Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

PINCIPLES OF HYDROMETALLURGY
– METE 351
Credits: 3

Dr. (Mrs.) Bennetta Koomson

Materials Engineering Department

Faculty of Mechanical and Chemical Eng. College of
Engineering
January, 2022
 Course Information
 Lecturer: Ing. Dr. ( Mrs.) Bennetta Koomson
 Office : 325b Petroleum Building
 Email: bkoomson.coe@knust.edu.gh
 Lecture Hours: Tuesdays, 10:30 am – 12:25 pm
Fridays, 9:00 am – 9:55 am
 Website: KNUST Virtual Classroom
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 Course Objective(s)
The course aims at providing students with
understanding in hydrometallurgical rinciples and
techniques that are used in the processing of minerals.

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 Course Outline
Week Topic
1-2 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy
3-4 Leaching reactions and methods (acid, alkaline and pressure
leaching)
5-7 Purification and Concentration Processes

8 Mid-Sem Examination
9-10 Precipitation of metals and oxides
11-12 Solid liquid separation processes
Final Examination
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 Recommended Books
 Havlik, T. (2014) Hydrometallurgy: Principles and Applications,
Woodhead Publishing

 Gupta, C. K. Mukherjee, T. K. (1990) Hydrometallurgy in Extraction

Processes, Volume I, CRC Press

 Free, M. L., 2013. Hydrometallurgy: fundamentals and applications.

John Wiley & Sons.

 Habashi, F. (2002) Textbook of Hydrometallurgy, 2nd Edition

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 Course Assessment
Factor Weight (%)
Assignments (2) 5
Quizes (5) 10
Mid-Sem Exam 10
Attendance 5
Final Exam 70
Total 100

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 Some Ethics
1. Be punctual
2. Dress properly
3. No noise during lectures
4. Observe all COVID protocols
5. Seek permission when you need to excuse yourself from
class
6. To absent yourself from class, seek permission through
writing
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 KNUST COVID-19 AWARENESS
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Transmission: Respiratory droplets, airborne, contaminated surfaces.
Prevention: Adhere to the KNUST COVID-19 safety protocols
• Respiratory hygiene: Wear a nose mask, cough etiquettes
• Hand hygiene: Frequent hand washing, hand sanitizing
• Maintain ‘safe’ physical distancing
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Virus is changing itself with even more serious ramifications, so it is
important we all adhere to the safety protocols
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 Lecture One - Introduction

Learning Objectives

• General introduction to Principles of Hydrometallurgy

• To understand and briefly explain hydrometallurgy under two minutes

• To know the steps in hydrometallurgical extraction processes

• Understand basic metal extraction principles

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy

Procedures used to recover metallic elements from minerals to obtain metals

of required purity for specific applications describes EXTRATIVE METALLURGY.

HYDROMETALLURGY is a branch of extractive metallurgy.

It involves the application of aqueous chemicals (sometimes organic

reagents) and generally low temperatures for the selective extraction or
separation of the metal of interest from its ores and concentrates.

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy

Hydrometallurgy is generally used to recover values from low grade ores, but
it has been used to extract metals from concentrate, matte, species and
scrap

The guide to consider here is the purity of metal of interest required.

Some hydro met. processes produce relative purity while others
produce almost 100 % purity.

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy

The use of low temperatures (less than 100 oC), as compared to

pyrometallurgy, confers the advantages of lower energy requirements, and
generally lower costs to hydrometallurgical processing.

Hydrometallurgical processes range from Leaching of ores and

concentrates (to bring the minerals of interest into solution) to Solution
Purification and Recovery of the metals or compounds by chemical
and/or electrochemical precipitation

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps

Value metal recovery

Leachate / Leach Liquor Separation

Leaching

Ore Preparation

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps

1. Ore preparation
a. comminution (Crushing & Grinding)
b. removal of specific impurities by physical methods
c. Roasting (where necessary)
d. chemical / physico-chemical treatment to render these values
soluble to the subsequent leaching operation or to prevent the
leaching reagent from being consumed by impurities (Discuss).

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps
1. Ore preparation (d. DISCUSSION)
Pretreatment (Chemical Changes) in the minerals, which may involve
pyro metallurgical processes, are aimed at obtaining the metal or metal
compound of interest in a form that is more easily dissolved in the
leach liquor.

The following examples are illustrative:

𝑨𝒖𝑻𝒆(𝟐)(𝒔) + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝑨𝒖(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑻𝒆(𝒈) −−− −(𝑬𝒒 𝟏. 𝟏 )
𝒁𝒏𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟏. 𝟓𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑺𝑶𝟐(𝒈) −−− −(𝐄𝐪 𝟏. 𝟐)

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps
1. Ore preparation (d. DISCUSSION)
From Eq 1 &2, gold telluride (AuTe2) and zinc sulfide
(ZnS) are insoluble in common lixiviants. However, elemental gold
(Au) is readily soluble in cyanide solutions, and zinc oxide (ZnO) is
easily dissolved in dilute acid solutions

𝑨𝒖𝑻𝒆(𝟐)(𝒔) + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝑨𝒖(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑻𝒆(𝒈) −− −(𝑬𝒒 𝟏. 𝟏 )

𝒁𝒏𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟏. 𝟓𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 𝑺𝑶𝟐(𝒈) −− −(𝐄𝐪 𝟏. 𝟐)

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps
1. Ore preparation (d. DISCUSSION)

During ore preparation, some chemical changes may be effected in the

associated gangue minerals, in such a way as to make the gangue
minerals less soluble in the leaching solution.

• the case of excessive cyanide (CN) consumption by pyrrhotite (FeS)

in some gold ores according to:
𝑭𝒆𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯+
(𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑪𝑵 −
(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵) 𝟒−
𝟔 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑺(𝒈) −− −(𝑬𝒒 𝟏. 𝟑)

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps
1. Ore preparation (d. DISCUSSION)
• the case of excessive cyanide (CN) consumption by pyrrhotite (FeS)
in some gold ores according to:
𝑭𝒆𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯+
(𝒂𝒒) + 𝟔𝑪𝑵 −
(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵) 𝟒−
𝟔 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑺(𝒈) −− −(𝑬𝒒 𝟏. 𝟑)

• heating the ore in an atmosphere of oxygen, converts pyrrhotite to

hematite ( 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ), which is insoluble in cyanide leach solution,
according to the reaction:
𝟐𝑭𝒆𝑺(𝒔) + 𝟑. 𝟓𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 → 𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (𝒔) + 𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) −− −(𝑬𝒒 𝟏. 𝟒)
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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps

2. Leaching – selective dissolution of metal values using a lixiviant

in an aqueous medium. Process depends on
a. temperature
b. pressure
c. volume of lixiviant (leaching liquid)
d. ore particle size
e. composition and concentration of the lixiviant / reagent
f. pulp density
g. time / duration of the leaching reaction
h. degree of aeration of the leaching reagent
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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps

3. Leachate separation - leach liquor is separated from the

residue by
a. settling / sedimentation
b. thickening
c. filtrations
d. Washing

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Major steps

4. Metal recovery -
a. precipitation
b. cementation
c. electrolysis
d. ion exchange
e. solvent extraction
f. recycling of leach liquor
The barren solution is recycled after it has been purified and its
composition is re-adjusted.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Aqueous metal extraction or leaching is the process of extracting metal or a
valuable entity found within an object

Metal extraction (Hydro) is typically performed using ore particles and a

lixiviant.

NB: In metal extraction the ore mineral (e.g. chalcopyrite) may be finely
disseminated in the ore and can be easily observed when magnified. In other
cases, the distribution of valuable mineral involves larger valuable mineral
particles and a less random distribution (See Fig. 1)

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Basic Metal Extraction Principles

Fig. 1 Finely disseminated minerals in an ore

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Basic Metal Extraction Principles

Chalcopyrite with Dolomite

and Calcite

Fig. 2 Coarsely disseminated minerals in an ore

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Ore particles must contain natural pores through which reagents can very
slowly penetrate.

Hydrometallurgical extraction is only possible under appropriate solution

conditions.

Most metals are soluble, and therefore extractable, at very low pH and high
potentials or at very high pH and moderate potentials.

Note: Metal extraction is often referred to as leaching. Leaching types include in

situ, dump, heap, atmospheric tank, pressure, and concentrate leaching.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
• Conditions needed for leaching to occur are determined using
thermodynamics.

• Consequently, phase diagrams are often used to ascertain the solution

environment that will be necessary for leaching.

• Consider a simplified copper phase diagram that includes several other copper
compunds.

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Permeability is the ability of a medium to conduct a fluid. As the

fluid travels through a bed of particles, there is tremendous drag
due to the surfaces over which the fluid flows.

• When solution is applied to a bed of particles, some regions

become saturated with fluid. Other regions have voids as Solution
flows more rapidly through regions that have good permeability.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Theoretically, the flow through the pores that form

between particles in a bed can be described as being
similar to flow through tubes using the Poiseuille equation

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds
• Poiseuille equation, states that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the radius to the fourth power,

• The flow rate is thus, extremely sensitive to the variations in

pore size, which is a function of particle size and particle size
distribution.

• Thus, as particle size decreases, there is a tremendous decrease

in the flow rate through a bed of particles.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Poiseuille described laminar flow through a single tube with

Equation (1.1)

4
𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑃𝜋𝑟
= Eqn (1.1)
𝑑𝑡 8𝜇𝐿

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds
where ;
V = volume of fluid,
t = time,
P = pressure drop,
r = radius of the tube or pore,
μ = viscosity, and
L = thickness or height of the bed of particles.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

Note: Pore or tube diameter is a critical parameter in

determining flow.

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Kozeny transformed Poiseuille Equation (1.1) to the Kozeny –

Carmen equation (1.2).

• This equation reveals the importance of porosity in the bed. If

the bed becomes compacted significantly by heavy equipment,
its ability to transport leaching solutions and oxygen will be
greatly diminished.
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Kozeny – Carmen transformed the Poiseuille Equation relationship

in terms of bed porosity (not to be confused with particle
porosity), particle surface area, and flow area using a
characteristic constant as shown in Equation 1.2

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds

• Kozeny – Carmen Equation (1.2).

2
𝑑𝑉 𝜀𝑏𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑃
= Eqn (1.2)
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝐾 𝜇(1 − 𝜀𝑏𝑒𝑑 )2 𝑆𝑝2 𝐿

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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds
where ;
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑑 is the area of the bed through which fluid is
flowing,
𝜀𝑏𝑒𝑑 is the bed porosity or fraction of the particle bed
that contains voids,
𝐾𝐾 is the Kozeny constant, and
𝑆𝑝 is the specific surface area of the particles
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 Basic Metal Extraction Principles
Permeability and Fluid Flow Through Particle Beds
where ;
𝑨𝒃𝒆𝒅 = the area of the bed through which fluid is flowing,

𝜺𝒃𝒆𝒅 = the bed porosity or fraction of the particle bed that

contains voids,

𝑲𝑲 = the Kozeny constant, and

𝑺𝒑 = the specific surface area of the particles
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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Advantages
1. Hydrometallurgical methods are ideally suited for lean and
complex ores.

2. Hydrometallurgical operation ensures great control than other

conventional method over every step in the processing of ore.
Resulting in the recovery of valuable by products.

3. It is ecofriendly, it does not create much pollution like pyro

metallurgical operation.
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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Advantages

4. Processes are generally carried out at room temperature or

slightly elevated temperature (max. 100 °C).

5. The waste liquor from the final recovery step can be recycled to
the initial leaching operation.

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Advantages

6. Besides meeting the mounting demand for both the quantity and
quality of metals, hydrometallurgy can produce metal in a variety of
physical form such as powders, nodules, and coherent surface
deposit.

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 Introduction - Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgical Process – Disadvantages

1. Handling of large amount of chemicals become difficult and also a large

amount of space is required.

2. The cost of the reagent and equipment is high.

3. Corrosion and erosion of tanks and ducts used for strong and handling
fluids.

4. In hydrometallurgy, the disposal of effluent without causing pollution

posses a serious problem
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Ex. 1
[10 marks]

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 Hands On
1. Determine the new maximum fluid flow rate into a heap leaching
operation related to the ore flow rate, if the old porosity is 0.40 the new
porosity 0.38 and all other factors are constant.

2. Determine the new maximum fluid flow rate into a heap leaching
operation related to the ore flow rate, if the old porosity is 0.60 the new
porosity 0.38 and all other factors are constant.

3. A lixiviant flow through a large tube of radius 2.5 mm is found to be 20 cm

long. The pressure across the tube ends is 380 Pa, calculate the lixiviant
average speed. Using the lixiviant viscosity of 0.0027 N.s/m2
[10 marks]
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