ARTICLE IN PRESS

Biosystems Engineering (2006) 94 (2), 229–238

doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2006.02.017
SE—Structures and Environment

Effects of Environmental Temperature Changes on Steel Silos

Julia M. Morán; Andrés Juan; Rita Robles; Pedro J. Aguado
Universidad de León. Escuela Superior y Técnica de Ingenierı́a Agraria. Avenida de Portugal 41, 24071 Leon, Spain;
e-mail of corresponding author: diajmp@unileon.es

(Received 1 August 2004; accepted in revised form 24 January 2006; published online 19 April 2006)

The objective of this work is to perform an analysis of pressure distributions in grain silos subjected to thermal
effects, taking into account its plastic and elastoplastic behaviour patterns when affected by thermal variations
of the structure, by using the commercial ANSYS program, which is based on the finite-element method
(FEM).
Changes in the temperature along the silo wall produce dilatations and contractions, which cause variations
both in the wall stresses and in the grain pressures. These dilatations and contractions increase the modulus of
elasticity of the grain, causing the stresses on the silo wall during the contractions to rise with each new cycle.
Some previous studies exist which quantify the importance of these effects using the FEM but they have not
achieved wide acceptance because the high number of parameters necessary to develop models.
Parameters analysed in this study are wall thickness, modulus of elasticity of the grain, Poisson’s ratio of the
grain and grain–wall friction coefficient.
Results obtained show that drops of temperature greater than 20 K can provoke increases of pressures
higher than the calculation values of Eurocode in the upper zone of the silo, these increases are not
proportional to drops of temperature and the increment is more pronounced as variations of temperature
increase.
r 2006 IAgrE. All rights reserved
Published by Elsevier Ltd

1. Introduction Temperature variations in silo walls can be caused by

Some examples exist of cases where agricultural silos
have been severely damaged by the effects of a sudden,
sharp drop in temperature (San Jose, Missouri, USA,
1963) cited by Ravenet (1977). This is due to the fact
that the fall in temperature outside these structures
causes the compression of stored material, and when the
external temperature rises again, the silo wall expands
and the contents settle, so that any voids are reduced
and the material in general becomes more highly
compacted. Such dilatations and contractions increase
the modulus of elasticity of the grain. In the following
cycle, the reduced quantity of voids in the material
means that the wall of the silo causes a greater degree
of compression pressure on the grain stored, whilst
the latter shows a correspondingly higher reaction
pressure on the wall, this pattern continuing in
subsequent cycles.
daily temperature changes or by the effects of hot
material stored in silos, and the high pressures caused by
the succession of expansions and contractions due to
temperature change can produce structural failures.
That effect will vary in intensity according to the stored
material and according to the silo geometry, and it can
be simulated by means of the various parameters that
define each material (modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s
ratio and grain–wall friction angle) and the character-
istics of each type of silo (silo wall thickness, height,
radius, etc.).
The effects of thermal loads is a subject which has
hardly been addressed up till now, a fact which is
reflected in the lack of calculations to this effect in
European guidelines. In the Eurocode 1–4 (CEN, 1995),
which deals with the classification of actions affecting
these types of structures, the existence of a thermal load
is mentioned, but no guidelines are given for its

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
230 J.M. MORÁN ET AL.
identification, and the fact that it can be the cause of
serious—even fatal—accidents, is completely ignored.
The purpose of this study is to outline a method which
will facilitate understanding of silo behaviour submitted
to temperature variations that determine the stresses and
deformations provoked by thermal loads in these
structures, thereby filling this gap in current knowledge.
Identification of these actions will be realised using the
finite-element method (FEM), the efficiency of which
has already been amply demonstrated by the authors in
previous studies (Aguado, 1997; Aguado et al., 1999;
Moran, 2002; Moran et al., 2005) and by other
researchers (Ayuga et al., 2001; Brown & Nielsen, 1998).
A very interesting study about thermal loads was
developed by Zhang et al. (1993). Their findings validate
those obtained in our research. The authors analysed the
effect of ambient temperature variations on a real
structure, a short silo (6
2 m high by 5
8 m in diameter),
using a purely empirical approach, and concluded that
the greater the thermal cooling at night, the greater the
pressure that the silo had to withstand. This increase in
pressure had an average value of 114 Pa/1C, taking the
reading at 0
9 m from the base. Both conclusions are
very similar to those obtained in our study.
Another relevant article reviewed in the course of
producing this study was presented by Li et al. (1991).
The authors based their analysis of the prediction of
finite-element loads induced thermally in a life-sized silo
using elastic criteria. The element representing the wall
was assumed to be made of an elastic material, following
Hooke’s law. In a system formed by a silo with grain,
this can have displacement relative to the wall. In order
to model the behaviour in the movement between grain
and wall, a fine layer of four node elements was used.
This element has the following characteristics of high
resistance to pressure with minimal deformation in the
direction of the compression force. In addition, shear
force is given between the two materials. The element is
somewhat thick, and it is furthermore necessary to
introduce as a starting point a displacement model,
which is a value given in millimetres necessary for the
deduction of the shear force, which must be determined
previous to the resolution of the problem and whose
calculation is not easy. In this paper, the authors
propose a value for this parameter for the pairs wheat/
aluminium and wheat/wood. These models have not
achieved wide acceptance because of the number of
parameters (15) necessary to predict material behaviour.
2. Materials and methods
In order to carry out an analysis of thermal loads in
agricultural silos, it was necessary to perform a three-
Volume of granular material
Generation of contact
Silo wall
Fig. 1. Generation of the set grain–wall
dimensional simulation of the facilities. In contrast to
previous studies of the authors, where only the action of
the grain and friction has been simulated (Ayuga et al.,
2001), in this study, the action of the external wall,
considered to be an essential part of the analysis in this
type of study, was also simulated (Fig. 1 illustrates two
steps in the model generation). A cylindrical volume is
created to represent the grain stored in the silo, and a
2 mm shell is also created to represent the metal wall of
the structure.
The general model was developed using a cylindrical
flat-bottomed silo of smooth steel wall, with a height of
9 m, a diameter of 6 m and a wall thickness of 2 mm –
thickness indicated by Eurocode 1–4. Nevertheless, the
increase in horizontal pressure as a result of a thermal
drop becomes greater as the thickness increases, (as can
be seen in Fig. 9 showing horizontal pressure in models
subjected to thermal drop of 40 K for thicknesses of 1
5,
2 and 3 mm). It was developed using a text file from the
ANSYS 7
0/University High Option Program, which
allows the different parameters defining the silo and silo
contents to be altered easily without a detailed knowl-
edge of the program.
Preliminary research was designed to identify the
most appropriate elements for simulating the required
model (metal, grain, grain–wall friction). Having con-
cluded this phase, it was possible to simulate the
conditions of a given silo, with specified contents, in
order to validate the results obtained using other
calculations and existing guidelines. Once this model
was validated—indicating the correct usage of the
FEM—elaboration of the definitive models, submitted
to thermal load, was begun.
The model of the structure was created considering
the three essential elements that simulate the silo
behaviour. By using a flexible shell element (SHELL63),
it was possible to reproduce the different characteristics
that define the inherent properties of the steel wall and
to allow its expansion and contraction according to
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
THERMAL EFFECTS ON STEEL SILOS
changes in temperature. Silo contents were simulated
using a solid element (SOLID45) with a granular
material behaviour. Lastly, the friction produced
between the granular material and the wall of the
structure was simulated by introducing a pair of contact
(CONTA173 and TARGET170) which allowed the
transmission of pressures from the wall to the grain
and from the grain to the wall in such a way that the
expansions and contractions of the silo wall were
considered.
The friction produced between the silo wall and the
grain is an important factor given that the chosen
friction model determines both the friction forces
and the pressures transmission between the grain
and the wall. Friction is generated by means of
contact elements chosen to fulfil the requirements
demanded by the proposed problem and which are
outlined below.
In a model of a silo subjected to thermal loads,
contact generation is doubly important, thus an effect
which could be termed a chain reaction was looked for,
one which was consistent with the accumulation of static
loads that could occur in the silo when the contraction
of the silo wall is provoked through applying a drop in
temperature. As the steel of the silo wall contracts, an
increase in the grain pressures is produced which in turn
provokes an increase in the silo wall stresses. To this
end, an appropriate production of contact is required.
Not all existing types of contact are capable of
simulating this, but the surface-to-surface contact is
the most appropriate in the simulation of these types of
three-dimensional structures. One of the other reasons
that justified choosing a surface-to-surface contact was
that the computational needs are, to a certain extent,
reduced by using this type of contact as the solution is
obtained with less computer resources.
To construct this type of contact, two kinds of surface
were necessary: a target surface, and a contact surface
(both previously defined), which together formed what is
known as a contact pair.
Another thing that needed to be considered when
creating an appropriate contact model was the type of
Characteristics of steel sheet and granular material for the model with elastic behaviour; in the second and third load states the
temperature reference is 288 K and the thermal expansion coefficient is 1.1  10 5 K 1
Steel sheet
Modulus of Poisson’s
elasticity, MN/m2 ratio elasticity, MN/m2
First load state 2
1  105 0
3
Second and Third 2
1  105 0
3
load states
231
model to be generated. The surface-to-surface contact
allows two different models: rigid–flexible and flexible–
flexible. In the rigid–flexible model, one of the surfaces
that comes into contact can change its shape whilst the
other remains rigid. This type of model was chosen for
use in previous studies (Moran, 2002) as it correctly
simulated the various states of tension studied until
now. However, the present study required that both of
the surfaces in contact were capable of changing their
shape: the one representing the steel silo wall owing to
its flexibility and in order to take into account the effect
of the temperature; and the one representing the surface
limiting the grain mass because of the variations in
volume that result depending on wall contractions or
expansions. This led to the configuration of a flexible–
flexible model.
Elastic and Drucker–Prager behaviour patterns for
the grain were selected and compared. The latter is an
elastic perfectly plastic behaviour pattern, in which
dilatancy effects could be considered. An elastic
behaviour pattern with steel properties was chosen for
the wall.
In this study, three different models were used: in the
first, only the action of grain weight stored in the
structure interior, in static state, was considered. In
the second and third models, the effect of gravity on a
full silo, and the effect of thermal drop, were also
considered. Both models were subjected to a drop from
288 to 268 K in the second model, and to 248 K in the
third.
The characteristics of stored grain were taken from
bibliographical reviews (Moya et al., 2002).
Characteristics of the steel sheet of the silo wall
and granular material in each load state are shown in
Table 1.
In this paper, two different moduli of elasticity for
granular material are considered. In the first, 5 MPa,
corresponding to modulus of elasticity similar to wheat
‘Anza’ type (Triticum aestivum), not compressed, was
used for the first load to simulate a silo not undergoing
temperature variation. In the second, 20 MPa, corre-
sponding to modulus of elasticity similar to ‘Anza’
Table 1
Granular material
Modulus of Poisson’s Grain-wall friction Specific weight,
ratio coefficient kN/m3
5 0
3 0
25 9
20 0
3 0
25 9
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232 J.M. MORÁN ET AL.

Static load state model Thermal load (−20 K) model Thermal load (−40 K) model

−50 −40 −30 −25 −20 −15 −10 −5 5

Pressures, kPa
Fig. 2. Horizontal pressures distribution, into the bulk of granular material obtained by the finite element method for different loaded
states; elastic behaviour pattern

wheat, in compressed state, was used to simulate wheat 9.0

in the second and third loads, that is, subjected to a
thermal drop after various cycles of contraction and 8.5
dilation. 8.0
Both values were adopted as constant values through-
out the grain volume, rather than values which increased 7.5
with depth. This represents a simplification of real 7.0
condition, that facilitates problem solving and coincides
6.5
with recommendations made for thermal load calcula-
tions by other authors (Ravenet, 1977; Safarian & 6.0
Harris, 1985). On adopting this simplification, the
5.5
greatest effort has been made to avoid the simulation
Silo height, m

of extreme conditions. Moderately low values, easy to 5.0

reach in reality, have been preferred to the higher values 4.5
manipulated by some authors in the literature (Ravenet,
1977; Safarian & Harris, 1985). Whilst these higher 4.0
values are possible, they are rare and would produce 3.5
significant pressure increase.
When Drucker–Prager behaviour is used to simulate 3.0
granular material, it is also necessary to enter another 2.5
two parameters, dilatancy angle and cohesion, values of
2
51 and 0
71 kPa respectively being selected. 2.0
This model was analysed for each of the three drops 1.5
of temperature previously mentioned (0, 20 and 40 K)
1.0
whilst taking into account the different internal friction
angles of the material (221, 251, 281 and 301). 0.5
Before carrying out the analysis, a detailed study of
0
the most appropriate mesh was undertaken, in order not 0 10 20 30
to compromise the validity of the wider study. Within Horizontal pressure, kPa
the limits of the computer technology available, a
Fig. 3. Horizontal pressures distribution along the silo wall for
regular, hexahedral mesh was chosen, somewhat finer different temperatures (wall contraction): elastic behaviour
in the lower sixth portion of the silo, as this is where pattern; , temperature drop of 0 K (Eurocode); ,
most pressure is exercised. Mesh size chosen was 0
2 m temperature drop of 40 K (finite element method); , tempera-
for the lower sixth of the silo, and 0
4 m for the rest. This ture drop of 20 K (finite element method); , temperature drop
produced an even error distribution which oscillates of 0 K (finite element method)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
THERMAL EFFECTS ON STEEL SILOS 233

between 0
8  10 4 and 0
1  10 6. All results were
obtained from converged models.
3. Results
The resulting calculations give data as pressures
distribution into the granular material and the results
of linearised, that is the representation throughout the
cylindrical generator representing grain volume, hor-
izontal pressures along the silo wall. Thus, it was
possible to determine the behaviour of these types of
structures when subjected to the effect of thermal loads
and, in the same way, the level of influence of both the
granular material and the silo wall.
The analysis of results obtained by the FEM for
the elastic behaviour pattern in granular material,
displays the increase in the horizontal pressures exerted
by grain with drops in temperature, from values near to
minimum pressures at the top of the structure for the
static state model, to medium values for the model with
a drop of 40 K (Fig. 2). The analysis also shows that the
maximum pressure strip (bottom of silo) increases with
the drop of temperature.
Linearised horizontal pressures along the wall, using
an elastic behaviour pattern for the grain are shown in
Fig. 3 and it is noticeable how these pressures increase as
the temperature decreases. The greater is the tempera-
ture drop, the more significant the pressure increase; and
in the event of a temperature drop of 40 K, the
calculation values in the Eurocode are surpassed in the
upper third of the silo. For the supposed level of grain
compression, the horizontal pressures reached in the
upper third of the silo, in the model subjected to a
thermal drop, are nearly double those existing in the
model with no variation in temperature. The greater the
level of contraction reached by the grain, the more
evident this effect becomes (that is, as modulus of
elasticity increases as a result of successive contractions
and dilations of the sheet wall).
The results for the Drucker–Prager model are shown
in Fig. 4 where various granular material internal
friction angles can be observed. In every case, a drop
in temperature produces a reduction in the plastic

Internal friction angle Internal friction angle Internal friction angle Internal friction angle
22° 25° 28° 30°

Static load
state model

Drop of
(−20 K)

Drop of
(−40 K)

Fig. 4. Distribution of elastic (blue coloured) and plastic (red coloured) zones in grain for different temperatures and internal
friction angle; Drucker–Prager behaviour pattern (elastic–perfectly plastic)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
234 J.M. MORÁN ET AL.

Fig. 5. Horizontal and vertical pressures (kPa): (a) horizontal pressures, flexible model, wall thickness of 2 mm; (b) horizontal
pressures, rigid model, wall thickness of 20 mm; (c) vertical pressures, flexible model, wall thickness of 2 mm; (d) vertical pressures,
rigid model, wall thickness of 20 mm

−σ 3 (Compression) Drucker − Prager

Mohr − Coulomb
σ1= σ2= σ3

−σ 1 (Compression)

−σ 2 (Compression)
Fig. 7. Elastic and plastic zones in flexible and rigid models;
Fig. 6. Drucker–Prager and Mohr–Coulomb yield surfaces (a) flexible model, wall thickness of 2 mm; (b) rigid model, wall
thickness of 20 mm

behaviour zones in the interior of the silo. The greater

the internal friction angle of the stored granular angle, the plasticity limit of the Drucker–Prager cone
material, the more this reduction is intensified. This is surface is likewise reduced. Consequently, it is easier to
due to the fact that in reducing the internal friction achieve a plastic state.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
THERMAL EFFECTS ON STEEL SILOS 235

9.0 9.0

8.5 8.5
8.0 8.0
7.5 7.5
7.0 7.0

6.5 6.5
6.0 6.0
5.5 5.5
Silo height, m

Silo height, m
5.0 5.0
4.5 4.5
4.0 4.0
3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Horizontal pressure, kPa Horizontal pressure, kPa
Fig. 8. Horizontal pressures distribution along the silo wall for Fig. 9. Influence of wall thickness in horizontal pressures for
different temperatures (wall contraction) for an internal friction models subjected to a temperature drop of 40 K: elastic
angle 301: Drucker–Prager behaviour pattern (elastic–perfectly behaviour pattern; , horizontal pressures with thickness of
plastic); , temperature drop of 40 K (finite element method); 3 mm; , horizontal pressures with thickness of 2 mm; ,
, temperature drop of 20 K (finite element method); , horizontal pressures with thickness of 1
5 mm
temperature drop of 0 K (finite element method)

The plastic zones obtained were indeed greater than
expected for the internal friction angle and the silo size
selected. Smaller plasticity areas for the considered
parameters have also been obtained in previous studies
(Aguado, 1997). However, to interpret the plastic zones
of the developed model, it must be considered the wall is
not rigid, and its thickness is 2 mm. Therefore, the wall
has deformations that let the stored material expand and
generate lower horizontal stresses compared to those
obtained for rigid walls. The horizontal and vertical
pressures are shown for a flexible [Fig. 5(a) and (c)] and
rigid wall [Fig. 5(b) and (d)]. The rigid wall has been
simulated using the same model as that for the flexible
wall but using a wall thickness of 20 mm. In such figures,
it can be observed that the horizontal pressures are
higher for a rigid wall become the stored material
cannot expand. If the horizontal pressure values are
high, then the friction forces values will also be high;
therefore, there will be less transference of the weight to
the bottom of the silo, and, as a consequence, the
vertical pressures will be smaller for a rigid wall.
On the other hand, in the Drucker–Prager criterion of
plasticity, the yield surface is a circular cone with the
material parameters chosen such that it corresponds to
the outer apexes of the hexagonal Mohr–Coulomb yield
surface (Fig. 6). When the principal stresses are similar,
the equivalent stress will be inside the cone, and will not
cause plastic strains. On the contrary, if the principal
stresses are different, equivalent stresses can reach the
yield surface. For the model with a rigid wall, as the
vertical stresses are smaller, and the horizontal stresses
higher, there are less differences between stresses, and,
therefore, the plastic zones are also smaller than in the
models with a flexible wall, where, there is a higher
difference between the vertical and horizontal stresses.
This is the reason for the plastic zones in the developed
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
236 J.M. MORÁN ET AL.

9.0 90

8.5 8.5

8.0 8.0

7.5 7.5

7.0 7.0

6.5 6.5

6.0 6.0

5.5 5.5

Silo height, m
Silo height, m

5.0 5.0

4.5 4.5

4.0 4.0

3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40 50
Horizontal pressure, kPa Horizontal pressure, kPa

Fig. 10. Influence of modulus of elasticity of the grain in Fig. 11. Influence of Poisson’s ratio of the grain on horizontal
horizontal pressures for models subjected to a temperature drop pressures for models subjected to a temperature drop of 40 K:
of 40 K; elastic behaviour pattern; , horizontal pressures with elastic behaviour pattern; , horizontal pressures with
modulus of elasticity of 30 MN/m2; , horizontal pressures Poisson’s ratio of 0
40; , horizontal pressures with Poisson’s
with modulus of elasticity of 20 MN/m2; , horizontal ratio of 0
30; , horizontal pressures with Poisson’s ratio
pressures with modulus of elasticity of 10 MN/m2 of 0
20

model being bigger than in the previous models where a
rigid wall was considered [Fig. 7(a) and (b)].
In the elastoplastic behaviour model, however,
differences in horizontal pressures exerted by thermal
loads along the wall are only noticed in elastic behaviour
zones and show no variation for the various load states
in plastic behaviour zones. The linearisation of pressures
in a model using an internal friction angle of 301 is given
as an example of this, (Fig. 8).
Results were also obtained with regard to the
influence of the various parameters on the increment
in horizontal pressures originated by temperature
changes. For this, a variety of models were developed,
each having a variation of one of the parameters
being analysed (silo wall thickness, modulus of elasti-
city, Poisson’s grain ratio and the grain–wall friction
coefficient). The three previously defined load states
(0, 20 and 40 K drops of temperature) were also studied
in each of these models.
In order to analyse the influence of wall thickness on
thermal loads affecting the silo, three different wall
thickness values were then employed (1
5, 2 and 3 mm).
Results obtained for a model subjected to a temperature
drop of 40 K are shown in Fig. 9.
The other three parameters were analysed in the same
way: modulus of elasticity (for values of 10, 20 and
30 MN/m2), the Poisson grain ratio (with values of 0
2,
0
3 and 0
4) and the grain–wall friction coefficient (using
values of 0
15, 0
20 and 0
25). The linearisation of
horizontal pressures obtained in models subjected to
the same temperature drop (40 K), is shown below
(Figs 10–12)
The results show how, with the exception of
the grain–wall friction coefficient, all the parameters
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
THERMAL EFFECTS ON STEEL SILOS 237

9.0 if they are not experts in finite element method,

simply by giving new values to the geometric
8.5
variables and to the characteristics of the material.
8.0 It is not necessary to change any of the standard
commands in order to apply the model.
7.5
(2) Decreasing temperature provokes a significant in-
7.0 crease in the horizontal pressure, which must be
6.5 considered in the calculation and design of these
structures, and is responsible for structural failures
6.0 and accidents. Drops in temperature greater than
5.5 20 K provoke increases of pressures higher than the
calculation values of Eurocode 1–4 in the upper zone
Silo height, m

5.0 of the silo.

4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 Poisson’s ratio of the grain, and is hardly influenced
0 10 20 30 40
Horizontal pressure, kPa
Fig. 12. Influence of grain–wall friction coefficient on horizontal
pressures for models subjected to a temperature drop of 40 K:
elastic behaviour pattern; , horizontal pressures with grain–
wall friction coefficient of 0
25; , horizontal pressures with
grain–wall friction coefficient of 0
20; , horizontal pressures
with grain–wall friction coefficient of 0
15
analysed influenced the state of stress in the silo and
produced an increment in the horizontal pressure values
in proportion to the increase in the value of each
parameter.
4. Conclusions
(1) A model was developed that allowed the calculation
and the tridimensional analysis of pressures within
the granular material. This model represents the
behaviour not only of the silo wall and the granular
material stored in the silo, but also shows the
interaction between the two entities when analysing
the friction that they produce. Thus, it allows
the simulation of the development of the whole
process when subjected to the impact of temperature
changes. Another advantage of the model is that it
can be used easily by engineers and researchers, even
(3) The increase of horizontal pressures is not propor-
tional to drops in temperature: this increment is
more pronounced as variations of temperature
increase.
(4) Using an elastoplastic behaviour for granular
material, an increase of horizontal pressures by
effect of temperature is only exerted in elastic zones.
Elastic zones grow when thermal loads rise. This
growth is more pronounced as the value of internal
frictional angle increases.
(5) The increase in horizontal pressures due to tempera-
ture is more pronounced with increments of the wall
thickness, modulus of elasticity of the grain and
50 by variations of grain–wall friction angle.
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