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Functional analysis of late Holocene flaked and pebble stone artefacts from
Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific

Article  in  Archaeology in Oceania · April 2010

DOI: 10.1002/j.1834-4453.2010.tb00073.x

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Archaeol. Oceania 45 (2010) 13–20
Functional analysis of late Holocene flaked and pebble stone artefacts
from Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific
NINA KONONeNKO, STUART BeDFORD and CHRISTIAN ReePmeyeR
Keywords: Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific, use-wear/residue analysis, stone tools
Abstract
Functional studies were undertaken on simple, un-retouched flaked
and pebble artefacts made from a variety of lithic raw materials,
recovered from late Holocene (Lapita) sites in Vanuatu. Use-wear
and residue analysis of macroscopic and microscopic evidence
identified a wide range of craft, subsistence and social activities.
These include cutting, pounding and grinding of non-woody
plants; graving, drilling, scraping and sawing of soft wood; drilling
shell and cutting and piercing soft elastic material such as skin.
This is the first detailed functional analysis on a collection of stone
artefacts from Lapita period sites.
Lithic studies undertaken by Pacific archaeologists have
overwhelmingly focused on high quality, isotropic raw
materials such as obsidian and chert and have largely
ignored flaked artefacts made from other types of stone (e.g.
Allen and Bell 1988; Galipaud and Kelly 2007; Pavlides
2006; Sheppard 1993; Torrence 1992; White and Harris
1997). This has left a major gap in our knowledge and
understanding of the use of locally obtained stone and
particularly its role in the local economy. The study of these
stone types can provide important information about the
activities that took place at particular sites and, through
comparison, can also contribute to a greater understanding
of the value and role of imported raw materials. To address
these questions, we present functional analyses of late
Holocene flaked and pebble artefacts made from a variety of
lithic raw materials obtained locally from three late
Holocene Lapita sites, found on three small islands in
northeast malekula, northern Vanuatu.
The functional interpretation of prehistoric tools requires
a variety of approaches, of which the most reliable and
productive is use-wear/residue analysis of macroscopic and
microscopic evidence preserved on artefacts. This approach
has been successfully applied to the study of obsidian
assemblages in West New Britain (PNG) and Vanuatu and
selected chert artefacts from an open site, FGT (yombon),
and a cave site, FHC (misisil), in West New Britain
NK: Department of Archaeology, SOPHI, University of
Sydney, Sydney 2006 NSW. nina.kononenko@usyd.edu.au;
SB: Department of Archaeology and Natural History, College
of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University,
Canberra 0200 ACT. CR: Faculty of Arts, School of
Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National
University, Canberra 0200 ACT.
(Fullagar 1992; Kealhofer et al. 1999; Kononenko 2007,
2008; Kononenko and Fullagar 2006). The research here
focuses on artefacts made of quartz, fine grained basalts,
andesite, jasper and chert and addresses questions of how
these tools were used and therefore their role in prehistoric
societies. We show that these simple flaked artefacts were
widely used for different tasks in processing a range of plant
and non-plant materials.
Materials and methods
The lithic assemblage analysed in this study comprises 31
artefacts which were recovered from three Lapita sites on
three small islands: Serser (Wala Island), Vilavi (Uripiv
Island) and Vao Island (Figure 1). The Islands are three of a
string of small, low-lying islands, each less than 2 km2,
located off the north eastern coast of the much larger island
of malekula in northern Vanuatu. All the Lapita sites are
located on uplifted back beaches on the sheltered western
coasts facing malekula. Regular uplift (Dickinson 2001;
Taylor et al. 1980) and tephra deposits from the volcanically
active nearby islands of Ambrym, Lopevi and epi (eissen et
al., 1994; Robin et al. 1993; Warden 1967) have contributed
to the preservation of the sites (Bedford 2003).
An initial test-pitting grid strategy, orientated to the
cardinal points with an average interval of 14 m, was
implemented to determine the location of initial colonising
sites. This proved effective and four Lapita sites were found
on the elevated beach terraces of Uripiv, Wala, Atchin and
Vao Islands during the first few days on each island. The
primary focus of fieldwork was on establishing the location
and extent of the sites and identifying any spatial and
temporal variation during Lapita and later-period
occupation. From 2001–2004 varied periods of both
excavation and areas investigated were undertaken on the
Islands. Single archaeological field seasons were under-
taken on Atchin and Wala, where a series of 1 m by 1 m test
pits were excavated, totalling 7 m2 and 9 m2 respectively.
Two seasons of excavation were undertaken on both Uripiv
and Vao, with totals of 27 m2 and 36 m2 excavated. Again
single 1m by 1 m test pits dominated at these sites but larger
areal excavations were also undertaken (three 2 m by 2 m
squares on Uripiv and two 3 m by 2 m areas on Vao). The
areas of the Lapita sites on the various islands, as
determined by the presence of midden remains, were as
13
 Figure 1. Vanuatu and northeast malekula with site locations.
follows: Vao (4000 m2), Atchin (2750 m2), Wala (400 m2)
and Uripiv (2800 m2). The radiocarbon dates and decorated
Lapita ceramics indicate that initial settlement of Vao Island
was slightly earlier than those of Uripiv and Wala although
given their proximity, and the earliest dates overlapping
within two standard deviations, it seems unlikely that it was
a gap of more than a generation and was potentially less.
Initial arrival and the Lapita phase occupation at the sites
broadly spans the period 3000–2600 BP (Bedford 2006;
Horrocks and Bedford 2005).
The lithic assemblage discussed here represents a
selection of the complete collection of lithic artefacts
(n = 87) recovered from the sites. Artefacts were selected for
use-wear/residue analysis on the basis of their shape, size
and the presence of potential working edges. All of the
lithics found at the sites were imported onto the small
coralline islands. Apart from a single piece of Banks Islands
(Vanua Lava) obsidian from Uripiv Island, three pieces of
obsidian from Vao (one from the Kutau/Bao source in West
New Britain and two from Vanua Lava) and several stone
adzes (Reepmeyer 2009), it seems most likely that the
source of the lithic materials is the large adjacent island of
malekula where on geological grounds all would be
available (mitchell 1966, 1971). Additional evidence for a
local origin of these raw materials derives from the large
amounts of angular shatter (n = 26) and the dimensions of
the artefacts, which are exceptionally large and heavy, with
a mean length of 21.9 mm (SD 9.2 mm) and a mean weight
of 3.8 g (SD 4.8 g), compared to the average transported
local obsidian artefacts across the Vanuatu archipelago (cf.
14
Reepmeyer 2009). Cores occur only at the Lapita site of Vao
(n = 2, mean length of 16.5 mm and a mean weight of
2.4 g). Unworked nodules, however, were found in Vao
(n = 3) and Uripiv (n = 6) and are significantly larger than
the discarded cores (mean length 46.1 mm and mean weight
73.1 g). Interestingly, the occurrence of dorsal cortex on
flakes is not dominant; only 41.7% of the artefacts retain
cortex, which suggests an import of already decorticated
cores into the islands. The artefact distribution in the sites
(92% of the artefacts were found in the earlier sites on Vao
and Uripiv) is suggested to derive from a sampling bias,
rather than a relation to the slightly younger ages of the two
sites in Atchin and Wala. Further research is needed to
identify possible interaction networks based on the
distribution of local raw material.
Functional analysis of stone tools from the three sites
took into consideration the properties of the raw material
used, manufacture and design characteristics of the
artefacts, use-wear features, and tool residues. Use-wear
comprises surface modification by microscarring, edge
rounding, striations and polishes. These are formed during
use of the artefacts including hafting, handling, and
sometimes storage (Fullagar 2006a:208; Hayden and
Kamminga 1979:2-5; Keeley 1980:1-2; Vaughan 1985:4).
The general principles of use-wear analysis are applicable to
all classes of stone material, but some specific methods of
observation have been required for particular raw materials
such as quartz (Derndarsky and Ocklind 2001; Kamminga
1982; Sussman 1985).
Vein quartz used at the sites has a polycrystalline
structure with a poorly developed cleavage and is milky in
colour. Irregular fracture patterns, sugary surface texture
and high reflectivity make the observation of artefacts with
a light microscope difficult but this does not affect the wear
attributes which have some common features with those
found on obsidian. At these sites, shallow and weakly
developed striations on some quartz artefacts indicate slight
chemical etching of the surface. Slight weathering of the
surface is also observed on artefacts made of chert and
jasper. Generally, however, artefacts from the studied sites
do not have heavily worn surfaces and are suitable for use-
wear/residue analysis.
The examination of use-wear and residues has four basic
stages (Fullagar 2006a). The first involves preliminary
observation of the surface using the stereomicroscope
(Orient Sm 1) with an external light source and with
magnifications ranging from x6 to x50, and then cleaning,
drawing and recording. Second, during initial use-wear
analysis it is important to record photographically the
residues assumed to be use-related. These may be visible
directly on artefact surfaces under a high power microscope
with reflected light (Fig. 3e). However, an identification of
residues, for example blood-like residue (Fig. 4C-D),
requires the use of a transmitted light microscope. The best
way to sample residues is by pipette extraction (Barton et al.
1998; Kealhofer et al. 1999; Fullagar 2006b). Third, for
detailed examination of use-wear characteristics such as
scarring, rounding, striations, abrasion polish, and to a lesser
extent, of residues, the metallurgical microscope Olympus
BX60m, with vertical incident and transmitted light, bright Figure 2. Stone artefacts made of quartz (1, 3-6) and chert
and dark field illuminations and cross polarizing filters, was (2): 1. Serser 161; 2. Serser 341; 3. Vao 449; 4. Vilavi 575;
used as the main instrument at magnifications from x50 to 5. Serser 723; 6. Vao 495. Scale 3 cm. The dotted lines
x1000. At this stage, artefacts were analysed and recorded indicate the working edges with use-wear traces.
with a ColorView II camera and by a Soft Imaging System
GmbH attached to the metallographic microscope. This
digital camera system produces images of good quality and
makes it easy to record and store information in the Use-wear and residue patterns recognised on these tools
computer database. The pattern of wear features in show they were used in a variety of ways and included a
combination with observable residues is then used to range of worked materials: cutting, pounding and grinding
determine mode of use and material processed. Finally, the non-woody plants (3); graving, drilling, scraping and
functional interpretation of tools is made on the basis of sawing soft wood (7); drilling shell (1); cutting and piercing
comparing characteristics of use-wear/residues observed on soft elastic material such as skin (2) (Table 1).
studied artefacts with available experimental data (Fullagar
1991; Kamminga 1982; Keeley 1980; Kononenko 2008; Cutting non-woody plants (reeds and grasses)
Sussman 1985; Vaughan 1985). This activity is demonstrated by two tools found at Vao. A
large fine-grained chert flake (Fig. 3A) preserved well-
developed polish (Figures 3A, 2 and 3C) similar to classical
Results “sickle glosses” (Fullagar 1991, Keeley 1980:60). The
straight working edge is characterised by discontinuous
most of the artefacts (21/31) were made on small pebbles or scars with feathered terminations. The profile of the edge is
blocky fragments of vein quartz. The crushed platform and intensively rounded. The polish is very bright, smooth, and
clearly defined bulbs on artefacts made of quartz imply the highly reflective and includes “filled-in” parallel striations
free-hand percussion technique of reduction (Figures 2:5-6), and “comet-shaped” pits. The “tails” of the comet-shaped
although bipolar reduction was probably also used (Figure pits run parallel with the striations. The pitting is the result
2:3). Artefacts made of chert, jasper and basalt were reduced of incomplete linkage between individual small polish
using direct soft-hammer percussion techniques (Figure 3A). components which are formed on the highest points of the
Among the 31 stone artefacts, 13 tools (i.e. used microtopography (Figure 3C), and pit-depressions of the
artefacts) were identified: Vao (6), Serser (3) and Vilavi (4). natural surface of flint (Keeley 1980:61; Vaughan 1985:

15

Figure 3. Vao site: A. chert flake 1959 used for cutting
non-woody plants (reeds and grasses). Scale 1 cm.
B. non-used surface of the flake, ǂ100 (A, point 1);
C. edge rounding, polish and striations on the working
edge, ǂ500 (A, point 2) ; D. hafting area with slight
polish, ǂ100 (A, point 3); e. needle-like residues on the
working edge at point 2 (ǂ1000).
31-32). The tool was intensively used for cutting siliceous
grasses such as reeds or cane. During use it was probably
wrapped in plant material such as leaves. The edge opposite
the working edge preserved light rounding and light, smooth
and bright polish (Figures 3A:3 and 3D) which is clearly
contrasted to the unused surface (Figures 3A:1 and 3B). A
needle-like residue is visible on the surface of the tool
(Figure 3e).
The second tool (Figure 4A) is a quartz flake and has a
slightly convex working edge with discontinuous micro-
scars (Figures 4A:1 and 4B). The observed wear pattern is
very similar to those on the chert tool, although shallow,
parallel and slightly diagonal striations are more
pronounced (Figure 4B). The “tails” of the comet-shaped
pits run parallel with the striations. most of the opposite
concave edge indicates light edge rounding and light,
weakly developed polish with “greasy lustre” (Keeley
1980:53; Vaughan 1985:30) which may have resulted from
hand prehension (Figure 4A:2). A dense deposit of blood
residue (Figure 4C) is associated with this edge and gave a
strong positive reaction to HemastixTm (a presumptive blood
16
Figure 4. Vao site: A. quartz flake 2657 used for cutting
non-woody plants (reeds and grasses). Scale 1 cm.
B. edge rounding, polish and striations on the working
edge, ǂ100 (A, point 1); C. hafting area with blood
residues, ǂ100 (A, point 2); D. blood residues on glass
slide (ǂ1000). The arrow indicates blood cells.
test) (Loy 1983:1269). This, together with mammalian
anucleate, 5–10 micron diameter, blood cells observed on
glass slides (Figure 4D), suggests that the source of blood
may be associated with the accidental cutting of a hand
during use in the past.
Processing soft elastic material (skin, hide)
A small quartz flake with an unusually thin and sharp tip
was found at Vilavi (Figure 5A). Both edges of the tip and
the ridge on the dorsal surface are intensively rounded
(Figure 5B). The surface has generally lightly developed
polish with some patches of more developed and relatively
bright polish along the smooth surface of the working edge.
Isolated, narrow, deep and shallow striations are associated
with smoothed and polished areas (Figure 5C). Some spots
with polish and striations preserved dark-red and yellow
coloured residues. These residues gave a very weak positive
reaction to HemastixTm (Loy 1983:1269). The extraction of
residues, however, produced anucleate (5–10 micron) blood
cells observed on glass slides (Figure 5D). All of these data
suggest that the tool was used for piercing soft elastic
material such as human or soft animal skin.
The second quartz flake from this site (Figure 2:4) was
probably broken during use and was possibly used in cutting
soft elastic material, such as soft animal skin or possibly
human skin. Patches of smooth, dull and bright polish are
observed along the slightly rounded edge. The polish is
smoothly spread from the high points of the surface into

Figure 5. Vilavi site: A. quartz flake 1552 used for piercing
soft skin. Scale 1 cm. B. edge rounding, slight polish and
striations, ǂ200 (A, point 1); C. polish and striations,
ǂ1000 (A, point 1); D. blood residues on glass slide.
The arrow indicates blood cells.
the flake is characterised by continuous step scars with spots
of bright, smooth polish located on the intersections of scars
(Figure 2:6, edge B). Shallow striations are both perpen-
dicular to the edge or at low angles running from the edge to
the inner part of the surface. Pits have linear orientations
commonly observed on quartz tools used for working wood
(Fullagar 1991; Sussman 1985:110). The combination of
scar patterns, edge rounding, striations and polish indicate
that this edge of the tool was used for scraping actions.
A primary flake from a quartz pebble from Serser (Figure
2:5) and one quartz flake from Vao (Figure 2:3) were both
used for scraping soft wood. The working edge of the Vao
flake preserved starch residues, probably indicating that the
tool was used for scraping soft starchy wood.
A small quartz flake from the Serser site (Figure 2:1) was
used for drilling soft wood with the pointed proximal end
being used as the working edge. Continuous step and
feathered scars are observed on both dorsal and lateral
edges. Intensive edge rounding and bright, smooth wood
polish are more developed on the ridges, scar intersections
and high points of both lateral and dorsal surfaces. Shallow
and broad striations are rare but, combined with the
presence of polished areas, they show directional features
which suggest that the tool was rotated during use. In

surface depressions. A few narrow striations, parallel to the

edge, are also visible on the polished areas indicating cutting
actions.

Working soft wood (graving, scraping, sawing, drilling)

Two flakes made of chert (Figure 2:2 and Figure 6A) and
one of quartz (Figure 2:6) have been used as gravers or
burins to carve soft wood. A large chert flake from Vilavi
has two working edges (Figures 6A:1 and 2). Used edges are
intensively rounded and have a few rarely preserved isolated
microscars (Figure 6D), in contrast to an unused edge
(Figure 6F). There is very bright, smooth textured polish
with a domed aspect on the high points of the micro-
topography (Figures 6D and e). These domes gradually link
up and are more evenly developed at the ridge of the edge.
Slightly diagonal striations are broad and shallow (Figure
6e) indicating the direction of use. Similar wear patterns
were observed on experimental flint tools involved for
processing wood (Keeley 1980:35-36; Vaughan 1985:34).
A broken chert flake from Serser (Figure 2:2) was probably
used for a short time. Intensive edge-rounding together with
developed, domed polish and isolated shallow striations
suggest that the flake was used for graving soft wood.
Spots of bright and smooth, well developed polish with Figure 6. Vilavi site: A. chert flake 1117 used for graving
shallow striations are present in association with intensive soft, siliceous woody plants. Scale 1 cm. B. edge rounding
edge rounding on the surface of a large quartz flake found at and polish, ǂ100 (A, point 1); D. polish and striations,
Vao (Figure 2:6). The distribution of polish and parallel or ǂ200 (A, point 3); e. polish and striations, ǂ500 (A,
slightly diagonal striations indicate that one edge was used point 3); F. non-used edge of the flake, ǂ100 (A, point 2).
for graving soft wood (Figure 2:6, edge A). The distal end of

17
addition to wear patterns, starch residue concentrations on
the working edge support the functional identification of
this artefact as a drill for soft wood.

Shell processing
The tools from Vao include a small flake with a strong thick
tip which was probably formed by intentional diagonal
spalls from both ventral and dorsal sides (Figure 7A:1-2).
Intensive rounding, abrasion and smooth, flattened polish
are observed on the ridges, intersections of scars, and high
points of the surface (Figures 7B, 7C). Short and shallow
striations are perpendicular or slightly diagonal to the tip
axis indicting the rotating action (Figure 7C). Similar
patterns of wear were observed on chert artefacts and exper-
imental tools involved in drilling shells (Allen et al. 1997).

Grinding and pounding plant materials

Part of a sandstone grinding implement was found at Vilavi
(Figure 8A). Its surface has been ground smooth, with the
exception of the tip which is slightly flattened by percussion
damage. Use-wear in the form of pitting and a rough surface
is associated with a pounding action (Field and Fullagar
1998). All sides of the tool are characterised by well
developed polish and a high density of shallow striations
(Figures 8A:1-2 and B, C, D, e). Striations are generally
oriented perpendicularly or at a low angle to the tool axis
indicating backward and forward movement of the tool
during its use. Small grains of starch are visible on the
working surface. The pattern of wear and residues suggest
that this tool was used for processing soft plant material Figure 8. Vilavi site: A. broken pebble used for grinding
(e.g. seeds, roots, tubers or nuts) by both pounding and and pounding plant materials. Scale 1 cm. B, C. polish
grinding actions. and striations, ǂ100 (A, point 1); C. polish and striations,
ǂ200 (A, point 1); e. polish and striations, ǂ100
(A, point 2).

Material/action Vao Serser Vilavi Figure NN

Non-woody plant (grasses, seeds, reeds)
cutting 2 1 #1559
4 #2657
pounding/grinding 1 6 #1054
Soft wood
graving 1 1 1 #1117,
#341
scraping 1 1 2 #449,
#723
drilling 1 3 #161
graving/scraping 1 2 #495
sawing/scraping 1 2 #449a
Shell
drilling 1 3 #1755
Soft elastic material
piercing 1 5 #1552
cutting 1 5 #574
Figure 7. Vao site: A. quartz flake 1755 used for drilling TOTAL tools 6 3 4
shell. Scale 1 cm. B. edge rounding, polish and striations, TOTAL artefacts 12 6 13
ǂ200 (A, point1); C. polish and striations on the profile of
the working edge, ǂ100 (A, point 2). Table 1. Summary of use-wear/residue analysis.

18
 Conclusion
Although the overall sample size from each of three sites is
small, 42 percent (13 of 31) were found to have traces of
use. However, this surprisingly large number of tools might
derive from a sampling bias in selecting suitable artefacts
for the study. Analyses of scarring, rounding, striations and
polishes on their working edges provide reliable data that
enable determination of a wide variety of modes of use
including graving, scraping, sawing, drilling cutting,
piercing, pounding and grinding. The range of materials
processed using the stone tools is also quite broad: soft
wood, non-woody plants (reeds, grasses, seeds and roots),
shell and soft elastic material (skin, soft hide). Additional
use-wear experiments using raw materials similar to those
used in the manufacture of these stone tools would help
narrow down the specific materials processed. This is
especially relevant to the quartz artefacts, because very few
use-wear studies have been made on this type of stone
(Fullagar 1986; Knutsson 1988; Sussman 1985).
We emphasise that the set of activities associated with
utilitarian and expedient uses of the non-obsidian stone
artefacts from these sites in Vanuatu are quite similar to
those found on obsidian artefacts in melanesia (Fullagar
1992; Kealhofer et al. 1999; Kononenko 2007, 2008). There
are some peculiarities, however, in the intensity and
duration of use of non-obsidian tools. most of them
demonstrate well developed wear patterns indicating
relatively long-term use in particular tasks (e.g. Figures. 3,
4, 6, 8). In contrast, melanesian obsidian tools were more
expediently used in similar tasks for short (63.6%) or
moderate (27.3%) period of time (Kononenko 2008:83-84,
Table 7.16). The same trend is observed in the strategy of
use of obsidian artefacts at the makue site, Aore Island,
Vanuatu (Kononenko 2008: 126; Kononenko and Fullagar
2006). This result gives further support to the hypothesis
that transported obsidian such as that from the north
Vanuatu sources (Reepmeyer 2008, 2009), and indeed even
long distance transported obsidian from sources in Papua
New Guinea was used and discarded in utilitarian ways
(Sheppard 1993). However, further research on obsidian
assemblages in the West Pacific is needed to securely
identify whether local raw materials were used as an
alternative to obsidian in tool production, and therefore
might indicate a causal relationship between the usage of
obsidian and its transportation. This hypothesis would also
provide a possible scenario for the cessation of trans-
portation and use of any kind of obsidian in Central Vanuatu
sites after the end of the initial colonisation phase in Vanuatu
(Reepmeyer et al., in prep.).
Only one of the tools in this study was used in
subsistence practices involving pounding and grinding plant
materials such as seeds, roots and probably some tubers and
nuts. most, however, were incorporated into domestic
activities such as the production of items from soft wood,
reeds, grasses and shell. In addition, the presence of tools for
piercing and cutting soft skin indicates their possible
association with social activities such as tattooing and
scarification of the human body (Kononenko and Torrence
2009).
The wide range of activities identified demonstrates that
these communities were able to utilise local raw materials,
and then knap them into useful tools, regardless of the often
coarse nature of the stone and the difficulty of producing
predictable flakes, especially from quartz. It is also
important to note that the tools used were made from
unsystematic and expedient flakes and cores and lacked
clear forms. Despite of the lack of a specialised artefact
technology to be identified in the assemblage, functional
analysis was able to reconstruct a wide range of uses,
demonstrating that these simple tools played an important
role in the daily life of these communities. The use-wear
features observed on this wide variety of raw materials are
relatively well preserved which provides good prospects for
additional functional studies of similar, seemingly
undiagnostic lithic assemblages in the Pacific region.
Acknowledgements
The permission and enthusiastic support of Chiefs,
landowners and local communities on the small islands of
northeast malekula for the excavations was very much
appreciated. Numa Fred, Curator of the malekula Cultural
Centre provided valuable guidance throughout, as did staff
of the Vanuatu Cultural Centre including Ralph Regenvanu,
marcelin Abong, Richard Shing and the late Willy Damelip.
We offer thanks to Robin Torrence and Peter White for their
valuable comments and editing of earlier drafts and to the
Australian museum for providing laboratory equipment and
assistance. Costs towards the analysis of the lithics were met
by an Australian Research Council Discovery-Project Grant
(DP0556874).
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