Technology, Pedagogy and Education

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The role of the Internet in teachers’ professional

practice: activities and factors associated
with teacher use of ICT inside and outside the
classroom

Andrea Ibieta, J. Enrique Hinostroza, Christian Labbé & Magdalena Claro

To cite this article: Andrea Ibieta, J. Enrique Hinostroza, Christian Labbé & Magdalena Claro
(2017): The role of the Internet in teachers’ professional practice: activities and factors associated
with teacher use of ICT inside and outside the classroom, Technology, Pedagogy and Education,
DOI: 10.1080/1475939X.2017.1296489

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Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2017.1296489

The role of the Internet in teachers’ professional practice:

activities and factors associated with teacher use of ICT inside and
outside the classroom
Andrea Ibietaa,c, J. Enrique Hinostrozaa, Christian Labbéa and Magdalena Clarob
a
Institute of ICT in Education, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; bCenter for the Study of Educational
Policy and Practice (CEPPE), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; cDepartment of Psychology,
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Evidence shows that teachers’ use of information and communication Received 27 January 2015
technology (ICT) in the classroom is still limited in variety and frequency. Accepted 30 November 2016
However, their use of ICT outside the classroom, while more frequent, has
KEYWORDS
been less studied. Our research aims to identify personal factors associated ICT in teaching and learning;
with teachers’ ICT use inside and outside the classroom. Data from a teachers’ use of ICT; factors
questionnaire administered to a nationwide sample of 6932 teachers in Chile associated with teachers’
was used to characterise their activities and perceptions associated with use of ICT; teachers’ use of
ICT. Multiple regression analyses were applied to determine relationships Internet
between them. The findings show first, that teachers use ICT more frequently
outside the classroom for class preparation; second, that their perceptions of
ICT impact on professional practice is the main factor associated with their
use of ICT inside and outside the classroom; third, that less experienced
teachers use communication tools with colleagues and students more often;
and finally, that there is a need to examine teachers’ use of (ready-made)
Internet resources.

Introduction
For many decades, researchers and policymakers have been promoting the introduction and use
of information and communication technology (ICT) in education. ICT is considered to be a catalyst
(McDonald & Ingvarson, 1997), a lever (Venezky, 2002) or a Trojan Horse (Olson, 2000) that will bring
change and innovation to the classroom. Moreover, various authors argue that adopting ICT in teaching
processes entails many benefits for students, particularly a potential improvement in their learning
achievement (Angeli & Valanides, 2009; Hinostroza, Labbé, Brun, & Matamala, 2011; Law, Pelgrum, &
Plomp, 2008; Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, & Schmid, 2011). It is also argued that use of these
technologies can encourage and develop students’ construction and creation of ideas, facilitate their
formulation of hypotheses, allow them to learn in community and promote deep learning (Fullan &
Langworthy, 2014; Leach & Moon, 2000; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). Moreover, Bransford, Brown, and
Cocking (1999) argued that technology also improves learning among teachers and school adminis-
trators by broadening connections among the school, community and homes. However, the results of
large-scale studies show that the reality in schools lags considerably behind this and other promises
of technology (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2015).

CONTACT  Andrea Ibieta  enrique.hinostroza@iie.cl

© 2017 Association for Information Technology in Teacher Education
2    A. IBIETA ET AL.

After almost three decades, there is a growing body of evidence associating specific uses of
ICT in teaching and learning with positive impacts on student outcomes (Tamim et al., 2011;
Underwood, 2009). Yet evidence associated with large-scale interventions is still inconclusive and
in many cases contradictory (Hinostroza, Isaacs, & Bougroum, 2014; Kozma, 2011). Various empirical
studies have not been able to consistently demonstrate a relation between the use or availabil-
ity of ICT and student learning. This association is far more complex and needs to be explained
considering other factors that could lie beyond mere access and use (Claro, 2010; Kozma, 2011;
OECD, 2015; Pedró, 2012).
Adoption of technology in the teaching and learning process is relatively infrequent (Law et al.,
2008; OECD, 2015). For example, in OECD countries, it was reported that ‘the percentage of students
that use a computer at least 60 minutes a week in the classroom is less than 4% of the total’ (Pedró,
2011, p. 20). The SITES 2006 study indicates that ‒ in 21 of the 22 educational systems taking part ‒
although all schools had access to the Internet and computers for pedagogical use, the frequency of
use in the classroom was relatively low (Law et al., 2008). Furthermore, international studies such as
SITES M2 (IEA, 2000), SITES 2006 (IEA, 2006) and ICILS (Fraillon, Ainley, Schulz, Friedman, & Gebhardt,
2014) report that pedagogical practices involving ICTs are aimed at supporting traditional teaching
practices.
However, other studies show that teachers use these technologies in their professional practice more
frequently than is usually stated, particularly outside the classroom context. Specifically, results show
that teachers frequently use ICTs for class planning and preparation (Hsu, 2011; Meneses, Fàbregues,
Rodríguez-Gómez, & Ion, 2012; Miranda & Russell, 2012; Russell, Bebell, O’Dwyer, & O’Connor, 2003) and
for school projects and assignments. These activities require students to use the Internet to search for,
assess and analyse information, and as productivity tools to create reports and presentations (Fraillon
et al., 2014; Hogarty, Lang, & Kromrey, 2003; Hsu, 2011; Tondeur, van Braak, & Valcke, 2007).
Considering that teachers are key agents in educational change and innovation processes (Barber
& Mourshed, 2007; Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012), and that they decide when and how to use ICTs in
their professional practice (Ertmer, 2005; Shin, 2015), it is important to identify personal factors
associated with the activities performed by teachers who use technology for their teaching. Studies
are needed which consider not only the tools implemented in the classroom, but also those imple-
mented outside the classroom. Our study proposes the research question ‘What are the personal
factors related with the frequency of teachers’ computer and Internet activities inside and outside
the classroom?’
To address this question, the study characterises activities that teachers carry out with technol-
ogy inside and outside the classroom, identifies personal factors associated with these activities and
describes their relationship. Answering the proposed research question can provide valuable evidence
for designing strategies to promote and improve teachers’ use of ICT in their professional practice,
suggesting new questions that call for further research in this area.

Literature review
ICT use by teachers inside and outside the classroom
This section provides a summary of studies related to the use of ICT by teachers in their professional
practice, making a distinction between activities that are carried out inside and outside the classroom.
Regarding ICT activities inside the classroom, Russell et al. (2003) put forward that teachers mainly
use technology to provide content, direct student activities and support students in terms of their
special education needs. Hsu (2011) concurred with the activities described by Russell et al. (2003),
and emphasised that most activities carried out within the classroom are linked to content presenta-
tion. Recent reports from international studies show that teachers relatively frequently assign students
projects that require use of ICT, in that they involve use of the Internet to search for information and
assemble content, and use of a text processor to draft reports (OECD, 2015). Finally, Sang, Valcke, van
 TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION   3

Braak, Tondeur, and Zhu (2011) found that teachers who use ICT to support administration activities
also use technology in the classroom more frequently.
There are fewer studies that analyse activities involving ICT use outside the classroom (Meneses et al.,
2012). Those that exist agree that the most frequent activities are those related to lesson p ­ reparation,
such as creating resources and using the Internet to search for and gather material (Hogarty et al.,
2003; Hsu, 2011; Tondeur et al., 2007), elaborating content, searching for classroom resources and using
word processors to format materials for presentation (Hsu, 2011; Purcell, Heaps, Buchanan, & Friedrich,
2013; Russell et al., 2003). Qualitative studies show that teachers use computers and the Internet to
search for ready-to-use materials (e.g. presentations to use in the classroom), complementary materi-
als (e.g. images, videos) and resources to complement instructional strategies (e.g. graphs, diagrams)
(Hinostroza, Ibieta, Claro, & Labbé, 2016).
In summary, inside the classroom teachers report frequent preparation of content and assignment
of projects that require ICT use. Outside the classroom, evidence suggests that activities are related
mainly with lesson preparation.

Personal factors influencing ICT use by teachers

Adoption of ICT in education has frequently been linked to innovation and change processes; there is
considerable literature addressing this issue from the institutional viewpoint, suggesting ways to imple-
ment innovation and change and/or educational processes in schools (see for example Fullan, 2007,
2012; Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012). There are also studies analysing factors affecting ICT use in teaching
and learning activities from a broader perspective (see for example Wagner et al., 2005). These studies
generally agree in grouping these factors into three levels: system, school and individual (Kozma, 2003).
Our study focuses on factors at the individual level, particularly those associated with teachers such as
their perceptions about ICT, self-confidence in the use of ICT etc. In general, individual factors outweigh
system or school factors. In addition, we consider a broader range of ICT use by teachers, including their
professional practice in general and not only their activities in the classroom.
Mumtaz (2000) carried out an extensive review of the literature on the factors affecting teachers’
use of ICT in classroom, finding that – on the individual level – the most influential were beliefs about
the way the subject should be taught, together with skills associated with competence in managing
classroom activities (e.g. teachers’ theories about teaching) and computer-handling technical skills
(associated with their experience in using ICT). In addition, Mumtaz (2000) found that the combination
of factors, such as the value that teachers placed on ICT, their perception of its usefulness, motivation,
commitment to student learning, positive attitudes and perception of student expertise in ICT use, all
facilitate integration of ICT.
More recent studies have shown that teachers’ attitudes (towards computers in education, technol-
ogy competence and innovativeness) are also important factors associated with the use of ICT in the
classroom. For example, Shin (2015) showed that such factors explain 22% of the variance of technol-
ogy integration in classroom practice, together with aptitude and disposition towards the use of ICT.
In a similar vein, other studies show that teachers’ attitudes toward the value of technology in improv-
ing learning have a strong effect on their use of technology in the classroom (Blackwell, Lauricella, &
Wartella, 2014; Inan & Lowther, 2010; Petko, 2012). Among other psychological factors, Sang et al. (2011)
found that motivation variables have a direct effect on the adoption of technology in the classroom.
Other authors, using the technology acceptance model theory (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989),
have shown that these attitudes are influenced by factors such as perceived usefulness, perceived
ease of use and technological complexity (Teo, Milutinović, & Zhou, 2016). Several recent studies have
confirmed that teachers’ self-perception of their capability and possession of the skills required to
integrate technology are key factors for integrating technology into teaching practice (Blackwell et al.,
2014; Chen, 2010; Inan & Lowther, 2010; Petko, 2012). Similarly, the SITES 2006 study sought to explain
factors influencing the frequency of teacher adoption of technology for certain teaching and learning
4    A. IBIETA ET AL.

practices, showing that teachers’ perception of their ability to use ICT for teaching is the best predictor
of ICT integration into teaching practice (Law et al., 2008).
Finally, other variables such as gender, age and years of service are also mentioned in the literature;
however, their impact is not entirely clear (Law et al., 2008). Tondeur, Valcke, and van Braak (2008) found
that gender is associated with specific types of computer use by primary teachers; in particular, male
teachers report integrating the computer more often. Other investigations show that socio-demo-
graphic variables, such as age and teaching experience, explain only 2.7% of the variance in technol-
ogy integration, whereas attitudinal and socio-organisational factors explain 21.8% and 15.2% of the
variance respectively (Shin, 2015).
To summarise, the most commonly reported factors associated with teachers’ use of ICT in teaching
and learning are those related to their perception of self-efficacy in ICT use as well as their perception
of the impact of ICT on student learning and on their professional practice.
Taking a different perspective, there is research that focuses on the factors that inhibit ICT use by
teachers. More than fifteen years ago, Ertmer (1999) identified two sets of barriers affecting the inte-
gration of technology which she called first and second order. First-order barriers are external factors
related to teachers’ perceptions of the availability of pedagogical resources, support and training pro-
vided by the school. Second-order barriers include intrinsic factors such as teachers’ ICT confidence,
their beliefs about student learning and the perceived value of technology for the teaching/learning
process. For Ertmer, once first-order barriers have been overcome, intrinsic factors interfere deeply
with ICT integration. Other reviews of barriers to ICT use in pedagogical practice found that the three
most quoted barriers are resources (software, hardware and support); teacher knowledge and skills
(pedagogical and technological); and teacher attitudes and beliefs with regard to technology (Hew &
Brush, 2007). In general, these findings coincide with those reported by other studies, pointing out that
insufficient access to technology and the lack of pedagogical skills in using technology are the main
factors hindering ICT integration in teaching and learning (Ertmer, Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Sadik, Sendurur,
& Sendurur, 2012; Kim, Kim, Lee, Spector, & DeMeester, 2013; Tondeur et al., 2012).
Finally, it is important to note that almost all the studies reviewed analyse the factors affecting teach-
ers’ use of ICT in classroom practice. Very few focus on factors associated with teachers’ use of computers
and Internet outside the classroom, the context in which teachers use technology more frequently (Hsu,
2011). The identification of factors affecting out-of-the-classroom use of ICT is relevant, since it may be
related with the type of teaching strategies that teachers implement in the classroom, and consequently
with students’ learning outcomes (OECD, 2014; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007).

Method
Our study was based on a transversal design; it analysed data from a ‘National ICT in Education
Questionnaire’ for teachers implemented by the Chilean Ministry of Education in 2012 (Mineduc, 2012).

Participants
A purposeful sample was selected of between three and six teachers per school who taught Spanish
language, mathematics and science in tenth grade. These subjects were chosen because they are
taught more hours per week than other curriculum subjects; while tenth grade was chosen in view
of the possibility of connecting the results with international studies (such as PISA). The number of
teachers sampled in each school was based on the size of the school (number of students). Thus, out
of a total of 20,985 teachers who participated in the national study, a sub-sample of 6932 teachers
(60% female, 40% male) who matched the criterion were selected, and who taught in 2224 secondary
schools across the country.
 TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION   5

Instrument
A teacher questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire was designed to inquire into
the teacher’s academic background, experience in the use of ICT, ICT training, access and use of ICT at
school and home, beliefs about the use of technology for teaching and learning, perceived impacts of
ICT on teaching and learning, and beliefs about education in general. The questionnaire consisted of
25 questions, 11 of which used a Likert scale. The questions included the number of computers/pres-
ence of an Internet connection at home, years as a computer user, type and frequency of ICT-related
activities inside and outside the classroom, and attitudes toward technology. The questionnaire was
administered in every school by an external assistant (usually in the common room) and could be
completed online or on paper.

Data collection and analysis

The questionnaire was administered nationally by the Chilean Ministry of Education between May
and September 2012. The data was cleaned and processed by the Ministry and released in 2013 for
research purposes.
Based on this data, we first characterised the ICT activities carried out by the teachers. The second
stage was to characterise teachers’ perceptions related to ICTs, professional skills and other individual
variables included in the questionnaire. For these two stages, two procedures were implemented. First,
an exploratory factor analysis with direct oblimin rotation was done to define underlying dimensions
related to teacher activities and perceptions; the factor retention criteria was the variance percentage
explained by each one, the number of variables (more than three), their interpretation, and with a
factor weighting of more than 0.30 (Schmitt, 2011). Then the factor scores for each dimension were
calculated, using the average scores obtained in the variables. Descriptive analyses were performed to
analyse frequency of the activities and perceptions about ICT. A Pearson correlation analysis was done
to explore the relations between the types of activities. The object of the final stage was to identify the
association between the factors and activities through a multiple regression analysis.

Characterisation of teachers’ use of ICT

The factor analysis considered two questions: one asked about the frequency of activities related with
the use of ICTs for management and lesson preparation that included 14 items; the second asked about
the frequency of activities related with use of ICT for teaching and learning, which included 13 items.
The analysis identified five types of activities:

Search and preparation of pedagogical resources. This type of activity is carried out outside the
(1)  
classroom and includes, among other activities, Internet search for useful teaching resources,
and the preparation of presentations, demonstrations or instructions with these resources.
(2)  Support for professional development. This type of activity is carried out outside the classroom
and includes teachers’ online searches for professional development opportunities or inno-
vative projects for the school to take part in.
Communication with the educational community. This type of activity, carried out outside the
(3)  
classroom, includes the use of digital platforms, emails to students and parents, and emails
or uploading work documents in the school website.
Online pedagogical support. This type of activity, carried out outside the classroom, includes
(4)  
teachers’ use of ICTs to coordinate aspects related with pedagogical management in coor-
dination with the school leadership team and knowledge reinforcement for students, using
digital resources such as email, chats, forums or other tools.
(5)  Teaching with ICT. This type of activity, carried out inside the classroom, includes teacher pres-
entation of information, demonstrations, instructions or giving digital references to students
for research assignments or projects. Also included are activities involving teaching and asking
6    A. IBIETA ET AL.

the students to search, analyse and appraise information available on the Internet, as well as
for giving presentations or demonstrations in front of the class.

As can be appreciated, the first four types of activities are implemented outside the classroom and
only the last type is implemented inside the classroom.

Characterisation of teachers’ perceptions related with the use of ICT

The factor analysis considered three questions. The first question inquired into teachers’ beliefs about
the use of technology for teaching and learning (14 items); the second question asked about the per-
ceived impacts of ICT on teachers (12 items) and students (10 items); and the third question asked about
teachers’ beliefs about education in general (8 items). The analysis identified seven factors:

Perception of self-efficacy in ICT use. This factor represents perceptions with regard to teacher
(1)  
confidence in testing new ways of working with ICTs and their skill in using them efficiently
and adopting them for professional activities. It also includes their perception of flexibility in
decision-making when planning classes with ICTs, and their ability to identify the most useful
tools for achieving their teaching aims.
Perception of the availability of ICT resources in the school. This factor is related with teacher
(2)  
perception of the value attached to ICTs at the school, and whether the school has the nec-
essary infrastructure and resources for the use of technology for teaching.
Perception of student ICT capability. This factor is related with teacher perception of students’
(3)  
respect of ethical and social norms associated with the use of ICT, their skills and their ICT
access outside the school.
Perception of the impact on student learning. This factor is related with teacher perception of
(4)  
the impact of ICT on students. In particular, whether students have improved their knowledge
and understanding of other cultures or countries as well as their own; whether they have
improved their ability to solve problems, research and search for information, and if they have
improved their ability to work autonomously and collaboratively. It also explores whether
the use of ICT has impacted students’ interest and motivation for the subject taught and for
learning in general, and whether they have improved their grades in learning assessments.
Perception of the impact on professional practice. This factor represents teacher perception
(5)  
of the impact of technology on their teaching practice, planning activities and institutional
management. The first aspect considers whether they perceive that the use of ICT has made
them more effective in adopting new teaching methods and in monitoring, giving feedback
and organising student learning. The second considers whether they perceive that by using
technology they are able to perform administrative work more easily, access better and more
varied learning resources, and create opportunities for collaboration with peers and experts
inside and outside the school.
Perception of general self-efficacy. This factor is related with teacher perception of their ability
(6)  
to influence and affect the behaviour and learning of all their students.
Perception of the influence of family-related factors. This factor is related with teacher percep-
(7)  
tion of the influence of the students’ family context on their behaviour and ability to learn.

Association between teacher characteristics and ICT activities

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine how much of the variance of the five
types of teachers’ activities with ICT was accounted for by each of the predictor variables identified
earlier (Todman & Dugard, 2007). In particular, socio-demographic variables of gender, years of service
and years using computers were included in Step 1. In Step 2, teachers’ perceptions of various aspects
related to ICT and professional practice were incorporated.
 TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION   7

Results
Frequency of teachers’ activities with ICT
Table 1 shows the frequency of types of activities that teachers do with ICT. As can be seen, the most
frequent types of activities that teachers do with ICT are done outside the classroom, namely ‘search
and preparation of resources’, ‘support for professional development’ and ‘communication with the
educational community’. More specifically, 91% of teachers answered that they always or almost always
search the Internet for useful pedagogical resources and 68% prepare presentations for explaining con-
tent with the same frequency. Consistent with this, 55% of the teachers declared that in the classroom
they present information and give demonstrations and/or instructions to the entire class with the help
of ICTs. Furthermore, 51% of them always or almost always search online for professional development
opportunities (see details in Appendix 1).
As expected, the results presented in Table 2 show that all the types of activity are significantly
correlated; however, the strongest correlations are between the activities ‘teaching with ICT’, ‘online
pedagogical support’ and ‘search and preparation of pedagogical resources’.

Factors influencing personal ICT use by teachers

Table 3 shows the results of five regression models performed. It should be mentioned that all the
variables entered in the model showed a tolerance index of more than 0.6.
The results related with significant variables for each model are described below:

(1)  Search and preparation of pedagogical resources. Step 1 was significant and accounted for 5% of
the variance (F(3.6376) = 106.988, p < 0.001). This was due to the relatively small contribution
of gender, years of professional practice (negative) and years of computer use. Step 2 explained
24% of the variance (F(9.6370) = 288.615, p < 0.001). Variables making large contributions to
this were perception of impact on professional practice and perception of self-efficacy in ICT
use. Perception of impact on student learning presented a medium contribution. Finally, the
perception of student ICT capability showed a small, negative contribution.
Support for professional development. Step 1 accounted for 3% of the variance in this type of
(2)  
activity (F(3.6356) = 55.811, p < 0.001). Variables which made a small contribution were years
of professional practice (negative) and years of computer use. Additionally, Step 2 explained
18% of the variance (F(9.6350) = 187.605, p < 0.001). In this case, the variable with the largest
contribution was the perception of impact on professional practice. Additionally, self-efficacy

Table 1. Results of the frequency of teachers’ activities with ICT.

Type of activity Frequency1 Standard deviation
Search and preparation of resources 2.97 0.71
Support for professional development 2.12 0.74
Communication with the educational community 2.00 0.71
Online pedagogical support 1.86 0.69
Teaching with ICT 1.99 0.67
1
Scale of the frequency of ICT use is 1: Never, almost never; 2: Occasionally; 3: Commonly; 4: Always or almost always.

Table 2 Results of the correlation analysis between the types of teachers’ activities with ICT.
Type of activity 1 2 3 4
1. Search and preparation of pedagogical resources
2. Support for professional development 0.461**
3. Communication with the educational community 0.534** 0.521**
4. Online pedagogical support 0.480** 0.475** 0.632**
5. Teaching with ICT 0.618** 0.490** 0.534** 0.648**
**p < 0.01 (2-tailed).
8    A. IBIETA ET AL.

Table 3 Results of the hierarchical regression analyses: variables that influence teachers’ frequency of various activities with ICT.
ICT use Search and Communication
preparation of Support for with the Online
Factor
pedagogical professional ­educational ­pedagogical Teaching with
resources development community support ICT
Step 1 β (SE) β (SE) β (SE) β (SE) β (SE)
Gender (male) 0.057** (0.015) 0.073** (0.001)
Years of professional –0.075** (0.001) –0.026** (0.001) –0.339** (0.002) –0.108** (0.01) –0.041** (0.001)
practice
Years of computer 0.039** (0.001) 0.028* (0.002) 0.039** (0.002) 0.038** (0.001)
use
Step 2
Perception of 0.268** (0.021) 0.316** (0.023) 0.069** (0.03) 0.345** (0.021) 0.268** (0.02)
impact on profes-
sional practice
Perception of 0.217** (0.019) 0.171** (0.022) 0.163** (0.028) 0.083** (0.02) 0.112** (0.019)
self-efficacy in
ICT use
Perception of 0.127** (0.017) 0.035* (0.02) 0.079** (0.018) 0.207** (0.018)
impact on student
learning
Perception of the –0.107** (0.015) –0.088** (0.019) 0.037* (0.013)
availability of ICT
resources in the
school
Perception of gener- 0.071** (0.019) 0.047** (0.017) 0.025* (0.017)
al self-efficacy
Perception of stu- –0.043** (0.014) –0.031* (0.016) 0.039* (0.014)
dent ICT capability
Total R2 (R2 x 100) 29% 21% 20% 26% 29%
Note: *p < 0.05;; **p < 0.01.; Considering that in general, absolute values of standardised beta (β) in all models range from 0 to
0.35, for simplicity the range can be divided in three segments and absolute values of β lower than 0.11 are interpreted as small,
between 0.11 and lower than 0.22 as medium, and 0.22 and above as large.

in ICT use and perception of the availability of ICT resources in the school (negative) showed
a medium contribution. Finally, the perception of impact on student learning, perception
of general self-efficacy and perception of student ICT capability (negative) showed small
contributions.
Communication with the educational community. In this model, Step 1 was significant and
(3)  
accounted for 16% of the variance of this type of activity (F(6.6722) = 451.095, p < 0.001).
This was due to the large, negative contribution of years of professional practice and the
small contribution of gender and years of computer use. Step 2 explained an additional 4%
of variance, (F(6.6722) = 451.095, p < 0.001), due to the medium contribution of the variable
perception of self-efficacy in ICT use and the small contribution of the perception of impact
on professional practice and the availability of ICT resources in the school (negative).
(4)  Online pedagogical support. Step 1 was significant and accounted for 4% of the variance of this
type of activity (F(3.6355) = 97.749, p < 0.001). In this case, the variable years of professional
practice showed a medium, negative contribution and years of computer use showed a small
contribution. Step 2 explains another 22% of the variance (F(9.6329) = 253.419, p < 0.001).
This was due to the large contribution of the variable perception of impact on professional
practice and the small contribution of the variables perception of self-efficacy in ICT use, per-
ception of the impact on student learning, perception of general self-efficacy and perception
of students’ ICT capability.
Teaching with ICT. Step 1 was significant and accounted for 2% of the variance in this type of
(5)  
activity (F(3.6345) = 45.049, p < 0.001). This was due to the small, negative contribution of years
of professional practice. Step 2 explains 27% of the variance (F(9.6339) = 293.197, p < 0.001),
due to the large contribution of the variable perception of impact on professional practice
 TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION   9

and the medium contribution of the variables perception of impact on student learning and
perception of self-efficacy in ICT use. In addition, the availability of ICT resources in the school
and perception of general self-efficacy showed a small contribution.

In synthesis, our results firstly show that the variables included in Step 1 explain a small percentage of
the variance for almost all the types of activity, except for the type ‘communication with the educational
community’, for which teachers’ years of professional practice showed a large, negative contribution.
Secondly, the variables associated with teachers’ perceptions accounted for a much larger percentage
of the variance of the frequency of four of the five types of activity.
Thirdly, the results also show that teacher perception of impact on professional practice made a
large contribution in all the types of activity, and a small contribution to the type ‘communication with
the educational community’. ‘Self-efficacy in ICT use’ showed a large to small contribution to all types
of activity. Finally, teachers’ perception of impact on student learning made a large contribution to
the frequency of the type of activity ‘teaching with ICT’. Moreover, the variables perception of general
self-efficacy, perception of student ICT capability and perception of the availability of ICT resources
in the school showed small contributions to some types of activity only, except for the latter variable,
which showed a medium contribution to the type of activity ‘support for professional development’.

Discussion and conclusions

Our research sought on the one hand to characterise professional activities with ICT performed by
teachers inside and outside the classroom, and on the other to identify personal factors associated
with the frequency of these activities and describe their relationship.
In terms of the types of activity reported by teachers, results show that, similar to other research
(Hogarty et al., 2003; Hsu, 2011; Tondeur et al., 2007), teachers are using ICTs as a resource to support
their professional activities more frequently outside the classroom than in teaching activities inside the
classroom (Inan, Lowther, Ross, & Strahl, 2010; Law, Yuen, & Ma, 2000; Meneses et al., 2012).
The results for factors associated with teachers’ ICT use in their professional practice show that their
perceptions of various aspects of ICT have a large influence. This confirms the association between
teachers’ beliefs and attitudes towards technology and their use of ICT in the classroom (Petko, 2012;
Shin, 2015). However, in this case, the results show that these factors are also associated with teacher
use of ICT outside the classroom.
The most frequent activity is ‘search for and prepare pedagogical resources’. In particular, 91% of
the teachers almost always ‘search the Internet for useful pedagogical resources’. Results show that
this type of activity is correlated with the use of ICT in the classroom, the most frequent use being for
presentations during lessons. Results of a qualitative study of the same population of teachers in Chile
show that the type of resources they look for on the Internet are mainly ready-made presentations and
resources to motivate students (Hinostroza et al., 2016). These results are consistent with the findings of
Shin (2015), who showed that many Korean teachers use materials from third-party content websites
offering additional educational content, arguing that ‘the websites have already developed and loaded
everything with which I want to teach’ (Shin, 2015, p. 472).
Considering that the main factors influencing the frequency of these activities are teachers’ percep-
tion of the impact of ICT in professional practice, self-efficacy in ICT use and impact on student learning,
these results could show that ICT-capable teachers value ICT because of the availability of ready-made
presentations and resources that can be used directly in the classroom which have a (proven) impact
on student learning, without needing to invest additional time in preparing the lesson. In this sense,
teacher use of ICT has a concrete impact on their professional practice, saving them time and effort
during lesson preparation and ensuring an impact on their students’ learning.
These results are also consistent with the findings from research using technology acceptance mod-
els, which show that perceived usefulness and ease of use are key factors associated with teachers’ use
of ICT, possibly implying that these types of resources are perceived as useful for teaching and learning,
and easy to use, hence teachers are willing to use them in the classroom.
10    A. IBIETA ET AL.

However, this type of use of ICT has at least three associated risks. First, the use of ready-made pres-
entations and resources during the lessons can limit a teacher’s innovation potential, tending towards
the use of ‘standardised lessons’ without the required adaptation to the particular context and students’
needs. Second, in Chile there are no official guidelines or standards that can be used to evaluate the
(pedagogical, technical and communicative) quality of the resources found on the Internet, leaving this
responsibility to the teachers who could lack the required Internet search strategies and information
skills (van Deursen & van Diepen, 2013) to enable them to apply quality-related criteria (Hinostroza
et al., 2016). Third, while using these resources, teachers could be promoting a culture of ‘copy and
paste’ among students who, in turn, will search for ready-made answers for their assignments, which
can easily turn into plagiarism and/or ‘Internet dishonesty’. This is being recognised as a widespread
behaviour among secondary students in European countries, growing hand-in-hand with the increase
in new technologies and easy access to information (Dias & Bastos, 2014; Evering & Moorman, 2012).
Another relevant finding is that more than 30% of the teachers use communication tools to provide
online pedagogical support, interacting frequently not only with colleagues, but also with school lead-
ership teams and students. This is consistent with the overall trend in terms of the use of these tools in
society. However, the fact that teachers provide online pedagogical support to students could be show-
ing that they are going beyond formal interaction inside the classroom, expanding teacher–student
pedagogical interaction outside the traditional school context. This opens interesting opportunities
that deserve further research; for example of exploring, within the framework of literature associated
with the ‘learning lives’ concept (Erstad, 2012), what type of students’ out-of-school learning activities
teachers are supporting and how and to what extent this support is effective.
An association between teacher experience (years of professional practice) and the use of commu-
nication tools to provide online pedagogical support was found. On the one hand, the influence of
teachers’ experience in the frequency of ICT use has only recently started to appear as a relevant factor
(Meneses et al., 2012). On the other, these results could be indicating that there is a group of (probably
younger) teachers, who could be labelled ‘new millennium teachers’, who use technology in all of their
professional activities, especially in activities that imply communication with students to provide them
with pedagogical support. As before, this is an area that deserves further attention, particularly focusing
on new generations of teachers.
Findings show that half of the teachers look for professional development opportunities on the
Internet. The fact that the frequency of this activity has a negative association with teachers’ perception
of the availability of ICT resources in the school may indicate that schools without adequate ICT infra-
structure and support also lack other aspects, such as providing teachers with the required conditions
to develop additional skills and competencies, leading teachers to look for support outside the school.
From a different perspective, the fact that teachers’ perception of student ICT capability makes only
a small contribution to some of their activities may be explained by the (questionable) assumption that
students are digital natives (Prensky, 2001). For example, the negative contribution of this factor to the
search and preparation of pedagogical resources may indicate that teachers tend to look for resources
less frequently when they perceive that their students are capable of doing so.
In conclusion, this study shows that teachers are using technology in broader contexts and different
ways than has been commonly reported in educational research, and in particular that they use com-
puters and the Internet more frequently to support their professional activities outside the classroom.
More importantly, results show that teachers’ perceptions and some individual factors influence not
only their use of ICT in the classroom, but also their out-of-the-classroom use. Among these factors,
the perception of the impact of ICT on their professional practice is one of the most relevant, which is
associated with the search for (ready-made) resources on the Internet and their use in the classroom.
This is important because, in Chile at least, there is no official standard to evaluate the quality of these
resources, nor guidelines to ensure their appropriate integration and use in the classroom.
Finally, results show that less experienced teachers tend to use communication tools during their
professional practice more frequently than their more experienced colleagues, in particular to expand
teacher–student pedagogical interaction outside the classroom.
 TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION   11

Our findings highlight the need to complement the traditional focus on ICT in education policy –
which encourages in-classroom use of ICT – with strategies aimed at improving teachers’ out-of-the-
classroom use of ICT. In particular, teacher use of ICT for searching and using ready-made pedagogical
resources should be a focus of attention for researchers and policymakers, as well as the use of ICT to
provide pedagogical support to students outside the traditional classroom boundaries.
A limitation of the study is that the sample used included tenth-grade teachers only, and hence
cannot be generalised to all teachers in the country.

Acknowledgements
This research was possible thanks to the contribution from National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development
(Fondecyt No. 1120551: ‘Identificación, caracterización y evaluación de estrategias de enseñanza y aprendizaje para el
desarrollo de habilidades de manejo de tecnologías de información y comunicaciones para el aprendizaje’), and from
Centro de Estudios de Políticas y Prácticas en Educación (Conicyt – CIE01).

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was supported by the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica [grant number CIE01,Fondecyt
No. 1120551].

Notes on contributors
Andrea Ibieta has an MSc in Psychology. Her research interest focuses on understanding the effects of ICT use and the
development of ICT skills in teachers and students. She works at the Institute of ICT in Education of the University of La
Frontera (Chile) and is a PhD student in Psychology at the same university.
J. Enrique Hinostroza has a PhD in Education. He is director of the Institute of ICT in Education of the Universidad de La
Frontera. His research areas include the use of ICT in teaching and learning processes, students’ digital competencies and
ICT in education policies.
Christian Labbé has a PhD in Education. His research interest is focused on understanding the effects of ICT use in teachers
and students. He works at the Institute of ICT in Education of the University of La Frontera.
Magdalena Claro, PhD, is a research associate in the Center for the Study of Educational Policy and Practice (CEPPE) in Chile.
Her research interest is understanding the relationship between education and digital culture, specifically by studying
students’ digital skills.

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 14 

Appendix 1. Frequency of activities that teachers do with ICT.

  A. IBIETA ET AL.

Factor Questions Never/ Almost Occasion- Com-

never ally monly
Search and preparation of resources Search the Internet for useful pedagogical resources 1% 8% 91%
Prepare presentations for explaining content to students 8% 25% 68%
Plan and implement classes considering the available ICT equipment at the school 12% 33% 56%
Prepare or plan classes that involve ICT use by students 9% 36% 55%
Professional development Search online for professional development opportunities 16% 33% 51%
Search the Internet for information about innovative projects where the school can take part 19% 40% 42%
Exchange thoughts, experience and resources related to ICT use with peers 44% 34% 23%
Take online courses on instrumental or pedagogical use of ICTs 56% 27% 17%
Communication with the educational Send work documents by email or upload to an educational platform 26% 29% 45%
community Visit the school website to see dates of events, announcements and so on 38% 27% 35%
Use ICTs to communicate with students 38% 33% 29%
Use ICTs to prepare presentations, materials and so on for meetings with parents and tutors 42% 31% 27%
Use ICTs to communicate with parents and tutors 67% 21% 12%
Activities with ICTs in the classroom Present information, give demonstrations and/or instructions to the entire class with the help of 22% 34% 55%
ICTs
Give students digital references for exploration and research activities 24% 40% 35%
Teach students how to search, analyse and appraise available information on the Internet 32% 38% 31%
Organise activities for students to use ICTs to give presentations or demonstrations before the 31% 39% 30%
entire class
Ask students to do research projects or activities using ICTs during class 38% 38% 25%
Organise activities for students to do exercises on a computer individually (or in twos) 39% 38% 23%
Organise activities for students to use ICTs to carry out collaborative activities with their peers 39% 38% 23%
Teach students how to use ICTs 48% 35% 17%
Organise activities for which students freely navigate the Internet under teacher supervision 54% 30% 16%
Communication Use ICTs to coordinate and/or plan aspects related to pedagogical management with the school 35% 29% 36%
leadership team
Give students supplementary or knowledge reinforcement materials in digital format 33% 34% 32%
Give individual or group feedback to students using email, chat, forums or other tools 59% 27% 15%
Communicate with students to give individual advice and/or support using ICTs 59% 26% 14%