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ALLAMA IQBALL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMBAD

SUBMITTED by

Name. GHULAM RABANI

Student id 18bkt00032

SEMESTER Spring 2022

CORSE CODE 8604

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ASSIGNMENT No 2
.

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q.1 Define population and sampling. Explain different types of random sampling.

ANS

A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics, and a sample is a subset of
the population. The usual criteria we use in defining population are geographic, for example, “the
population of Uttar Pradesh”. In medical research, the criteria for population may be clinical,
demographic and time related.

a. Clinical and demographic characteristics define the target population, the large set of people in the world to
which the results of the study will be generalized (e.g. all schizophrenics).
b. The study population is the subset of the target population available for study (e.g. schizophrenics in the
researcher's town).
c. The study sample is the sample chosen from the study population.

Go to:

METHODS OF SAMPLING

Purposive (non-random samples)

● Volunteers who agree to participate

● Snowball sample, where one case identifies others of his kind (e.g. intravenous drug users)
● Convenient sample such as captive medical students or other readily available groups
● Quota sampling, at will selection of a fixed number from each group
● Referred cases who may be under pressure to participate
● Haphazard with combination of the above methods
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Non-random samples have certain limitations. The larger group (target population) is difficult to identify. This
may not be a limitation when generalization of results is not intended. The results would be valid for the sample
itself (internal validity). They can, nevertheless, provide important clues for further studies based on random
samples. Another limitation of non-random samples is that statistical inferences such as confidence intervals
and tests of significance cannot be estimated from non-random samples. However, in some situations, the
investigator has to make crucial judgments. One should remember that random samples are the means but
representativeness is the goal. When non-random samples are representative (compare the socio-demographic
characteristics of the sample subjects with the target population), generalization may be possible.

Random sampling methods

Simple random sampling 

A sample may be defined as random if every individual in the population being sampled has an equal likelihood
of being included. Random sampling is the basis of all good sampling techniques and disallows any method of
selection based on volunteering or the choice of groups of people known to be cooperative.[3]

In order to select a simple random sample from a population, it is first necessary to identify all individuals from
whom the selection will be made. This is the sampling frame. In developing countries, listings of all persons
living in an area are not usually available. Census may not catch nomadic population groups. Voters’ and
taxpayers’ lists may be incomplete. Whether or not such deficiencies are major barriers in random sampling
depends on the particular research question being investigated. To undertake a separate exercise of listing the
population for the study may be time consuming and tedious. Two-stage sampling may make the task feasible.

The usual method of selecting a simple random sample from a listing of individuals is to assign a number to
each individual and then select certain numbers by reference to random number tables which are published in
standard statistical textbooks. Random number can also be generated by statistical software such as EPI INFO
developed by WHO and CDC Atlanta.

Systematic sampling 

A simple method of random sampling is to select a systematic sample in which every nth person is selected from
a list or from other ordering. A systematic sample can be drawn from a queue of people or from patients ordered
according to the time of their attendance at a clinic. Thus, a sample can be drawn without an initial listing of all
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the subjects. Because of this feasibility, a systematic sample may have some advantage over a simple random
sample.

To fulfill the statistical criteria for a random sample, a systematic sample should be drawn from subjects who
are randomly ordered. The starting point for selection should be randomly chosen. If every fifth person from a
register is being chosen, then a random procedure must be used to determine whether the first, second, third,
fourth, or fifth person should be chosen as the first member of the sample.

Multistage sampling 

Sometimes, a strictly random sample may be difficult to obtain and it may be more feasible to draw the required
number of subjects in a series of stages. For example, suppose we wish to estimate the number of CATSCAN
examinations made of all patients entering a hospital in a given month in the state of Maharashtra. It would be
quite tedious to devise a scheme which would allow the total population of patients to be directly sampled.
However, it would be easier to list the districts of the state of Maharashtra and randomly draw a sample of these
districts. Within this sample of districts, all the hospitals would then be listed by name, and a random sample of
these can be drawn. Within each of these hospitals, a sample of the patients entering in the given month could
be chosen randomly for observation and recording. Thus, by stages, we draw the required sample. If indicated,
we can introduce some element of stratification at some stage (urban/rural, gender, age).

It should be cautioned that multistage sampling should only be resorted to when difficulties in simple random
sampling are insurmountable. Those who take a simple random sample of 12 hospitals, and within each of these
hospitals select a random sample of 10 patients, may believe they have selected 120 patients randomly from all
the 12 hospitals. In statistical sense, they have in fact selected a sample of 12 rather than 120.[4]

Stratified sampling 

If a condition is unevenly distributed in a population with respect to age, gender, or some other variable, it may
be prudent to choose a stratified random sampling method. For example, to obtain a stratified random sample
according to age, the study population can be divided into age groups such as 0–5, 6–10, 11–14, 15–20, 21–25,
and so on, depending on the requirement. A different proportion of each group can then be selected as a
subsample either by simple random sampling or systematic sampling. If the condition decreases with advancing
age, then to include adequate number in the older age groups, one may select more numbers in older
subsamples.
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Cluster sampling 

In many surveys, studies may be carried out on large populations which may be geographically quite dispersed.
To obtain the required number of subjects for the study by a simple random sample method will require large
costs and will be cumbersome. In such cases, clusters may be identified (e.g. households) and random samples
of clusters will be included in the study; then, every member of the cluster will also be part of the study. This
introduces two types of variations in the data – between clusters and within clusters – and this will have to be
taken into account when analyzing data.

Cluster sampling may produce misleading results when the disease under study itself is distributed in a clustered
fashion in an area. For example, suppose we are studying malaria in a population. Malaria incidence may be
clustered in villages having stagnant water collections which may serve as a source of mosquito breeding. In
villages without such water stagnation, there will be lesser malaria cases. The choice of few villages in cluster
sampling may give erroneous results. The selection of villages as a cluster may be quite unrepresentative of the
whole population by chance.[5]

Lot quality assurance sampling 

Lot quality assurance sampling (LQAS), which originated in the manufacturing industry for quality control
purposes, was used in the nineties to assess immunization coverage, estimate disease prevalence, and evaluate
control measures and service coverage in different health programs.[6] Using only a small sample size, LQAS
can effectively differentiate between areas that have or have not met the performance targets. Thus, this method
is used not only to estimate the coverage of quality care but also to identify the exact subdivisions where it is
deficient so that appropriate remedial measures can be implemented.

Go to:

CONCLUSION

The choice of sampling methods is usually dictated by feasibility in terms of time and resources. Field research
is quite messy and difficult like actual battle. It may be sometimes difficult to get a sample which is truly
random. Most samples therefore tend to get biased. To estimate the magnitude of this bias, the researcher should
have some idea about the population from which the sample is drawn. In conclusion, the following quote cited
by Bradford Hill[4] elegantly sums up the benefit of random sampling:
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…The actual practice of medicine is virtually confined to those members of the population who either are ill, or
think they are ill, or are thought by somebody to be ill, and these so amply fill up the working day that in the
course of time one comes unconsciously to believe that they are typical of the whole. This is not the case. The
use of a random sample brings to light the individuals who are ill and know they are ill but have no intention of
doing anything about it, as well as those who have never been ill, and probably never will be until their final
illness. These would have been inaccessible to any other method of approach but that of the random sample

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the
total size of the population.

In research, a population doesn’t always refer to people. It can mean a group containing elements of anything
you want to study, such as objects, events, organizations, countries, species, organisms, etc.

Population vs sample

Population Sample

Advertisements for IT jobs in the The top 50 search results for advertisements for IT jobs in the Netherlands
Netherlands on May 1, 2020

Songs from the Eurovision Song Winning songs from the Eurovision Song Contest that were performed in
Contest English

Undergraduate students in the 300 undergraduate students from three Dutch universities who volunteer
Netherlands for your psychology research study

All countries of the world Countries with published data available on birth rates and GDP since 2000
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Q.2 Tests can be used as research tool, describe their types, development and administration for research
purpose.

ANS

Tests use in research are generally referred to any type of questionnaire or instrument used to assess variety
of ability, aptitude, attitude, psychological and physical states, performance, social phenomenon, etc. to
distinguish it from laboratory-based medical tests.

Test Use for Research Purposes

Tests use in research are generally referred to any type of questionnaire or instrument used to assess variety of
ability, aptitude, attitude, psychological and physical states, performance, social phenomenon, etc. to
distinguish it from laboratory-based medical tests.  It is a best practice for researchers to have proper
arrangements prior to using both copyrighted protected tests and open access tests for research purposes.

For copyright protected tests, users should pay for their use even for research purpose and permission must be
obtained from the copyright holder(s) (normally the creator(s) of the test) before using, reproducing,
distributing, or displaying in public.  Proper documentation on the permitted test such as the test name,
edition, publication date of the original or adapted test, and permission to use should be referenced in the
research.  Same practices should be adopted for derivative works (i.e. a translated version of the test).

For open access tests, they may be used and generated into derivative works without permission of the test
creator(s).  Nevertheless, an explicit statement is advised to be included in the research regarding free usage or
the conditions of usage for other researchers.

The International Test Commission, an association of national psychological associations, test commissions,
publishers and other organizations, has released a statement on using tests and other assessment instruments
for research purposes.

Experimental studies are controlled so that the researcher manipulates one variable to determine its effect on
other variables. Two primary types of experimental studies are used in intervention development and
testing: randomized group design and single-case design.
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There are five basic types of research studies, each designed to answer different kinds of questions. The five
types of studies are discussed below. 

1. CASE STUDIES

Case studies look at a single subject (e.g., a child with autism) or a single case (e.g., a classroom for children
with autism). Case studies are typically used in research that describes the development of an individual, group,
or situation over a period of time in order to provide a detailed account of what is occurring within its real-life
context.

● The advantage of a case study is that it allows the researcher to gather a lot of information about one person
or one case.
● The disadvantage of a case study is that the information gathered about one person or a small group of people
cannot readily be applied or generalized to other people or other cases in other situations or other settings
and, therefore, may be of limited use.

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

Correlational studies look for a relationship between two or more variables, or things, that naturally occur in the
same environment. Correlational studies cannot tell us anything about cause and effect, only that there is a
relationship between two or more things. For example, a study might be designed to determine if there is a
relationship between the number of children with autism in a particular community and the month of their birth.

igure 1 presents a bar graph of a study of number of children with autism and month of birth. The graph
illustrates that more children with autism were born in the winter months (November, December, and January)
than in the summer, spring, or fall.

Although this graph shows a relationship between cases of autism in one community and month of birth, we
cannot make the assumption that a winter birthday causes autism. Perhaps some other variable that we have not
considered (such as an illness) is having an effect on the two variables under study.

● The advantage of correlational studies is that a lot of information about a large number of people can be
gathered at one point in time.
● The disadvantage of correlational studies is that it is not possible to control other factors outside of the study
that might influence the research.
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3. LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Longitudinal studies can give us information about how people develop over time. These types of studies follow
one group of people (referred to as a cohort) across time, measuring the same behavior multiple times. For
example, we may want to determine if children with autism do better on performance tests in self-contained
than in inclusive classrooms. The best research design for answering this question would be to follow one
cohort of children with autism that spent time in both environments.

As illustrated in the graph, children in this cohort performed better in grades 1 and 4 when they were in
inclusive classrooms than in grades 2 and 3 when they were in self-contained environments.

● The advantage of longitudinal studies is that they allow researchers to pinpoint times during development
when changes occur.
● The disadvantage of longitudinal studies is that it takes a long time to complete them. (Note that in the
example in Figure 2, the study took four years to complete.)

4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Experimental studies are controlled so that the researcher manipulates one variable to determine its effect on
other variables. Two primary types of experimental studies are used in intervention development and testing:
randomized group design and single-case design.

The first type includes experimental group designs in which participants are randomly assigned either to receive
the intervention (the experimental group) or to a control group. The control group completes all the same steps
as the experimental group, except they do not receive the intervention that is under investigation. Therefore, if
the study is well controlled, it can be concluded that the differences between the experimental and control
groups at the end of the study are due to the intervention.

A second type of experimental study frequently used in intervention research is single-case design (SCD). Many
studies involving children with autism, particularly those examining behavioral and educational treatments, use
single-case designs. Rather than examining differences across participant groups that do and do not receive an
intervention, single-case designs involve individual participants or a small cluster of participants who provide
their own control for comparison. For example, a researcher may be interested in determining whether a new
communication intervention tool on tablet devices improves communication skills.
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● The advantage of randomized experimental studies is that the research design allows researchers to examine
cause-and-effect relationships.
● The disadvantage of a randomized experimental study is that the results cannot always be generalized to the
real world. This is because this kind of study lacks “real-world” authenticity; that is, what occurs in a controlled
environment of a study may be very different from what might occur in a real-life setting, such as a typical
classroom.  

5. CLINICAL TRIAL STUDIES

Clinical trial studies are one specific type of randomized group experimental study. Clinical trial studies are
most likely to be conducted in medical or other clinical settings. Similar to experimental group design studies,
clinical trial studies employ an experimental/control group, in which participants are randomly assigned to
receive the experimental treatment (e.g., a medication to treat autism symptoms) or a placebo (a sugar pill).

In both randomized experimental group and clinical trial studies, participants are not informed about their
group assignment to guard against participant expectations about intervention or treatment. In addition, in
well-designed studies, experimenters are not informed about group assignment either to guard against
researcher expectations about intervention or treatment. That is, if participants expect to get better because
they know they are receiving treatment, they may actually get better; similarly, if researchers expect an
intervention to be successful, they may perceive it as so, regardless of whether or not the treatment is actually
effective! This uninformed state is what researchers refer to as being blind to the conditions of the experiment.
When both participants and experimenters are uninformed, it is referred to as a double-blind study, and is a
means of ensuring objective results.

● The advantage of clinical trial studies is that they can determine the effectiveness of an intervention. This is
because the intervention is compared with a placebo or control condition.
● The disadvantage of clinical trial studies is the same as for randomized experimental studies; that is, the
results of the study cannot always be generalized to a real-life setting.

Q.3 Develop a research proposal on “Analysis of Management Practices in Secondary School in Lahore”
mention all necessary steps properly.
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ANS

to Write A Research Proposals; Types of Research Proposal; Techniques of Preparing Research Proposal;
Considerations for Good Research Proposals; Assessment of Research Proposal; Techniques for Proposal
Defense; Criteria for A Good Grant Proposal; Samples of Proposal.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Topics Covered

11.1 Define Research Proposal

11.2 Necessity to Write A Research Proposal
11.3 Types of Research Proposal
11.4 Techniques of Preparing Research Proposal
11.5 Considerations for Good Research Proposal
11.6 Assessment of Research Proposal
11.7 Techniques for Proposal Defense
11.8 Criteria for A Good Grant Proposal
11.9 Samples of Proposal

A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed description of

the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a
summary of the information discussed in a project. Preparation of research proposal is needed
because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. In fact the research proposal is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As
such the proposal includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and
its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the research proposal
concentrates on the following issues-
∙ What is the study about?
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∙ Why is the study being made?

∙ Where will the study be carried out?
∙ What type of data is required?
∙ Where can be the required data found?
∙ What periods of time will the study include?
∙ What will be the sample design?
∙ What techniques of data collection will be used?
∙ How will the data be analyzed?
∙ In what style will the report be prepared?

These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different emphases depending on
the nature of the proposed project and on the agency to which the proposal is being submitted.
Most agencies provide detailed instructions or guidelines concerning the preparation of proposals
(and, in some cases, forms on which proposals are to be typed); obviously, such guidelines should be
studied carefully before you begin writing the draft. Most proposals are between ten and fifteen
pages in length. The proposal should be no longer than 1500 words (not including references).

11.2 NEED FOR WRITE RESEARCH PROPOSALS

The research proposal is a summary of the plan you are contemplating for carrying out in the form
of a dissertation - by making you put it down into a standard format and requiring you to discuss it
with your supervisor, it is intended that this will -
∙ Help you to order your thoughts;
∙ Present your preparatory material in a logical way;
∙ Highlight the way in which each section interrelates with the others;
∙ Assist you in defining the boundaries of your study and the concepts to be included.
The more you sort out your ideas at this stage, the more effectively you will use your time.

11.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

In all sectors (academe, government, and the private sector), research scientists typically seek and
obtain competitive funding for their research projects by writing and submitting research proposals
for consideration by the funding source. There are different kinds of research proposals. Each type
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of proposal, outlined below, may have its own requirements or qualifications -

New Proposal:
A proposal submitted to a sponsor for the first time, or a proposal being resubmitted
after having been declined by a potential sponsor.
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Revised Proposal:
This modifies a proposal that is pending or is otherwise unfunded, but not official
declined by the sponsor. If a proposal has been declined, a new proposal must be prepared.

Supplemental Proposal:
A supplemental asks for an increase in support for a proposal that has
already been funded. The requested increase would occur in the current budget period and may
involve a broadening of the project's approved scope. Since additional funding is requested, a new
budget is required.

Continuation Proposal:
A continuation applies to a multi-year award. The continuation proposal
requests the already approved funds for the next phase (or next year) of the project. Typically,
sponsors require a progress report and budget before releasing additional funds. These proposals
only apply to project and budget years that were approved by the sponsor in the original award.

Pre-proposal/Notice of Intent:
The purpose of the pre-proposal is to peak the interest of a
potential sponsor. It typically does not include a cost estimate and is not expected to result in an
award. Interested sponsors will ask for a full proposal. Pre-proposals are usually in the form of a
letter of intent or brief abstract. After the preproposal is reviewed, the sponsor notifies the
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investigator if a full proposal is warranted.

Solicited:
Solicited proposals are those that are written and submitted in response to the issuance
of a ‘Request for Proposals’ (RFP), a document that identifies a specific research problem of
interest to the funding agency for which they are specifically seeking a solution. Interested
investigator then submits a ‘concept’ or ‘white paper’ briefly outlining their proposed solution to the
problem. If the funding agency or company is interested, they may then request that the
investigator submit a full proposal for consideration of funding.

Unsolicited:
Unsolicited proposals are those proposals that are submitted by an investigator in
response to a ‘general call’ for proposals that is issued by a funding agency or company in a field or
area of study.

Renewal or Competing Proposals:

Are requests for continued support for an existing project that is
about to terminate, and, from the sponsor’s viewpoint, generally have the same status as an
unsolicited proposal.

The majority of funding agencies issue calls for proposals which have firmly established deadlines
and for which the format of the proposals is fairly well defined. Thus, it is vitally important at the
outset after you have identified a funding source that you obtain all of the relevant information on
the specific grant program and its requirements. Today most funding agencies have searchable
websites where they post detailed information concerning their grant programs.
A good place to begin preparing a research proposal is to ask yourself a series of questions -
∙ What do I want to study, and why?
∙ How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my desire?
∙ What problems will it help solve?
∙ How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on my topic?
∙ What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?
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In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and highlight
enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling
like – ‘Wow, that’s an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out’. The following steps may
be followed in designing a research proposal.

Chapter - 11 Research Proposal Page

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Title of the Research: After identifying a research problem a suitable title of the research should
be given. The research title should be -
∙ specific, direct, concise, meaningful and easily understandable;
∙ not more than one or two lines;
∙ must accurately represent the objective and indicate the purpose of the study.

Statement of the Problem: To conduct a research, the researcher first chooses the general area
of his/her interest from among the wide array of general areas that exist in his/her parent
discipline. However, with only the general area in hand s/he does not know what specific information
s/he needs to collect since he does not have any specific question to answer. This is why s/he needs
to formulate a specific problem from within the chosen general area to make the whole exercise a
worthwhile scientific inquiry. The specific issues that need to be covered under the statement of
the problem are mentioned as follows-
∙ Background information of the issue with literature review
∙ Indication of the unexplored character of the issue or knowledge gap or research question
∙ Reasons for undertaking the study.

Formulation of Hypothesis: Hypothesis is an assumption regarding the value or relationship of

variables that needs to be tested. It provides the basis for investigation and ensures the proper
direction in which the study should proceed. It helps one to arrive at appropriate conclusions,
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suggestions and observations. Hypothesis should be clear, precise and specific.

Objectives of Research: Objectives of research should be formulated clearly and simply which can
be understood easily. It must be formulated on the basis of problem and hypothesis (if any)
indicating what specific problem to be investigated. The number of objective depends on the nature
of research. But it should not be too many.

Literature Review: A review of existing literature on the proposed research should be done by the
researcher to find out the past research done on the subject. It will help identify what was done in
the past and the knowledge gap on a particular subject.
To help frame your proposal’s literature
review, here are the five C’s of writing a literature review -

a. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
b. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the
literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the
research problem?
c. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies
expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
d. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches,
findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the
verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, etc.].
e. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work
draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

Justification: In this section the researcher needs to justify the importance of the study. This
section covers the following issues-
∙
Relevance and importance of the study.
∙
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Practical application of the study output.

∙
How the new knowledge gained through the study will contribute to the
solution of practical problems?
∙
How the study findings will be useful in policy formulation
Chapter - 11 Research Proposal Page
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Scope of the Study: Under this section the researcher needs to identify the indicators, variables
and key questions based on research objectives. For clear understanding these issues can be
presented in a matrix form. Moreover, study locations and limitations with reasons need to be
mentioned in this section.

Research Methods: Methods of a research depend on the hypothesis/hypotheses and objectives of

the research project. Generally the following issues are covered under research methods.
∙
Where the study will be conducted and how the study location has been selected?
∙
What population will be covered?
∙
Will it be a complete enumeration or sample surveyor a case study?
∙
If it is a sample survey, what will be the sample size and how it has been
determined?
∙
What sampling technique will be followed to select sample units or sample respondents?
∙
What will be the sources of information?
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∙
What methods and tools will be used in collecting information?
∙
How the quality of data will be ensured?
∙
How data will be processed?
∙
How data will be analyzed and what statistical tools will be used?

Implementation of the Study: This section will cover information on the following issues-
∙
Name of institution or the person owning the study;
∙
Name of researcher(s);
∙
Technical assistance and guidance needed.

Financial Budget: Financial budget will include money that will be needed to conduct and complete
the study. Total amount of money should be broken up into different heads and sub-heads.

Work Plan: This section needs to include the time needed to complete the study and breakup of the
entire time period. Break-up of the time period for different steps are mentioned as follows-
∙
Preparation of the proposal;
∙
Preparation of the questionnaire/checklist;
∙
Data collection;
∙
Tabulation;
∙
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Preparation of draft report;

∙
Review of draft report;
∙
Finalization of the report based on reviewers’ comments.
The work Plan can be prepared through a Gantt chart.

Conclusion: The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a
brief recap of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing
why your research study is unique, why it advances knowledge, and why the research problem is
worth investigating. Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of-
∙
Why the study was done;
∙
The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer;
∙
The research design and methods used;
∙
The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem; and
∙
A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

Citations: As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing
your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your
professor about which one is preferred.

Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Writing based on research takes time, thought, and effort. Although such work is challenging, it is manageable.
Focusing on one step at a time will help you conduct thorough, valid research and write a thoughtful,
convincing composition based on that research.
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Because planning makes for better research and better writing, students are often called upon to write a research
proposal – a formal composition in which a researcher defines a topic and explains his or her plans for
researching that topic. Such a proposal is used not only to create a coherent plan but also to convince a teacher
or reviewer that you have developed a relevant, focused, and interesting topic and that your plans to research
that topic will work.

There are a number of basic steps a researcher will take to develop a research plan. Each of these steps
constitute information that is included in the research proposal:

1. Developing and defining a topic.

2. Exploring your purpose and audience for your research.

3. Conducting preliminary research.

4. Formulating a research question (and additional questions).

5. Creating a research plan.

1. Developing and Defining a Topic

When you develop a topic for research, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine
whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the
assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your
topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging
but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that not only fulfills the assignment requirements but
also fits their own interests and priorities. Choosing a topic that interests you is crucial. You instructor may
provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify
topics that genuinely interest you. This interest is sometimes called exigence – the personal concerns and
interests that drive a researcher to investigate a specific topic.

The writing you do based on your research, though, is not only for yourself. Since you will be writing, based on
that research, for others, your topic also needs to be current and relevant to others. The outcome of your
research should matter here and now to others. This is often called kairos – the concerns and interests beyond
yourself that make this topic relevant now.
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After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will
you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a composition about this topic that
presents and supports views you developed after conducting and reviewing your research? Is the topic too broad
or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask
these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, an instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several
possibilities before committing to one idea. Other times, an instructor leaves lets students decide where to begin
when picking a topic. It is important,, the, to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable
thesis. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits
the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares
a research paper. Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory
course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific
issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

Q.4 What is the difference between a research proposal and a research report? What is a reference in
research report? Read APA manual 6th edition and explain the style of reference of a book, a journal
and web source with example.

ANS

Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Last updated on September 26, 2020 by Surbhi S
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Research Proposal is the

medium through which a researcher can introduce the research problem and convey the need for research. It
plays a significant role in the application process. It gives a snapshot of the questions that the researcher wants
to answer, with the help of the research. Moreover, it also states the methodology which the researcher is going
to use during the research process.

On the other hand, a research report is the culmination of the research endeavour. It is a great way to explain
the research work and its outcome to a group of people. It is the outcome of the study conducted at the time of
the research process.

This article will help you understand the difference between research proposal and research report.

Content: Research Proposal Vs Research Report

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion
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Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
RESEARCH PROPOSAL RESEARCH REPORT
COMPARISON

Meaning Research proposal refers to Research Report refers to a document that

a brief and cogent synopsis systematically, coherently and
of the proposed research in methodically presents the research work
a written form. in a written form.

Written in Future Tense Past Tense

Preparation At the beginning of the After the completion of the project

project

Length Short Comparatively long

Deals with Problem or topic to be Results of the completed research work.

investigated.

Determines What will be researched, What is researched, what sources are

why the research is used to collect data, how the data is
important and how the collected, what are the findings, what are
researched will be the recommendations for future research?
conducted?

Chapters Introduction, Literature Introduction, Literature Review, Research

Review, Research Methodology, Results, Interpretation and
Methodology Analysis, Conclusion and
Recommendation
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Definition of Research Proposal

Research Proposal can be defined as the document prepared by the researcher so as to give a description of the
research program in detail. It is typically a request for research funding, for the subject under study. In other
words, a research proposal is a summary of the research process, with which the reader can get quick
information regarding the research project.

The research proposal seeks final approval, for which it is submitted to the relevant authority. After the research
proposal is submitted, it is being evaluated, considering a number of factors like the cost involved, potential
impact, soundness of the plan to undertake the project.

It aims at presenting and justifying the need and importance to carry out the study, as well as to present the
practical ways, of conducting the research. And for this, persuasive evidence should be provided in the research
proposal, to highlight the necessity of the research.

Further, it must discuss the main issues and questions, which the researcher will address in the study. Along
with that, it must highlight the fundamental area of the research study.

A research proposal can be prepared in a number of formats, which differs on the basis of their length. It
contains an introduction, problem hypothesis, objectives, assumptions, methodology, justification and
implication of the research project.

Definition of Research Report

Research Report can be defined as the document in which the researched and analysed data is organized and
presented by the researcher in a systematic manner. It is a publication, comprising of the purpose, scope,
hypothesis, methodology, findings, limitations, recommendations and conclusion of the research project.

Simply put, a research report is the record of the research process. It is one of the most important segments of
the research, as the research work is said to be incomplete if the report is not prepared.

A research report is a document containing collected and considered facts, taken to provide succinct and
comprehensible information to people.
 25

Once the research process is over, the entire work is produced in a written material, which is called a research
report. It covers the description of the research activities, in an elaborated manner. It contains Introduction,
Literature Review, Methodology, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Discussion of Results and Findings,
Bibliography and Appendices.

A research report acts as a method to record the research work and its outcome, for future reference.

Key Differences Between Research Proposal and Research Report

The difference between research proposal and research report is discussed as under:

1. A research proposal signifies a theoretical framework within which the research is carried out. In finer
terms, a research proposal is a sketch for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research
report implies a scientific write-up on the research findings, which is prepared in a specific format.
2. While the preparation of a research proposal is considered as the first step to research work,
preparation of a research report is the final step to the research work.
3. A research proposal is prepared at the beginning of the project. In contrast, the research report is
prepared after the completion of the project
4. A research proposal is written in the future tense, whereas the tense used in the research report is past
tense, as well as it is written in the third person
5. The length of a research proposal is about 4-10 pages. On the contrary, the length of the research
report is about 100 to 300 pages.
6. The research proposal is concerned with the problem or topic to be investigated. Conversely, the
research report focuses on the results of the completed research work.
7. The research proposal determines what will be researched, the relevance of the research and the ways
to conduct the researched. As against, the research report determines what is researched, sources of
data collection, ways of data collection (i.e. survey, interview, or questionnaire), result and findings,
recommendations for future research, etc.
8. Research Proposal includes three chapters i.e. Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology.
Contrastingly, Research Report covers the following chapters – Introduction, Literature Review,
Research Methodology, Results, Interpretation and Analysis, Conclusion and Recommendation.

reference in research report

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References are the source materials; therefore, each reference should be listed only once in your references
section. Citations are meant to identify the source of the information you use in your paper. You can cite
a reference multiple times.

Therefore, the number of citations you have is typically larger than the number of references an average paper
includes. The opposite situation should never happen!

Key Factors Influencing the Number of References You Use

The following are some of the many factors that may influence the number of references you use:

1. The number of references required for a paper will depend largely on your work’s purpose. For example,
literature and systematic reviews are surveys of existing studies. Therefore, their reference lists will be more
exhaustive than those of research papers whose primary focus is the current authors’ findings. Indeed, if you
examine many journals’ author guidelines, you’ll note that journals have a higher maximum reference limit for
review articles than original research papers.

2. The length of your reference list will also depend on your research paper’s subject matter. For example, if you
are writing about a field that is less studied (such as a subfield of neuroparasitology) you may discover that
there aren’t many papers to cite. Similarly, newer fields will have fewer published papers that can be
referenced. If you find yourself in this situation, review the references used by relevant current literature and
see if you can expand your research, and thus your reference list, with valuable content from there.

3. Another factor will be your institution or journal’s requirements. If you are preparing a dissertation or thesis,
double-check your department’s requirements. While rare, they may have specific limits. More commonly,
journals restrict the number of references due to printing constraints.

4. It may happen that you don’t have access to certain literature that could have served as a reference. In such a
situation, you may wish to look for an institution that may be able to provide you access to that literature for
the purposes of reviewing the content or contact one of the authors directly and ask for a copy.

5. Given that more papers are being published than ever before in most fields, it is likely that reference lists will
grow longer simply because there are more data and discussions of existing data available to cite. Keep track of
changes to the size of reference lists in publications related to your field.
 27

6. Finally, a paper’s length bears some correlation to the number of references.

What is the “Right” Number of References?

Below, we provide tips on how to decide if you have enough resources. We also provide some general
reminders on how to effectively use references. After all, references are meant to enhance your paper while still
maintaining your research as the focal point.

Let journals be your guides

● One way to gauge how many references you should have is to survey academic journals for your article type in
your field. Review their author guidelines for limits on the number of references for your article type, and
make sure your reference list complies with those journal restrictions.

● Read recent articles relevant to your topic; check how many references other authors have included in their
papers for the same article type as yours, and how frequently those works were cited per page.

● Keep in mind that the above methods will give you an estimate of how many references you should include
overall but will not tell you how many citations you’ll need per page. The latter is impossible to state simply
because certain sections may have no citations at all (the results section, for example).

Statistics regarding the number of references and citations

To give you a general idea, the following are some estimates from a couple of studies that examined the citation
characteristics of articles published in various disciplines.

According to Milojević’s study encompassing research in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, robotics,

ecology, and economics, the highest and average number of references per article page were as follows:

● Ecology: highest, ~58; average reference per page, 6;

● Math and robotics: highest, ~28; average reference per page, <1; and

● Economics: highest, ~ 32; average reference per page, >1 but <2.
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The above findings were based on data compiled from the first 20 years of the author’s research. Since then
some fields have increased the number of references. Thus, make sure to examine your target journal’s most
recent and relevant publications for a better idea of how many references to include based on the specific type
of article you plan to write.

In another study by Falagas et al. (2013), medical journals averaged 29 references for articles that were 7.88
pages long (as printed in journals).

Finally, although the sample size was small (63 journals), Gali Halevi observed the following citation trends of
a broader range of disciplines.

● The average number of references per article was the highest for the social sciences, physics, and astronomy,
and arts & humanities (roughly 54 references per article).

● On the other hand, health professions and earth and planetary sciences had the fewest references per article
at an average of 8 and 17 references, respectively.

● Math and engineering averaged at roughly 29 references per article.

● Biochemistry, genetics and molecular and other biological sciences averaged at 51.

● Hard and natural sciences more frequently cited recent literature while social sciences and math were likely to
include older sources.

Q.5 What type of research tools are used in qualitative research? Mention the characteristics of any three
tools for qualitative research.

ANS

Different methods are used in qualitative research. The most common are interviews, focus group discussions,
observational methods and document analysis. Combining two or more data collections methods, for
instance interviews as well as focus groups ('data triangulation') enhances the credibility of the study.
 29

Likewise, what are the different types of qualitative research? The six types of qualitative research are the
phenomenological model, the ethnographic model, grounded theory, case study, historical model and the
narrative model.

● Phenomenological Method.
● Ethnographic Model.
● Grounded Theory Method.
● Case Study Model.
● Historical Model.
● Narrative Model.

In respect to this, what are the 3 characteristics of qualitative research?

Characteristics of Qualitative Observational Research

● Naturalistic Inquiry. Qualitative observational research is naturalistic because it studies a group in its
natural setting.
● Inductive analysis.
● Holistic perspective.
● Personal contact and insight.
● Dynamic systems.
● Unique case orientation.
● Context sensitivity.
● Empathic neutrality.

What are the 8 characteristics of qualitative research?

Terms in this set (8)

● Natural setting. Qualitative researchers often collect data in the field at the site where participants
experience the issues or problem under study.
● Researcher as key instrument.
● Multiple methods.
● Complex reasoning.
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● Participants' meanings.
● Emergent design.
● Reflexivity.
● Holistic account.

There are two kinds of research: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research relies on subjective
judgment and cannot be quantified, but the research can uncover invaluable data due to its open collection
process and allows researchers to develop hypotheses. Quantitative research can be quantified, and can be
used to prove hypotheses.

There are two kinds of research: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research relies on subjective judgment
and cannot be quantified, but the research can uncover invaluable data due to its open collection process and
allows researchers to develop hypotheses. Quantitative research can be quantified, and can be used to prove
hypotheses.

Interviews

Interviews are a qualitative research tool to provide data about a person’s attitude and behavior. Interviews may
be conducted in person or on the phone, and may be scripted or unscripted. This tool is used by researchers
looking for a personal approach to their research. In-person interviews allow researchers to analyze non-verbal
communication, but they typically take up more time than a phone interview.

Surveys

Mail, phone and online surveys are popular research tools. They normally use numeric scales with demographic
information. Surveys are one of the most popular quantitative tools available to researchers because they are
affordable, quantifiable and quick. Advances in technology have enhanced the survey process with survey
software, which calculates results within minutes.

Focus Groups

A focus group consists of six to 10 people, who are asked about their opinions, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions
toward a product, service or idea. Trained moderators ask questions and ensure everyone in the room has an
opportunity to contribute to the discussion. Typically, a focus group meets a minimum of two times, always
with the same group of people so that the group dynamic is not interrupted.
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SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis is a strategic tool utilized by companies to identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats. This qualitative research tool examines internal factors (strengths and weaknesses), and external
factors (opportunities and threats). A comprehensive SWOT analysis provides a company with insight into
where the business has room to grow, allows a company to capitalize on a competitive advantage and delivers a
company with the foresight to identify looming threats so that it can prepare.

Qualitative research uses three main methods of data collection: interviewing, observation and artifact
analysis. Main interview types that qualitative researchers use are in-depth, one-on-one interviews and
focus-group interviews.

Tools versus Methods

The term "research tool" can simply be another name for a research method, or it can apply to specific
techniques and materials that researchers use in the study.

Qualitative research uses three main methods of data collection: interviewing, observation and artifact analysis.
Main interview types that qualitative researchers use are in-depth, one-on-one interviews and focus-group
interviews. Artifact analysis usually means analysis of written texts, but sometimes objects, such as art work,
undergo analysis. Each of these methods employs specific tools that facilitate and enrich the data collection
process.

Role of the Researcher

The main tool of qualitative research (be it in-depth individual interviews, focus groups or observations) is the
researcher. Qualitative approaches emphasize the role of the researcher, accept that all data gathering is more or
less subjective and value-laden. In many ways, qualitative interviewing is a two-way process.

Interviewing Tools

Interviewing techniques that qualitative research uses often derive from clinical and diagnostic interviews in
medicine or psychology. In addition to straightforward questioning, qualitative interviewers use probing,
clarification requests, paraphrasing, reflection, laddering and listening techniques to explore the topic in depth.
 32

Most qualitative interviews use a topic list, sometimes called the guide or the agenda. This might be a short
overview of all issues that the researcher needs to cover or a more specific list of questions, usually open ended.
In all cases, the focus is on obtaining particular information, not on asking a specific, standard question.

Projective Techniques

Qualitative studies often incorporate projective techniques. Projective techniques have roots in the
psycho-dynamic tradition, and work on the assumption that people cannot easily access certain mental content
directly, but can express it indirectly by “projecting” their feelings and beliefs on other objects. Projective
techniques are popular in marketing research, particularly brand image and attitude studies.

Popular projective and indirect techniques include personification/animization (if this brand was a
person/animal, what kind of person/animal would they be?), word association, collage, expressive drawing,
imaginary party (if these brands, people or places were at the party, what would they do and how would they
behave?), mapping and sorting; sentence completion and many others.

Other Tools

Qualitative research has other data-gathering techniques in its toolkit, from accompanied shopping (a form of
observation used in market research) to Kelly Grid (rep-test), Delphi technique, simple inventories and more.

Textual analysis is a traditional tool of social sciences, while analysis of artifacts and other material objects is
becoming more popular within the academia and starting to appear in the world of consumer research.

Role of Technology

ICT development is another source of tools for qualitative research. Gone are the times where researchers only
equipment consisted of a pencil, a notebook and, at best, a creaky tape recorder. Researchers record interviews
and focus groups using specialized audio and video equipment, often straight to digital formats. Voiced
recognition software helps with the transcription of the tapes and textual analysis software makes complex
investigations into long documents and transcripts possible.

Internet research opportunities increase as the bandwidth and penetration grow. On-line focus groups and
interviews using instant messenger software are now commonplace, and there is a lot of research that examines
material, both textual and visual, found on the Internet.
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