Participating Media For Volumetric Heat Generation: Keywords: Characterization-Welding-Fatigue cracking-resilience-AP48

Journal of Thermal Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.
93-99, January, 2019

Yildiz Technical University Press, Istanbul, Turkey
PARTICIPATING MEDIA FOR VOLUMETRIC HEAT GENERATION

Layth Al-Gebory1,2,*
ABSTRACT
In the field of mechanical construction there are various types of assembly, such as riveting, bolting and
welding, but welding remains the most used, perceives that it presents several advantages in saving time and
financing, hence. we have seen the importance of studying this type of assembly by welding.
In this work we will try to carry out a characterization of a butt welded joint and to simulate the ductile
breaking strength of A48 steel, butt welding is found in several mechanical constructions among and c 'is a typical
assembly used on road bridges.
Indeed a welded joint is made up of three zones of metallurgical structure and of different mechanical
properties namely: the Base Metal (MB), the Molten Metal (MF) and the Thermally Affected Zone (ZAT). This
heterogeneity calls into question:
the validity of classical approaches to fracture mechanics such as the integral J initially proposed for homogeneous
structures.
The simulations carried out were compared with the experimental results in terms of “J-Δa” curves.
Also in this work, we sought to study the influence of the local parameters on the tear curves “J-Δa”, in
particular on the starting toughness JIC or J0.2 and on the tear resistance dJ / da in the case of welded joints.
- The validity of the classical method which predicts the behavior of a weld by assimilating it to an
equivalent fictitious material having the lowest mechanical properties (elastic limit, toughness) among those of the
materials constituting the welded joint.
Numerical calculations were carried out on different specimen configurations (butt welding) based on the
finite element method in a plane strain calculation option of the "ABAQUS" software. The results of elastoplastic
computation (stresses, strains, strain energy) are injected into the computation procedures.
Keywords: characterization-welding-fatigue cracking-resilience-AP48
INTRODUCTION
In the field of solar radiation utilization, solar thermal collectors are the most important parts of the solar
thermal systems. However, the efficiency of these collectors is limited by the absorption properties of the working
fluids, particularly water. Nanoparticle suspensions have been introduced as working media in solar thermal
collectors to improve thermal efficiency and to reduce the size of such systems (energy efficient solar collectors) by
using light induced energy conversion technique in a volume of suspended nanoparticles. It refers to direct
absorption solar radiation (volumetric photo-thermal energy conversion), as shown in Figure 1. This figure shows the
principles of photo-thermal energy conversion, where the incident solar radiation is directly absorbed by a volume of
fluid which includes suspended particles. Then this energy is exploited in thermal applications. This method is one of
the efficient methods in the field of energy conversion and production.
This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by Regional Editor Omid Mahian
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ozyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Department of Materials Engineering, University of Technology, Baghdad, IRAQ
*E-mail address: layth.ismael@ozu.edu.tr, 130006@uotechnology.edu.iq
Orcid id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5943-7763
Manuscript Received 28 May 2017, Accepted 08 August 2017
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Technical Note, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 93-99, January, 2019
In Flow
Heat source
Heat Exchang
Volumetric
Collector
Out Flow
Figure1. Energy harvesting system
94
Nanoparticle suspensions are found to be effective electromagnetic wave absorbers within UV–Visible
wavelength ranges where 85% of solar energy is dissolved. While conventional base fluids absorb 15% of solar
energy within infrared wavelength range, nanoparticles have unique thermal and optical properties which are the
basis of thermal applications [1–3]. In the field of particle suspension, long term stability of suspended nanoparticles
is the key for any thermal application which includes such type of suspensions [4].
Owing to the advancement in nanotechnology during the past 20 years or so, applications of nanoparticles in
solar thermal systems have been proposed. Compared to larger particles, the suspension with nanoparticles exhibits
better stability with unique performance. In addition, the clogging and fouling would be less significant for
suspension with nanoparticles [5,6]. Absorption of light within the nanoparticle suspensions, largely by the
nanoparticles, leads to a temperature rise in the suspensions that can then be exploited as thermal energy.
For that, the radiative properties of the suspended particles and the media that contains those particles
should be investigated deeply. As there are many particles in a particulate medium, the scattered photon from a
particle may interact with those from other particles. This means, an incident beam can be scattered more than one
time and they can be scattered again by the nearby particles [7,8].
The potential of using nanoparticles in the direct absorption solar collectors was first proposed by Tyagi et
al. [9], they compared the collectors’ performance using water/Al nanofluid as the working media. The radiative
properties of water/TiO2 nanofluid were investigated by Said et al. [10], the transmissivity of the nanofluid was
achieved up to 60% in the particle volume fraction 0.08%, and it was proven that the water/ TiO2 nanofluid could be
a good option for the direct absorption solar collectors. More recently, the radiative properties are measured for the
different metal oxide nanoparticles under the effects of temperature and particle concentration [11,12]. Several
nanofluids were prepared for this purpose, water based with metal oxide ( TiO2 , Al 2 O 3 , ZnO , CuO ,∧Fe 2 O 3 ¿
were investigated, and results conducted that the water/TiO2 nanofluid with 0.05% volume fraction required
minimum pumping power and show good radiative properties.
Through the analysis of the optical and thermal behavior of particulate media, it is clear that photo-thermal
energy conversion is important to not only the solar thermal systems but also to the electric power generation and
solar chemical technology. This research investigates the effects of nanoparticle suspensions (water/ TiO2
nanoparticle suspension) at different particle concentrations on the radiative properties and radiative transfer
phenomena. The effect and contribution of the TiO2 nanoparticles on the radiative properties in the UV-Vis-NIR
wavelength ranges are observed, which have a significant impact for the solar thermal applications.
GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY MATERIAL

Our study focuses on the three zones of a weld joint made on A48 steel used for the manufacture of mechanical
structures subjected to variable and random alternation stresses.
Mechanical tests
- Tensile tests
The tensile tests were carried out at the FMR laboratory (Fatigue et Mécanique de la Rupture) at the welding
institute (Thionville-Metz),
• Conventional traction characteristics:
The results of these tests are given in table (1) and figure (1).
• Rational traction curves:
The results obtained are presented in figure (2)
95
900
MB
MF
800 ZAT
MB (prélèvement transversale)
700
600
Contrainte (MPa)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40
Déformation (%)
Figure 1: Conventional tensile curve of the different specimens.
1000
ZAT
MF
900
MB (prélèvement transversale)
MB
800
700
Contrainte vrai (MPa)
600
500
400
300
200
0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35
Déformation vrai (%)
Figure 2: Rational tensile curve of the different specimens.
Matériaux proprités mecaniques

Re Rm A (%) n
96
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Métal de Base MB 325 400 30 0,401
Zone affectée thermiquement
445 600 40 0,302
(ZAT)
Métal fondu MF 420 531 35 0,508
Table 1: Mechanical properties of the three zones MB, MF and ZAT
Or
Re: yield strength (N / mm2)
Rm: tensile strength (N / mm2)
A: elongation in percentahe (%)
n: hardening coefficient
We note that all the values of the apparent limit of elasticity and of the tensile strength are greater than the
minimum guaranteed values (manufacturer data). We generally observe a conventional and rational limit of elasticity,
higher in the HAZ than that of the molten metal which is itself higher than that of the base metal.
CRACKING TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS:

- Test specimens used:
The cracking tests were carried out at the LMSR laboratory on an INSTRON servo-controlled electro-hydraulic
machine, using 07 mm thick CT50 specimens (III.3), in accordance with the ASTM-E-647 standard.
The tests were carried out in ambient air and for the same value of load ratio R at a nominal frequency of 25 Hz
in the three zones.
The test pieces used were mechanically polished with abrasive paper and stressed in the TL direction.
97
Concerning the other specimens and at the end of the ZAT, the weld joint was mechanically polished with
abrasive paper on a polisher type ST50AP, then cleaned with an appropriate solvent. To reveal the welded areas, the
chemical attack was carried out with iron perchloride.
In order to explore the domain of medium and high cracking speeds, we imposed a sinusoidal loading of
Pmin
R= =0 . 1
constant amplitude, throughout the duration of the test, with a load ratio
Pmax , and at a frequency of
25 Hz
Results and discussions

 Propagation speeds
The cracking tests were carried out for the material in the three zones, in the range of speeds between 10-5 and
10-2 mm / cycle in ambient air and with a load ratio (R = 0.1) . The values of K vary from:
- 15 to 45 in the base metal (MB).
- 22 to 50 in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
- 18 to 48 in molten metal (MF)
In order to compare more clearly and in a more systematic way the evolution of the cracking speed in the three
zones, we chose to represent them by their respective linear regression lines obtained from the experimental points
(method of the seven points) on the linear parts of curves.
Indeed, we can notice that the curves present an almost rectilinear shape over a large part of the explored
domain, which can be presented by a PARIS law of the form:
da
= C ( ΔK ) m
dN (1)
The exponent m is of the order of:

- 4.2 in the base metal (MB)
- 4.3 in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
- 4.9 in molten metal (MF)
The results of the cracking tests obtained in the three zones recorded respectively in table (III.2).
98
Désignation Loi de Paris K

MF da/dN=1,08e-12K4,2 MPa √ m
18 à 48
MB da/dN=8,63e K
-11 4,3
MPa √ m
15 à 45
ZAT da/dN=6,33e K
-11 4,8
MPa √ m
22 à 50
Table 2: Paris law in the different areas studied
The results illustrated in Table 2, lead us to draw two curves, the crack advance as a function of the number
of cycles for the three zones studied and evolution of the cracking rate as a function of K for the three zones
studied.
We observe the advance curve of the crack as a function of the number of cycles of the three areas studied
(Figure 4), we see two important points,
1. Regarding the molten metal, we notice a rapid crack advance with relatively small number of cycles
compared to the other two zones.
2. The crack advance in the base metal is greater than that in the heat affected zone up to N = 6.25 x 105 and
from this value it is close.
One observes the curve of evolution of the speed of cracking according to K for the three studied zones
(figure 5), one notices that when K varies 10 and 23 MPa m1 / 2 there exists a significant divergence in the speed
of cracking on the other hand as soon as K = 23 MPa m1 / 2 exceeds, one notices a slight agreement between the
three zones.
Figure 4: Advance of the crack as a function of the number of cycles in the three zones studied
99
Figure 5: Evolution of the cracking rate as a function of K for the three zones studied
Evolution of the load according to the imposed displacement

The numerical and experimental evolution (figure 4) of the load according to the displacement imposed for
the different configurations is illustrated by the figure (figure 4), we draw the following conclusions:
- A good agreement between the numerical and experimental results is noticed in the elastic part, The
difference is manifested beyond the elastic field.
- The difference between the numerical calculations and the experimental results remains very low in the
case of the weld joint (ZAT and MF).
- the two configurations, MF and ZAT, present a slight divergence for large displacements (eg: d = 2mm).
2000
1500
P (daN)
1000
ZAT exp
ZAT num
500 M F num
M F exp
M B num
M B exp
0
0 1 2 3
Déplacem ent d (m m )
100
Figure 4: Evolution of the load as a function of displacement.
 The integral J:
The evolution of the integral J for the three configurations (MB, MF and the HAZ), calculated according to
the contour Г1 is presented in the figure (figure 7).
It is noted that the three calculations however give a tenacity to the identical priming for low values of
displacements, and a relative evolution for more important displacements. The deviation of the contour integral J
between the base metal and the HAZ for d = 2mm is practically double (100%), while the distance between the base
metal and the molten metal is significantly less
300
MB
MF
250 ZAT
200
J (K J/m )
2
150
100
50
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
d (m m )
Figure 7: Evolution of J according to the imposed displacement (numerical)
The evolution of the integral J respectively for the three zones, illustrated by the figures (FIG. 8), shows that
there is a small difference between the values calculated numerically and those determined experimentally. This
finding confirms the trends observed previously on the “force-displacement” curves and mainly highlighted a small
difference between the curves corresponding to bimetal and trimetal.
101
Ligne d'atténuation
200 Ligne d'exclusion de 0,15 m m
160
120
J (K J/m )
2
80
J
IC
40 MB
MF
Ligne de décalage de 0,2 m m Z AT
0
-0,25 0,00 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50 1,75 2,00 2,25 2,50
a (m m )
Figure 8: Evolution of J according to the imposed displacement (numerical)
 Opening at the bottom of the crack (CTOD)
Figure 9 shows the changes in the R / R0 parameter in the different configurations as a function of the
imposed displacement. We find that there is
1- a similarity with the evolution of the CTOD according to the imposed displacement,
2- we notice a slight difference between (MB) and (MF) (about 5%), while the difference between MB and
HAZ is important (about 15%).
The change in the R / R0 parameter in the case of (MB) is greater than that observed in the case of ZAT.
4,5
MB
MF
ZAT
4,0
3,5
3,0
R /R0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
d (m m )
102
Figure 9: Evolution of R / R0 according to the imposed displacement
Preparation of impact test specimens

Machining of specimens
During the impact tests, V test pieces 55 mm long and nominal section 10x10 mm2 were used with a notch
2 mm deep and an angle of 45 °. The machining of the specimens was carried out at the LLMP laboratory of the
University of MASCARA according to French standard 89-202, taking into account the direction of rolling of the
sheets. The specimens containing weld joints were taken directly from CT specimens (FIG. 10), with the aim of
comparing the results obtained with those produced on the base metal.
Figure 10: Dimensions and shape of the V-notch specimen for A48 steel
The test pieces were mechanically polished with abrasive paper 800 on a polisher type ST50AP, after each
polishing the samples are cleaned with an appropriate solvent. To reveal the welded areas, the test pieces were
chemically attacked with iron perchloride (Figure 9), then they were again cleaned with ethanol and dried in the open
air.
Figure 9: Test tube V after chemical attack
103
In order to carry out impact tests at low temperature between -.40 ° C to 10 ° C, we emerged the test pieces
in a container which contains a refrigerant liquid (nitrogen + alcohol) (figure 10), and the temperature measurements
are taken with a digital thermometer.
For impact tests between 20 and 80 ° C, we used the Nabertherm furnace which is located in the materials
laboratory of the sidi bel abbés mechanical engineering department. And to seek the accuracy of the results at each
temperature, we maintained the temperature so that the latter was homogeneous throughout the test tube.
Figure 10: Dispositif de Refroidissement à l’aide de l’azote
The lowest resiliences correspond to specimens for the temperature range below zero. Resilience appears to
increase up to room temperature (30 ° C) and remain virtually unchanged, or slightly increase for temperatures up to
80 ° C.
1. The comparison between the measured values with those obtained for other researchers, are similar for
temperatures below zero and an increase of around 10% for carbon steel for temperatures above ambient.
2. For the molten metal, and for comparison we noticed that the values obtained are lower than the base
metal.
104
Figure 11: Base metal (MB) and molten metal (MF) impact curve
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
At the end of this work several conclusions and questions can be raised, the most important is that of the
rapid cracking advance of the molten metal with relatively small cycle number compared to the other two zones.
What questions about the choice of welding rod? and by concéquant the welding process, or it was necessary to
proceed to a heat treatment after welding? Can you really distinguish between different areas with chemical attack
alone?
The outlook for the next work is to first proceed to the qualification of the welding process and then
consider doing other work in the field of welded joints.
105
The principle of the photo-thermal energy conversion is converting the energy of the incident radiation to
thermal energy, solar thermal systems collectors are one of the examples. The energy equation for the solar system
collector, accounting for the volumetric heat release, can be written as:
∂T ∂2 T '' '
ρ f C pf u =k f 2
+ S e +q rad (1)
∂x ∂y
where ρ f ,C pf , k f , T, u and q ''rad' are the density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, temperature, the velocity of the
medium, and volumetric heat generation respectively. The source term ( Se ¿ in Equation 1 represents the energy
transfer between the medium and the suspended particles (between the phases) [13,14]:
mp dT p
Se = ∑ C pp (2)
np δV dt
where the subscript ( p) refers to the nanoparticles and (V ) is the volume occupied the nanosuspension.
In order to determine the volumetric heat generation inside a participating media, the spectral intensity must
be integrated over the entire spectrum within all wavelengths and directions [15,16].
π /2 ∞ 2 π
q ''rad' = ∫ ∫ ∫ I λ ( ^s ) cosθ sinθ dθ dλ d ϕ(3)
0 0 0
It is usually to describe the direction vector in terms of a spherical or polar coordinate system. Consider a
point P on an opaque surface dA radiating into another medium, as shown in Figure 2. This figure shows the
radiation propagation in a hemisphere to demonstrate the incident field.
Figure 2. Hemisphere shows the106

direction of incident radiation and
solid angle relations [16].
The radiative transfer equation (RTE) in its quasi-steady form requires the knowledge of the radiative
intensity ( I λ ) at a single point in space into the direction of ( ^s), can be written as [15,16]:
dIλ σ ❑
=−β λ I λ ( s^ ) +κ λ I bλ + sca . λ ∫ I λ ( s^ ) Φ λ ( ^si , s^ ) dΩ( 4)
ds 4 π 4π
In diluted suspensions (low particles concentration) the scattered intensity of a particulate suspension is
equal to the scattered intensity from a single particle multiple by the number of the particles, which is known as the
linear summation rule. This rule is applicable and valid for most radiative transfer applications, where scattering and
absorption are treated independently [15,17].
The size parameter ( x ), the relative complex refractive index of the nanosuspension ( m ), can be estimated
using the following relation:
n particle
m= (5)
n medium
The scattering and absorption coefficients of the suspended nanoparticles can be calculated as:
3 ∅(Q scat )
σ scat . = (6)
2 dp
3
σ|.|= ∅ ¿ ¿
2
The extinction coefficient (scattering and absorption) of the nanoparticles can be calculated as:
σ ext , p=σ scat , p+ σ|,|p ( 8)
The medium absorption should be taken into the consideration. Therefore, any absorption of the medium
must be incorporated in the calculations. Then, the extinction coefficient is obtained from [18]:
4 π k medium
σ ext ,m= (9)
λ
where k medium is the absorption index of the medium which is wavelength dependent.
The total extinction coefficient of a nanosuspension when combined is as given below:
σ total=σ ext , p+ σ ext , m (10)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3 shows a transparent enclosure includes a particulate (participating) media. This figure describes the
radiative phenomena inside a particulate media. When radiative energy travels through participating media, the
107
incident beams are attenuated by scattering and absorption, while others are transmitted through this media to the
other side.
Scattered photons
Absorbed photons
Incident photons
Transmitted photons
Figure 3. Incidence of radiative energy on a particulate media
In the present research, the results are obtained for water based TiO2 nanosuspensions. The effects of
suspended nanoparticle size (d p=50 nm) in different particle volume fractions on the radiative properties are
theoretically investigated.
Figure 4 shows the scattering coefficient of the water based TiO2 nanosuspensions. The effect of particles
volume fraction (0.01, 0.06 and 0.1%) on the scattering behavior is explained. It can observe that particles with small
size have scattering coefficient approaches to zero in the longer wavelength ranges; almost when the wavelength
approaches or longer than 600 nm. The effect of the particles is shown clearly at short wavelength ranges. As the
number of suspended particles (particle concentration) increase, the scattering coefficient increases. The relationship
between the particle size and the incident wavelength is one of the most important parameters which affect the
radiation transfer phenomena. Therefore, nanoparticles play an important role in the UV-Vis wavelength ranges.
The extinction coefficient (scattering and absorption) of the nanosuspensions is shown in Figure 5. In this
figure, the scattering effect comes from the effect of the particles where the medium (water) contributes by the
absorption effect. The absorption coefficient is included in the infrared wavelength range, where water has low
absorption index in the UV-Vis wavelength ranges. Particle scattering in the UV-Vis wavelength ranges can enhance
the extinction coefficient of the media. Indeed, the radiative properties of the particles and the medium are the basis
of the direct absorption solar collectors, where the energy of the incident radiation (electromagnetic energy) is
converted to the thermal energy. The extinction coefficient refers to the absorption of the incident radiation by the
participating media.
108
Figure 4. Scattering coefficient of water based Figure 5. Extinction coefficient of water based
( nanosuspensions ( nanosuspensions
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 6. Radiative energy source in TiO2 (d p=50 nm¿ nanosuspension. (a) 0.01% v/v, (b) 0.06% v/v and (c)
0.1% v/v
The incident radiation on a participating media undergoes two phenomena: attenuation and augmentation.
Radiation attenuation comes from the effects of absorption and out-scattering (the deviation of the incident radiation
to a direction other than the incident direction). On the other hand, radiation augmentation includes the effects of the
re-radiation (emission) and in-scattering (increasing the scattering in the direction of the incident radiation). These
two phenomena (attenuation and augmentation) are explained by the radiative energy source, which indicates the
absorption behavior of a participating media.
Figure 6 shows the radiative energy source which is generated in the volume of participating media
(nanoparticulate media). The boundaries of the volume are specified as follows: the upper face is a radiant source
(1400 W /m 2 ¿, the lower face is adiabatic and reflects the incident radiation inside the volume of the
nanosuspension, the side surface is adiabatic surfaces. The main objective is to observe the effect of the nanoparticles
on the radiative transfer phenomena and to clarify the effect of particle concentration on the radiative heat generation
in the participating media. The generated radiative energy inside a volume of participating media is one of the
thermal applications which are desired for different engineering and industrial applications. The spectral properties
of the participating media play a significant role in these applications.
109
CONCLUSION
Suspended nanoparticles play a significant role in a wide range of applications because of their thermal and
optical properties. Particle size and size distribution show significant effects in different wavelength ranges, which is
very important in specific applications including solar thermal systems in addition to other applications. Radiative
properties (scattering and absorption) carry the significant impact on the thermal radiative transfer, where the energy
of the incident radiation is converted directly to thermal radiation. Different nanoparticles in different conditions
show different radiative properties, which can be exploited in the thermal field for specific applications.
The aim of the using participating media is not only to convert concentrated radiation energy into thermal
energy as efficiently as possible but also, to achieve the highest possible temperatures while retaining this high
thermal efficiency.
In this study, it can observe that the nanoparticles play a significant role in the UV-Vis wavelength ranges
where a large amount of the solar energy is dissipated. The extinction coefficient of the media is enhanced and
affects the radiation transfer performance. Particle size and number have important effects on the thermal radiation
transfer, increasing particle concentration leads to enhance the radiative properties.
NOMENCLATURE
C pf Specific heat, kJ / kg oC
dp Particle diameter, m
Iλ Spectral radiation intensity, W /(m2 μ m sr)
k Absorption inex, nd
kf Thermal conductivity, W / m oC
m Relative complex refractive index, nd.
n Refractive index, nd
q 'rad
''
Volumetric heat generation, W /m 3
Q Radiative efficiency factor, nd
t Time, sec
^s Unit vector in the Ω direction, nd
Se Source term
T Temperature, oC
u Velocity of the medium, m/sec.
V Volume occupied the nanosuspension, m 3
x Size parameter, nd
Greek symbols
β Extinction or attenuation coefficient, m−1
θ Polar or cone angle measured from normal of surface, rad.
ρf Density of a fluid. kg /m 3
σ scat Scattering coefficient, m−1
σ|¿|¿ Scattering coefficient, m−1
ϕ Azimuthal angle, rad.
Φ Scattering phase function
Ω Solid angle, sr
Subscripts
f Refers to fluid
m Refers to medium
p Refers to nanoparticle
110
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Participating Media For Volumetric Heat Generation: Keywords: Characterization-Welding-Fatigue cracking-resilience-AP48

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Journal of Thermal Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.

93-99, January, 2019

PARTICIPATING MEDIA FOR VOLUMETRIC HEAT GENERATION

Keywords: characterization-welding-fatigue cracking-resilience-AP48

Figure1. Energy harvesting system

GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY MATERIAL

Figure 1: Conventional tensile curve of the different specimens.

0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35

Déformation vrai (%)

Figure 2: Rational tensile curve of the different specimens.

Matériaux proprités mecaniques

Table 1: Mechanical properties of the three zones MB, MF and ZAT

CRACKING TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS:

Results and discussions

The exponent m is of the order of:

Désignation Loi de Paris K

Table 2: Paris law in the different areas studied

Evolution of the load according to the imposed displacement

Figure 4: Evolution of the load as a function of displacement.

Figure 7: Evolution of J according to the imposed displacement (numerical)

Figure 8: Evolution of J according to the imposed displacement (numerical)

 Opening at the bottom of the crack (CTOD)

Figure 9: Evolution of R / R0 according to the imposed displacement

Preparation of impact test specimens

Figure 9: Test tube V after chemical attack

Figure 10: Dispositif de Refroidissement à l’aide de l’azote

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

Figure 2. Hemisphere shows the106

σ total=σ ext , p+ σ ext , m (10)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3. Incidence of radiative energy on a particulate media

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