According to (2.

16), the susceptibility is defined via P = ϵ0χE, where E is the macroscopic

field. The polarization is always based on the combined behavior of all of the dipoles P = N
qe re (see (2.31)). Equating these two expressions for P and inserting (2.70), we find that the
susceptibility is given by χ(ω) = Nα(ω) ϵ0 1− Nα(ω) 3ϵ0 (2.71) This is known as the
Clausius-Mossotti relation. In Section 2.4, we only included the numerator of (2.71). The
extra term in the denominator becomes important when N is sufficiently large, which is the
case for liquid or solid densities. Since we neglect absorption, from (2.25) we have χ = n
2−1, and we may write n 2 −1 = Nα/ϵ0 1− Nα/3ϵ0 (2.72) In this case, we may invert the
relation to write Nα/ϵ0 in terms of the index:17 Nα ϵ0 = 3 n 2 −1 n 2 +2 (2.73) 16In principle,
the detailed fields of nearby dipoles should also be considered rather than representing their
influence with the macroscopic field. However, if they are symmetrically distributed the result
is the same. See J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed., Sect. 4.5 (New York:
John Wiley, 1999). 17This form of Clausius-Mossotti relation, in terms of the refractive index,
was renamed the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, but probably undeservedly so, since it is
essentially the same formula. 64 Chapter 2 Plane Waves and Refractive Index Example 2.5
Xenon vapor at STP (density 4.46×10−5mol/cm3 ) has index n = 1.000702 measured at
wavelength 589nm. Use (a) the Clausius-Mossotti relation (2.71) and (b) the uncorrected
formula (i.e. numerator only) to predict the index for liquid xenon with density
2.00×10−2mol/cm3 . Compare with the measured value of n = 1.332.18 Solution: At the low
density, we may safely neglect the correction in the denominator of (2.72) and simply write
Natmα/ϵ0 = 1.0007022 − 1 = 1.404 × 10−3 . The liquid density Nliquid is 2.00 × 10−2 /4.46 ×
10−5 = 449 times greater. Therefore, Nliquidα/ϵ0 = 449×1.404×10−3 = 0.630. (a) According
to Clausius-Mossotti (2.72), the index is n = r 1+ 0.630 1−0.630/3 = 1.341 (b) On the other
hand, without the correction in the denominator, we get n = p 1+0.630 = 1.277 The
Clausius-Mossotti formula gets much closer to the measured value. Figure 2.12 The field
lines surrounding a dipole. Average Field Produced by a Dipole Consider a dipole comprised
of point charges ±qe separated by spacing re = zˆd. If the dipole is centered on the origin,
then by Coulomb’s law the field surrounding the point charges is E = qe 4πϵ0 r−zˆd/2
|r−zˆd/2| 3 − qe 4πϵ0 r+zˆd/2 |r+zˆd/2| 3 We wish to compute the average field within a cubic
volume V = L 3 that symmetrically encompasses the dipole.19 We take the volume
dimension L to be large compared to the dipole dimension d. Integrating the field over this
volume yields Z Ed v = qe 4πϵ0 ZL/2 - L/2 d x ZL/2 - L/2 d y ZL/2 - L/2 d z " xxˆ + yyˆ +(z
−d/2)zˆ £ x 2 + y 2 +(z −d/2) 2 ¤3/2 − xxˆ + yyˆ +(z +d/2)zˆ £ x 2 + y 2 +(z +d/2) 2 ¤3/2 # =
−zˆ qe 2πϵ0 ZL/2 - L/2 d x ZL/2 - L/2 d y 1 q x 2 + y 2 +(L −d) 2 /4 − 1 q x 2 + y 2 +(L +d) 2
/4 18D. H. Garside, H. V. Molgaard, and B. L. Smith, “Refractive Index and Lorentz-Lorenz
function of Xenon Liquid and Vapour,” J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Phys. 1, 449-457 (1968).
19Authors often obtain the same result using a spherical volume with the (usually
unmentioned) conceptual awkwardness that spheres cannot be closely packed to form a
macroscopic medium without introducing voids. 2.C Energy Density of Electric Fields 65 The
terms multiplying xˆ and yˆ vanish since they involve odd functions integrated over even
limits on either x or y, respectively. On the remaining term, the integration on z has been
executed. Before integrating the remaining expression over x and y, we make the following
approximation based on L ≫ d: 1 q x 2 + y 2 +(L ±d) 2 /4 ∼= 1 p x 2 + y 2 +L 2/4 1 q 1± Ld/2
x 2+y 2+L 2/4 ∼= 1 p x 2 + y 2 +L 2/4 · 1∓ Ld/4 x 2 + y 2 +L 2/4¸ which will make integration
considerably easier.20 Then integration over the y dimension brings us to21 Z Ed v = −zˆ
qed 4πϵ0 ZL/2 -L/2 d x ZL/2 -L/2 Ld y £ x 2 + y 2 +L 2/4¤3/2 = −zˆ qed 4πϵ0 ZL/2 -L/2 L 2d x
¡ x 2 +L 2/4¢p x 2 +L 2/2 The final integral is the same as twice the integral from 0 to L/2.
Then, with x > 0, we can employ the variable change s = x 2+L 2 /4 ⇒ 2d x = d s/ p s −L 2/4
and obtain Z Ed v = −zˆ qed 4πϵ0 L 2 Z /2 L 2/4 L 2d s s p s 2 −L 4/16 = −zˆ qed 4πϵ0 4π 3
Reinstalling re = zˆd and dividing by the volume 1/N, allotted to individual dipoles, brings us
to the anticipated result (2.68). Appendix 2.C Energy Density of Electric Fields In this
appendix we show that the term ϵ0E 2 /2 in (2.53) corresponds to the energy density of an
electric field.22 The electric potential φ(r) (in units of energy per 20One might be tempted to
begin this calculation with the well-known dipole field E = qe 4πϵ0r 3 r−zˆd/2 h 1−zˆ · rˆ d r
+ d 2 4r 2 i3/2 − r+zˆd/2 h 1+zˆ · rˆ d r + d 2 4r 2 i3/2 ∼= qed 4πϵ0r 3 [3rˆ (zˆ · rˆ)−zˆ] which
relies on the approximation h 1±zˆ · rˆd/r +d 2 /4r 2 i−3/2 ∼= [1±zˆ · rˆd/r ] −3/2 ∼= 1∓ 3dzˆ · rˆ
2r This dipole-field expression, while useful for describing the field surrounding the dipole,
contains no information about the fields internal to the dipole. Note that we integrate z
through the origin, which would violate the above assumption r ≫ d. Alternatively, the
influence of the internal fields on our integral could be accomplished using a delta function
as is done in J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed., p. 149 (New York: John
Wiley, 1999). 21Two useful integral formulas are (0.61) and (0.61). 22J. R. Reitz, F. J.
Milford, and R. W. Christy, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory 3rd ed., Sect. 6-3
(Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1979). 66 Chapter 2 Plane Waves and
Refractive Index charge, or volts) describes the potential energy that a charge would
experience if placed at any given point in the field. The electric field and the potential are
connected through E(r) = −∇φ(r) (2.74) The energy U necessary to assemble a distribution
of charges (owing to attraction or repulsion) can be written in terms of a summation over all
of the charges (or charge density ρ (r)) located within the potential: U = 1 2 Z V φ(r)ρ (r)d v
(2.75) We consider the potential to arise from the charges themselves. The factor 1/2 is
necessary to avoid double counting. To appreciate this factor consider just two point
charges: We only need to count the energy due to one charge in the presence of the other’s
potential to obtain the energy required to bring the charges together. A substitution of (1.1)
for ρ (r) into (2.75) gives U = ϵ0 2 Z V φ(r)∇·E(r)d v (2.76) Next, we use the vector identity in
P0.9 and get U = ϵ0 2 Z V ∇· £ φ(r)E(r) ¤ d v − ϵ0 2 Z V E(r)· ∇φ(r)d v (2.77) An application
of the divergence theorem (0.11) on the first integral and a substitution of (2.74) into the
second integral yields U = ϵ0 2 I S φ(r)E(r)·nˆd a + ϵ0 2 Z V E(r)·E(r)d v (2.78) We can
consider the volume V (enclosed by S) to be as large as we like, say a sphere of radius R,
so that all charges are contained well within it. Then the surface integral over S vanishes as
R → ∞ since φ ∼ 1/R and E ∼ 1/R 2 , whereas d a ∼ R 2 . Then the total energy is expressed
solely in terms of the electric field: U = Z All Space uE (r)d v (2.79) where uE (r) ≡ ϵ0E 2 2
(2.80) is interpreted as the energy density of the electric field. 2.D Energy Density of
Magnetic Fields 67 Appendix 2.D Energy Density of Magnetic Fields In a derivation similar to
that in appendix 2.C, we consider the energy associated with magnetic fields.23 The
magnetic vector potential A(r) (in units of energy per charge×velocity) describes the potential
energy that a charge moving with velocity v would experience if placed in the field. The
magnetic field and the vector potential are connected through B(r) = ∇ ×A(r) (2.81) The
energy U necessary to assemble a distribution of currents can be written in terms of a
summation over all of the currents (or current density J(r)) located within the vector potential
field: U = 1 2 Z V J(r)·A(r)d v (2.82) As in (2.75), the factor 1/2 is necessary to avoid double
counting the influence of the currents on each other. Under the assumption of steady
currents (no variations in time), we may substitute Ampere’s law (1.21) into (2.82), which
yields U = 1 2µ0 Z V [∇ ×B(r)]·A(r)d v (2.83) Next we employ the vector identity P0.8 from
which the previous expression becomes U = 1 2µ0 Z V B(r)·[∇ ×A(r)]d v − 1 2µ0 Z V
∇·[A(r)×B(r)]d v (2.84) Upon substituting (2.81) into the first equation and applying the
Divergence theorem (0.11) on the second integral, this expression for total energy becomes
U = 1 2µ0 Z V B(r)·B(r)d v − 1 2µ0 I S [A(r)×B(r)]·nˆ d a (2.85) As was done in connection
with (2.78), if we choose a large enough volume (a sphere with radius R → ∞), the surface
integral vanishes since A ∼ 1/R and B ∼ 1/R 2 , whereas d a ∼ R 2 . The total energy (2.85)
then reduces to U = Z Al l Space uB (r)d v (2.86) where uB (r) ≡ B 2 2µ0 (2.87) is the energy
density for a magnetic field. 23J. R. Reitz, F. J. Milford, and R. W. Christy, Foundations of
Electromagnetic Theory 3rd ed., Sect. 12-2 (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley,
1979. 68 Chapter 2 Plane Waves and Refractive Index Exercises Exercises for 2.4 The
Lorentz Model of Dielectrics P2.1 Verify that (2.35) is a solution to (2.34). P2.2 Derive the
Sellmeier equation n 2 = 1+ Aλ 2 vac λ2 vac −λ 2 0,vac from (2.39) for a gas with negligible
absorption (i.e. γ ∼= 0, valid far from resonance ω0), where λ0,vac corresponds to frequency
ω0 and A is a constant. Many materials (e.g. glass, air) have strong resonances in the
ultraviolet. In such materials, do you expect the index of refraction for blue light to be greater
than that for red light? Make a sketch of n as a function of wavelength for visible light down
to the ultraviolet (where λ0,vac is located). P2.3 In the Lorentz model, take N = 1028 m−3 for
the density of bound electrons in an insulator, and a single transition at ω0 = 6×1015 rad/sec
(in the UV), and damping γ = ω0/5 (quite broad). Assume that the magnitude of E0 is 104
V/m. For three frequencies i) ω = ω0 − 2γ, ii) ω = ω0, and iii) ω = ω0 +2γ find: (a) the
amplitude and phase of the charge displacement re (2.35) relative to the phase of E0e
i(k·r−ωt) . (b) the magnitude and complex phase of the susceptibility χ(ω). Does χ(ω) depend
on the strength of the E-field? (c) n and κ at the three frequencies via (2.29) and (2.27).
Answer: i) n = 1.53, κ = 0.0817, ii) n = 1.66, κ = 1.33, iii) n = 0.470, κ = 0.263. (d) the three
speeds of light in terms of c and how far light penetrates into the material before only 1/e of
the amplitude of E remains. P2.4 (a) Use a computer to plot n and κ as a function of ω for a
dielectric (i.e. obtain graphs such as the ones in Fig. 2.5). Use the Lorentz model and the
following parameters: ω0 = 10ωp, and γ = ωp; plot your function from ω = 0 to ω = 20ωp. No
need to choose a value for ωp; your horizontal axis will be in units of ωp. (b) Plot n and κ as
a function of frequency for a material that has three resonant frequencies: ω01 = 10ωp, γ1 =
ωp, f1 = 0.5; ω02 = 15ωp, γ2 = ωp, f2 = 0.25; and ω03 = 25ωp, γ3 = 3ωp, f3 = 0.25. Plot the
results from ω = 0 to ω = 30ωp. Exercises 69 Exercises for 2.5 Index of Refraction of a
Conductor P2.5 For silver, the complex refractive index is charact