addition, it has been shown that the failure rate in constant Core Stress
21.3 21.8 23.6
stress tests increases with time (Figure 6) and stress level [14], (kV/mm)
[22], [24]. As might be expected, the susceptibility to aging under Space charge modification (%) 30 5 50
DC voltages is itself material dependent. These effects are proba- Emod
bly quite complicated [26], but the overall effects can conveniently 27.7 22.9 35.4
(kV/mm)
be approximated by the Inverse Power Law [14], [24]. SCALE transformed for a
202‡ 162 177
6-mm stack (kV/mm)
SCALE mod. after 1 year of
Table 7. Typical electrical stress modifications due to space charge at long aging† 95‡ 79 99
times. The figures in italics refer to the descriptions in the key of Table 1. (kV/mm)
Stress modification SHAPE 6 6 19
Material (% of theoretical)
Normalized probability of
Thermoset 3 200 – 800 1‡ 1 0.05
failure—Pf
Thermoset 2 20 – 50 †Upper limit.
Thermoplastic 5 & 6 0 – 10
‡Assume that the failure mode is independent of device age; shape parameter is
Paper & PPL 1 25 – 100 unmodified.

10 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 6. Electrical endurance at 50 kV/mm DC for three extruded insulation types.
to the final device reliability (1-Pf) enables the magnitude of the
factors to be established. In Table 9 it is convenient to normalize
the outcome to Pf =1 for the thermoset case. The usefulness can
be seen by comparing the thermoset and thermoplastic cases. Here
the modified stresses and breakdown strengths are quite different;
but they are ultimately compensating such that the final prob-
abilities of failure, and hence the reliabilities, are equal. Of course
this analysis does not factor in the higher operating temperature
of a thermoset solution that would ultimately enable a smaller
conductor to be used. Although this would increase the stress at
the conductor (reducing reliability), the longer length would more
than compensate the reliability by using fewer of the less reliable
joints. The case for PPL is different. For PPL, the largest effect
comes from the electrical stress inversion, which is quite high.
The breakdown strength (Weibull scale) is quite similar, but the
shape parameter indicates that the breakdowns have very little
scatter. Thus, the probability of failure at low stresses is vanish-
ingly small. It is this probability that in the end determines the
reliability of a long cable length. Consequently, the probability
of failure of a PPL cable versus a thermoplastic is some 20 times
smaller at an equivalent stress level.
The calculations detailed in this study do not include the ef-
fect that can be attributed to the length of the cable system: as
the length of the system increases, the reliability decreases [17].
This effect needs to be included in a design procedure and can be
significant. This is important for AC applications but is particularly
relevant for DC as the opportunities for DC are precisely those in
which very long lengths are used!
Outstanding Practical Considerations
The DC systems using lapped insulations are well established
[1], [2], [4], [5] with much of the recent interest being directed
January/February 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 1 11
at extruded solutions [1], [7], [9], [11], [27]. This interest has
been fuelled by concerns over leakage of impregnants and the
advantages seen in the potentially higher operating temperatures
of a crosslinked solution. Figure 7 shows the length of such sys-
tems installed commercially since 1998. The experience of these
systems can be best represented by the combination of length and
time in service. Such an approach shows that the experience to
date is in excess of 9000 km years. Nevertheless, even with this
impressive experience for all of the DC connections, it is useful
to recognize that a number of areas remain for further study.
A. Interfaces
As the experience with practical extruded DC systems increas-
es, more focus will be given to the interfaces involved. The focus
will come from the lengths of the connections being undertaken.
The Murraylink project [7] has in the order of 400 joints. The two
critical interfaces are the insulation/semicon interface of the cable
and the dissimilar insulation interface of the accessories.
The challenges for the cable interfaces come from the dynamic
nature (potential for inversion) and level of the stresses imposed.
These stresses are at least as high as those seen at EHVAC and
are often higher. Thus, there is a clear benefit to understanding
the specifics of these interfaces under DC. Study in this area will
enable optimization of the designs (sizes and materials). There
is a practical element to this issue as the manufacture of long
lengths represents a potentially higher risk of defects associated
with the semicon/insulation interfaces. A solution that reduces
this occurrence or the consequence when this happens would be
a good approach.
Although the high operating stress of DC connections (>10 kV/
mm mean stress for Murraylink [7]) enable a reduction in size and
thus increased lengths on a drum [27], a large number of joints

Figure 7. Cumulative length of extruded DC cable with
crosslinked polyethylene insulation as a function of year
commissioned [1], [7], [14], [27].
are required for projects. The design of these joints is likely to
be more complicated than the cable portion as they involve more
complicated temperature distributions, dissimilar temperature
sensitivities for the insulation resistivities, different distributions
of space charge and assembly in the field of a large number of
joints [7], [27]. Thus, it seems clear that this is a very important
and fruitful area of investigation.
B. Defects
Cleanliness (freedom from insulation and shield defects) has
long been recognized as an important element in operating cables
at high voltages. The presence of these defects leads to additional
high local electrical stresses that seriously reduce the performance
of the system. Although there have been many studies on the ef-
fect on defects in AC systems, there have not been so many in the
DC arena. One of the most extensive studies has been carried out
on Rogowski objects [25]. This work showed that particles and
voids significantly reduce the breakdown strength. Interestingly,
similarly sized particles (50–60 µm) of different nature (amber,
bronze, glass) show different impacts on the breakdown strength.
A plausible explanation is the different adhesions between the
particles and the matrix will play an important role. Practically,
it has been seen that it is important to pay particular attention to
the exclusion of particles with sizes greater than 100 µm [13]. It
would be interesting to investigate the effect of a range of sized
particles on the DC breakdown strength to establish whether
the exclusion at the 100-µm level is sufficient for higher stress
EHVDC applications.
C. Transients
The electrical stresses are calculable under DC voltages;
however, the case for transient voltages and loads is much more
complicated. Yet systems will see significant levels of transients
that could give stresses which are quite different from the steady
12 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
state. It would seem that the coupled problem of transient volt-
ages and temperature distributions could be an interesting area
for computational study. Space charge effects are difficult to
calculate, but they are likely to be quite different under transients
than steady state. Consequently, measurements of such phenom-
ena would provide very useful information on the magnitudes
involved at the very least.
D. Testing
It has become common to test cables and accessories in the
factory prior to installation. This enables sensitive tests and any
remedial actions to be carried out in a controlled environment.
Again, the long lengths of DC connections bring challenges.
Perhaps the most significant is in the extruded arena. One of the
most critical defects is a void in the insulation [25], yet these
defects only respond weakly over the practical test times that can
be applied at elevated DC. One solution is to use AC possibly
with partial discharge (PD) tests; however, capacitive charging
can curtail the effectiveness of this approach. Thus there is an
outstanding issue of the most applicable approach for resolu-
tion [9]. There has been some discussion of the use of low AC
frequencies in this application. The reduced frequency would
assist with the charging currents and developments in PD detec-
tion/location below main frequency would provide an additional
diagnostic to the voltage withstand. It would be very interesting
to see how such technology might develop for acceptance and
field tests of DC cables.
E. Basic Science
The practical work in the DC arena is underpinned by basic
studies of aging, breakdown, electrical conduction, space charge,
and scaling. However, these basic studies have made a number
of assumptions. For example, resistivities change smoothly with
electrical stress, the inverse power aging approximation is appli-
cable to interface structures, the sensitivity to space charge is the
same in temperature gradients as it is in isothermal conditions,
etc. As DC technology continues to evolve [1], [4], [10], [11], [27]
fundamental research will be required to determine whether the
present assumptions are valid or need to be updated. Yet it should
be borne in mind that the DC arena is one in which very advanced
technologies are being deployed today, so that the outcome of the
fundamental research should be in a format that can be rapidly
and readily adapted by the engineers in the field.
Conclusions
This article identifies the important electrical parameters that
need to be measured and understood to establish the reliability of
devices operating under DC voltages. The important parameters
are the electrical resistivity at a range of stresses and temperatures,
the DC breakdown performance, the sensitivity to electrical aging,
and the space charge development. Each of these parameters will
depend very much on the materials used.
All of the electrical parameters play important roles in deter-
mining the ultimate reliability. The relative importance of each
depends on the insulation involved. Analysis has allowed the
factors with the largest impact on reliability to be identified.
 The DC arena is rapidly expanding and is probably the techno- [14] U. Nilsson, A. Campus, R. N. Hampton, M. Bergkvist, A. Farkas,
logical area in which the most significant major benefits in long
distance electrical transmission will occur. As the use expands,
the designers and users will increasingly come to see a number [15] J. C. Fothergill and L. A. Dissado, Electrical Degradation and
of challenges in the fields of basic science, design (inversions, in
[16] L. A. Dissado, I. Doble, S. V. Wolfe, P. A. Norman, A. E. Davies, G.
homogeneous media, aging, etc.), and manufacture (the challenge
of length, jointing, protection). Work is required to ensure that
practical solutions are readily available to permit the continued
expansion of this arena.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge Dr. A. D. Campus, Dr.
F. Chang, Mr. A. Farkas, Mr. B. Gregory, Dr. S. B. Hobdell, Dr.
M. Jeronse, Mr. U. Nilsson, and Prof. S. Swingler for the useful
discussions and practical support that, over a number of years,
ultimately lead to the preparation of this document. A number of
the issues discussed in this paper have been developed from work
covered in a report (P2-001) by F. Chang, R. N. Hampton, and
S. B. Hobdell to the CIGRE Joint Panel Session; Paris, France,
August 2000.
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R. N. Hampton is the Program
Manager for Reliability work at the
National Electrical Energy Testing
Research and Applications Center
(NEETRAC) of Georgia Tech in
Atlanta, GA. Nigel has B.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in physics from the
University of Bath in the UK and
holds an M.Sc. degree in polymer
engineering. He has spent more that
18 years working in the power cable
arena, holding positions within BICC, Pirelli, Borealis, and
NEETRAC. Nigel may be contacted at nigel.hampton@neetrac.
gatech.edu.