Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Spring, 2022

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Year/ 2.5 Year)

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q.1 Define population and sampling. Explain different types of random sampling.

ANS

A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics, and a

sample is a subset of the population. The usual criteria we use in defining population are
geographic, for example, “the population of Uttar Pradesh”. In medical research, the
criteria for population may be clinical, demographic and time related.

a. Clinical and demographic characteristics define the target population, the large set of people in
the world to which the results of the study will be generalized (e.g. all schizophrenics).
b. The study population is the subset of the target population available for study (e.g.
schizophrenics in the researcher's town).
c. The study sample is the sample chosen from the study population.

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METHODS OF SAMPLING

Purposive (non-random samples)

 Volunteers who agree to participate

 Snowball sample, where one case identifies others of his kind (e.g. intravenous drug users)
 Convenient sample such as captive medical students or other readily available groups
 Quota sampling, at will selection of a fixed number from each group
 Referred cases who may be under pressure to participate
 Haphazard with combination of the above methods
Non-random samples have certain limitations. The larger group (target population) is difficult to
identify. This may not be a limitation when generalization of results is not intended. The results
would be valid for the sample itself (internal validity). They can, nevertheless, provide important
clues for further studies based on random samples. Another limitation of non-random samples is
that statistical inferences such as confidence intervals and tests of significance cannot be
estimated from non-random samples. However, in some situations, the investigator has to make
crucial judgments. One should remember that random samples are the means but
representativeness is the goal. When non-random samples are representative (compare the socio-
demographic characteristics of the sample subjects with the target population), generalization
may be possible.

Random sampling methods

Simple random sampling 

A sample may be defined as random if every individual in the population being sampled has an
equal likelihood of being included. Random sampling is the basis of all good sampling
techniques and disallows any method of selection based on volunteering or the choice of groups
of people known to be cooperative.[3]

In order to select a simple random sample from a population, it is first necessary to identify all
individuals from whom the selection will be made. This is the sampling frame. In developing
countries, listings of all persons living in an area are not usually available. Census may not catch
nomadic population groups. Voters’ and taxpayers’ lists may be incomplete. Whether or not such
deficiencies are major barriers in random sampling depends on the particular research question
being investigated. To undertake a separate exercise of listing the population for the study may
be time consuming and tedious. Two-stage sampling may make the task feasible.

The usual method of selecting a simple random sample from a listing of individuals is to assign a
number to each individual and then select certain numbers by reference to random number tables
which are published in standard statistical textbooks. Random number can also be generated by
statistical software such as EPI INFO developed by WHO and CDC Atlanta.
Systematic sampling 

A simple method of random sampling is to select a systematic sample in which every nth person

is selected from a list or from other ordering. A systematic sample can be drawn from a queue of
people or from patients ordered according to the time of their attendance at a clinic. Thus, a
sample can be drawn without an initial listing of all the subjects. Because of this feasibility, a
systematic sample may have some advantage over a simple random sample.

To fulfill the statistical criteria for a random sample, a systematic sample should be drawn from
subjects who are randomly ordered. The starting point for selection should be randomly chosen.
If every fifth person from a register is being chosen, then a random procedure must be used to
determine whether the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth person should be chosen as the first
member of the sample.

Multistage sampling 

Sometimes, a strictly random sample may be difficult to obtain and it may be more feasible to
draw the required number of subjects in a series of stages. For example, suppose we wish to
estimate the number of CATSCAN examinations made of all patients entering a hospital in a
given month in the state of Maharashtra. It would be quite tedious to devise a scheme which
would allow the total population of patients to be directly sampled. However, it would be easier
to list the districts of the state of Maharashtra and randomly draw a sample of these districts.
Within this sample of districts, all the hospitals would then be listed by name, and a random
sample of these can be drawn. Within each of these hospitals, a sample of the patients entering in
the given month could be chosen randomly for observation and recording. Thus, by stages, we
draw the required sample. If indicated, we can introduce some element of stratification at some
stage (urban/rural, gender, age).

It should be cautioned that multistage sampling should only be resorted to when difficulties in
simple random sampling are insurmountable. Those who take a simple random sample of 12
hospitals, and within each of these hospitals select a random sample of 10 patients, may believe
they have selected 120 patients randomly from all the 12 hospitals. In statistical sense, they have
in fact selected a sample of 12 rather than 120.[4]

Stratified sampling 

If a condition is unevenly distributed in a population with respect to age, gender, or some other
variable, it may be prudent to choose a stratified random sampling method. For example, to
obtain a stratified random sample according to age, the study population can be divided into age
groups such as 0–5, 6–10, 11–14, 15–20, 21–25, and so on, depending on the requirement. A
different proportion of each group can then be selected as a subsample either by simple random
sampling or systematic sampling. If the condition decreases with advancing age, then to include
adequate number in the older age groups, one may select more numbers in older subsamples.

Cluster sampling 

In many surveys, studies may be carried out on large populations which may be geographically
quite dispersed. To obtain the required number of subjects for the study by a simple random
sample method will require large costs and will be cumbersome. In such cases, clusters may be
identified (e.g. households) and random samples of clusters will be included in the study; then,
every member of the cluster will also be part of the study. This introduces two types of variations
in the data – between clusters and within clusters – and this will have to be taken into account
when analyzing data.

Cluster sampling may produce misleading results when the disease under study itself is
distributed in a clustered fashion in an area. For example, suppose we are studying malaria in a
population. Malaria incidence may be clustered in villages having stagnant water collections
which may serve as a source of mosquito breeding. In villages without such water stagnation,
there will be lesser malaria cases. The choice of few villages in cluster sampling may give
erroneous results. The selection of villages as a cluster may be quite unrepresentative of the
whole population by chance.[5]
Lot quality assurance sampling 

Lot quality assurance sampling (LQAS), which originated in the manufacturing industry for
quality control purposes, was used in the nineties to assess immunization coverage, estimate
disease prevalence, and evaluate control measures and service coverage in different health
programs.[6] Using only a small sample size, LQAS can effectively differentiate between areas
that have or have not met the performance targets. Thus, this method is used not only to estimate
the coverage of quality care but also to identify the exact subdivisions where it is deficient so
that appropriate remedial measures can be implemented.

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CONCLUSION

The choice of sampling methods is usually dictated by feasibility in terms of time and resources.
Field research is quite messy and difficult like actual battle. It may be sometimes difficult to get
a sample which is truly random. Most samples therefore tend to get biased. To estimate the
magnitude of this bias, the researcher should have some idea about the population from which
the sample is drawn. In conclusion, the following quote cited by Bradford Hill[4] elegantly sums
up the benefit of random sampling:

…The actual practice of medicine is virtually confined to those members of the population who
either are ill, or think they are ill, or are thought by somebody to be ill, and these so amply fill up
the working day that in the course of time one comes unconsciously to believe that they are
typical of the whole. This is not the case. The use of a random sample brings to light the
individuals who are ill and know they are ill but have no intention of doing anything about it, as
well as those who have never been ill, and probably never will be until their final illness. These
would have been inaccessible to any other method of approach but that of the random sample

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always
less than the total size of the population.

In research, a population doesn’t always refer to people. It can mean a group containing elements
of anything you want to study, such as objects, events, organizations, countries, species,
organisms, etc.

Population vs sample

Population Sample

Advertisements for IT jobs in the The top 50 search results for advertisements for IT jobs in the Netherlands
Netherlands on May 1, 2020

Songs from the Eurovision Song Winning songs from the Eurovision Song Contest that were performed in
Contest English

Undergraduate students in the 300 undergraduate students from three Dutch universities who volunteer for
Netherlands your psychology research study

All countries of the world Countries with published data available on birth rates and GDP since 2000

Q.2 Tests can be used as research tool, describe their types, development and
administration for research purpose.

ANS

Tests use in research are generally referred to any type of questionnaire or instrument used to
assess variety of ability, aptitude, attitude, psychological and physical states, performance,
social phenomenon, etc. to distinguish it from laboratory-based medical tests.
Test Use for Research Purposes

Tests use in research are generally referred to any type of questionnaire or instrument used to
assess variety of ability, aptitude, attitude, psychological and physical states, performance, social
phenomenon, etc. to distinguish it from laboratory-based medical tests.  It is a best practice for
researchers to have proper arrangements prior to using both copyrighted protected tests and open
access tests for research purposes.

For copyright protected tests, users should pay for their use even for research purpose and
permission must be obtained from the copyright holder(s) (normally the creator(s) of the test)
before using, reproducing, distributing, or displaying in public.  Proper documentation on the
permitted test such as the test name, edition, publication date of the original or adapted test, and
permission to use should be referenced in the research.  Same practices should be adopted for
derivative works (i.e. a translated version of the test).

For open access tests, they may be used and generated into derivative works without permission
of the test creator(s).  Nevertheless, an explicit statement is advised to be included in the research
regarding free usage or the conditions of usage for other researchers.

The International Test Commission, an association of national psychological associations, test

commissions, publishers and other organizations, has released a statement on using tests and
other assessment instruments for research purposes.

Experimental studies are controlled so that the researcher manipulates one variable to determine
its effect on other variables. Two primary types of experimental studies are used in
intervention development and testing: randomized group design and single-case design.

There are five basic types of research studies, each designed to answer different kinds of
questions. The five types of studies are discussed below. 
 1. CASE STUDIES

Case studies look at a single subject (e.g., a child with autism) or a single case (e.g., a classroom
for children with autism). Case studies are typically used in research that describes the
development of an individual, group, or situation over a period of time in order to provide a
detailed account of what is occurring within its real-life context.

 The advantage of a case study is that it allows the researcher to gather a lot of information about
one person or one case.
 The disadvantage of a case study is that the information gathered about one person or a small
group of people cannot readily be applied or generalized to other people or other cases in other
situations or other settings and, therefore, may be of limited use.

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

Correlational studies look for a relationship between two or more variables, or things, that
naturally occur in the same environment. Correlational studies cannot tell us anything about
cause and effect, only that there is a relationship between two or more things. For example, a
study might be designed to determine if there is a relationship between the number of children
with autism in a particular community and the month of their birth.

igure 1 presents a bar graph of a study of number of children with autism and month of birth. The
graph illustrates that more children with autism were born in the winter months (November,
December, and January) than in the summer, spring, or fall.

Although this graph shows a relationship between cases of autism in one community and month
of birth, we cannot make the assumption that a winter birthday causes autism. Perhaps some
other variable that we have not considered (such as an illness) is having an effect on the two
variables under study.

 The advantage of correlational studies is that a lot of information about a large number of

people can be gathered at one point in time.
 The disadvantage of correlational studies is that it is not possible to control other factors outside
of the study that might influence the research.
 3. LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Longitudinal studies can give us information about how people develop over time. These types
of studies follow one group of people (referred to as a cohort) across time, measuring the same
behavior multiple times. For example, we may want to determine if children with autism do
better on performance tests in self-contained than in inclusive classrooms. The best research
design for answering this question would be to follow one cohort of children with autism that
spent time in both environments.

As illustrated in the graph, children in this cohort performed better in grades 1 and 4 when they
were in inclusive classrooms than in grades 2 and 3 when they were in self-contained
environments.

 The advantage of longitudinal studies is that they allow researchers to pinpoint times during
development when changes occur.
 The disadvantage of longitudinal studies is that it takes a long time to complete them. (Note that
in the example in Figure 2, the study took four years to complete.)

4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Experimental studies are controlled so that the researcher manipulates one variable to determine
its effect on other variables. Two primary types of experimental studies are used in intervention
development and testing: randomized group design and single-case design.

The first type includes experimental group designs in which participants are randomly assigned
either to receive the intervention (the experimental group) or to a control group. The control
group completes all the same steps as the experimental group, except they do not receive the
intervention that is under investigation. Therefore, if the study is well controlled, it can be
concluded that the differences between the experimental and control groups at the end of the
study are due to the intervention.

A second type of experimental study frequently used in intervention research is single-case

design (SCD). Many studies involving children with autism, particularly those examining
behavioral and educational treatments, use single-case designs. Rather than examining
 differences across participant groups that do and do not receive an intervention, single-case
designs involve individual participants or a small cluster of participants who provide their own
control for comparison. For example, a researcher may be interested in determining whether a
new communication intervention tool on tablet devices improves communication skills.

 The advantage of randomized experimental studies is that the research design allows researchers
to examine cause-and-effect relationships.
 The disadvantage of a randomized experimental study is that the results cannot always be
generalized to the real world. This is because this kind of study lacks “real-world” authenticity;
that is, what occurs in a controlled environment of a study may be very different from what
might occur in a real-life setting, such as a typical classroom.  

5. CLINICAL TRIAL STUDIES

Clinical trial studies are one specific type of randomized group experimental study. Clinical trial
studies are most likely to be conducted in medical or other clinical settings. Similar to
experimental group design studies, clinical trial studies employ an experimental/control group, in
which participants are randomly assigned to receive the experimental treatment (e.g., a
medication to treat autism symptoms) or a placebo (a sugar pill).

In both randomized experimental group and clinical trial studies, participants are not informed
about their group assignment to guard against participant expectations about intervention or
treatment. In addition, in well-designed studies, experimenters are not informed about group
assignment either to guard against researcher expectations about intervention or treatment. That
is, if participants expect to get better because they know they are receiving treatment, they may
actually get better; similarly, if researchers expect an intervention to be successful, they may
perceive it as so, regardless of whether or not the treatment is actually effective! This uninformed
state is what researchers refer to as being blind to the conditions of the experiment. When both
participants and experimenters are uninformed, it is referred to as a double-blind study, and is a
means of ensuring objective results.

 The advantage of clinical trial studies is that they can determine the effectiveness of an
intervention. This is because the intervention is compared with a placebo or control condition.
 The disadvantage of clinical trial studies is the same as for randomized experimental studies;
that is, the results of the study cannot always be generalized to a real-life setting.

Q.3 Develop a research proposal on “Analysis of Management Practices in Secondary

School in Lahore” mention all necessary steps properly.

ANS

to Write A Research Proposals; Types of Research Proposal; Techniques of Preparing Research

Proposal; Considerations for Good Research Proposals; Assessment of Research Proposal;
Techniques for Proposal Defense; Criteria for A Good Grant Proposal; Samples of
Proposal.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Topics Covered

11.1 Define Research Proposal

11.2 Necessity to Write A Research Proposal
11.3 Types of Research Proposal
11.4 Techniques of Preparing Research Proposal
11.5 Considerations for Good Research Proposal
11.6 Assessment of Research Proposal
11.7 Techniques for Proposal Defense
11.8 Criteria for A Good Grant Proposal
11.9 Samples of Proposal

A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed description of

the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader
a
summary of the information discussed in a project. Preparation of research proposal is
needed
because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of
effort,
time and money. In fact the research proposal is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. As
such the proposal includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and
its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the research
proposal
concentrates on the following issues-
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can be the required data found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different emphases depending
on
the nature of the proposed project and on the agency to which the proposal is being
submitted.
Most agencies provide detailed instructions or guidelines concerning the preparation of
proposals
(and, in some cases, forms on which proposals are to be typed); obviously, such guidelines
should be
studied carefully before you begin writing the draft. Most proposals are between ten and
fifteen
pages in length. The proposal should be no longer than 1500 words (not including references).

11.2 NEED FOR WRITE RESEARCH PROPOSALS

The research proposal is a summary of the plan you are contemplating for carrying out in the
form
of a dissertation - by making you put it down into a standard format and requiring you to discuss
it
with your supervisor, it is intended that this will -
 Help you to order your thoughts;
 Present your preparatory material in a logical way;
 Highlight the way in which each section interrelates with the others;
 Assist you in defining the boundaries of your study and the concepts to be included.
The more you sort out your ideas at this stage, the more effectively you will use your time.

11.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

In all sectors (academe, government, and the private sector), research scientists typically seek
and
obtain competitive funding for their research projects by writing and submitting research
proposals
for consideration by the funding source. There are different kinds of research proposals. Each
type
of proposal, outlined below, may have its own requirements or qualifications -

New Proposal:
A proposal submitted to a sponsor for the first time, or a proposal being resubmitted
after having been declined by a potential sponsor.
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Revised Proposal:
This modifies a proposal that is pending or is otherwise unfunded, but not official
declined by the sponsor. If a proposal has been declined, a new proposal must be prepared.

Supplemental Proposal:
A supplemental asks for an increase in support for a proposal that has
already been funded. The requested increase would occur in the current budget period and
may
involve a broadening of the project's approved scope. Since additional funding is requested, a
new
budget is required.

Continuation Proposal:
A continuation applies to a multi-year award. The continuation proposal
requests the already approved funds for the next phase (or next year) of the project.
Typically,
sponsors require a progress report and budget before releasing additional funds. These
proposals
only apply to project and budget years that were approved by the sponsor in the original award.

Pre-proposal/Notice of Intent:
The purpose of the pre-proposal is to peak the interest of a
potential sponsor. It typically does not include a cost estimate and is not expected to result in
an
award. Interested sponsors will ask for a full proposal. Pre-proposals are usually in the form
of a
letter of intent or brief abstract. After the preproposal is reviewed, the sponsor notifies
the
investigator if a full proposal is warranted.

Solicited:
Solicited proposals are those that are written and submitted in response to the issuance
of a ‘Request for Proposals’ (RFP), a document that identifies a specific research
problem of
interest to the funding agency for which they are specifically seeking a solution.
Interested
investigator then submits a ‘concept’ or ‘white paper’ briefly outlining their proposed solution to
the
problem. If the funding agency or company is interested, they may then request that the
investigator submit a full proposal for consideration of funding.

Unsolicited:
Unsolicited proposals are those proposals that are submitted by an investigator in
response to a ‘general call’ for proposals that is issued by a funding agency or company in a field
or
area of study.

Renewal or Competing Proposals:

Are requests for continued support for an existing project that is
about to terminate, and, from the sponsor’s viewpoint, generally have the same status as
an
unsolicited proposal.

The majority of funding agencies issue calls for proposals which have firmly established
deadlines
and for which the format of the proposals is fairly well defined. Thus, it is vitally important at the
outset after you have identified a funding source that you obtain all of the relevant information
on
the specific grant program and its requirements. Today most funding agencies have
searchable
websites where they post detailed information concerning their grant programs.
A good place to begin preparing a research proposal is to ask yourself a series of questions -
 What do I want to study, and why?
 How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my desire?
 What problems will it help solve?
 How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on my
topic?
 What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and
highlight
enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers
feeling
like – ‘Wow, that’s an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out’. The following steps
may
be followed in designing a research proposal.

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Title of the Research: After identifying a research problem a suitable title of the research should
be given. The research title should be -
 specific, direct, concise, meaningful and easily understandable;
 not more than one or two lines;
 must accurately represent the objective and indicate the purpose of the study.

Statement of the Problem: To conduct a research, the researcher first chooses the general area
of his/her interest from among the wide array of general areas that exist in his/her
parent
discipline. However, with only the general area in hand s/he does not know what specific
information
s/he needs to collect since he does not have any specific question to answer. This is why s/he
needs
to formulate a specific problem from within the chosen general area to make the whole exercise a
worthwhile scientific inquiry. The specific issues that need to be covered under the statement
of
the problem are mentioned as follows-
 Background information of the issue with literature review
 Indication of the unexplored character of the issue or knowledge gap or research
question
 Reasons for undertaking the study.

Formulation of Hypothesis: Hypothesis is an assumption regarding the value or

relationship of
variables that needs to be tested. It provides the basis for investigation and ensures the
proper
direction in which the study should proceed. It helps one to arrive at appropriate
conclusions,
suggestions and observations. Hypothesis should be clear, precise and specific.

Objectives of Research: Objectives of research should be formulated clearly and simply which
can
be understood easily. It must be formulated on the basis of problem and hypothesis (if
any)
indicating what specific problem to be investigated. The number of objective depends on the
nature
of research. But it should not be too many.

Literature Review: A review of existing literature on the proposed research should be done by
the
researcher to find out the past research done on the subject. It will help identify what was done in
the past and the knowledge gap on a particular subject.
To help frame your proposal’s literature
review, here are the five C’s of writing a literature review -

a. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
b. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in
the
literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing
the
research problem?
c. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and
controversies
expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
d. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which
approaches,
findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the
verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, etc.].
e. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own
work
draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

Justification: In this section the researcher needs to justify the importance of the study. This
section covers the following issues-

Relevance and importance of the study.

Practical application of the study output.

How the new knowledge gained through the study will contribute to the
solution of practical problems?

How the study findings will be useful in policy formulation
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Scope of the Study: Under this section the researcher needs to identify the indicators, variables
and key questions based on research objectives. For clear understanding these issues can
be
presented in a matrix form. Moreover, study locations and limitations with reasons need
to be
mentioned in this section.

Research Methods: Methods of a research depend on the hypothesis/hypotheses and objectives of

the research project. Generally the following issues are covered under research methods.

Where the study will be conducted and how the study location has been selected?

What population will be covered?

Will it be a complete enumeration or sample surveyor a case study?

If it is a sample survey, what will be the sample size and how it has been
determined?

What sampling technique will be followed to select sample units or sample respondents?

What will be the sources of information?

What methods and tools will be used in collecting information?

How the quality of data will be ensured?

How data will be processed?

How data will be analyzed and what statistical tools will be used?

Implementation of the Study: This section will cover information on the following issues-

Name of institution or the person owning the study;

Name of researcher(s);

Technical assistance and guidance needed.

Financial Budget: Financial budget will include money that will be needed to conduct and
complete
the study. Total amount of money should be broken up into different heads and sub-heads.

Work Plan: This section needs to include the time needed to complete the study and breakup of
the
entire time period. Break-up of the time period for different steps are mentioned as follows-

Preparation of the proposal;

Preparation of the questionnaire/checklist;

Data collection;

Tabulation;

Preparation of draft report;

Review of draft report;

Finalization of the report based on reviewers’ comments.
The work Plan can be prepared through a Gantt chart.

Conclusion: The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and
provides a
brief recap of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long,
emphasizing
why your research study is unique, why it advances knowledge, and why the research
problem is
worth investigating. Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of-

Why the study was done;

The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer;

The research design and methods used;

The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem; and

A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

Citations: As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in
composing
your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with
your
professor about which one is preferred.

Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Writing based on research takes time, thought, and effort. Although such work is challenging, it
is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you conduct thorough, valid research and
write a thoughtful, convincing composition based on that research.

Because planning makes for better research and better writing, students are often called upon to
write a research proposal – a formal composition in which a researcher defines a topic and
explains his or her plans for researching that topic. Such a proposal is used not only to create a
coherent plan but also to convince a teacher or reviewer that you have developed a relevant,
focused, and interesting topic and that your plans to research that topic will work.

There are a number of basic steps a researcher will take to develop a research plan. Each of these
steps constitute information that is included in the research proposal:

1. Developing and defining a topic.

2. Exploring your purpose and audience for your research.

3. Conducting preliminary research.

4. Formulating a research question (and additional questions).

5. Creating a research plan.

1. Developing and Defining a Topic

When you develop a topic for research, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will
help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether
your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may
later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you
can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that not only fulfills the assignment
requirements but also fits their own interests and priorities. Choosing a topic that interests you is
crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on
your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you. This interest is
sometimes called exigence – the personal concerns and interests that drive a researcher to
investigate a specific topic.
The writing you do based on your research, though, is not only for yourself. Since you will be
writing, based on that research, for others, your topic also needs to be current and relevant to
others. The outcome of your research should matter here and now to others. This is often
called kairos – the concerns and interests beyond yourself that make this topic relevant now.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic
to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a
composition about this topic that presents and supports views you developed after conducting
and reviewing your research? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the
assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions
during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, an instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from
identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. Other times, an instructor leaves
lets students decide where to begin when picking a topic. It is important,, the, to know how to
narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. Discussing your ideas with your
instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the
assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration,
as he prepares a research paper. Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the
media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the
students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of
possibilities.

Q.4 What is the difference between a research proposal and a research report? What is a
reference in research report? Read APA manual 6th edition and explain the style of
reference of a book, a journal and web source with example.

ANS

Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Last updated on September 26, 2020 by Surbhi S

Research
Proposal is the medium through which a researcher can introduce the research problem and
convey the need for research. It plays a significant role in the application process. It gives a
snapshot of the questions that the researcher wants to answer, with the help of the research.
Moreover, it also states the methodology which the researcher is going to use during the research
process.

On the other hand, a research report is the culmination of the research endeavour. It is a great
way to explain the research work and its outcome to a group of people. It is the outcome of the
study conducted at the time of the research process.

This article will help you understand the difference between research proposal and research
report.

Content: Research Proposal Vs Research Report

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
RESEARCH PROPOSAL RESEARCH REPORT
COMPARISON

Meaning Research proposal refers to a Research Report refers to a document that

brief and cogent synopsis of systematically, coherently and methodically
the proposed research in a presents the research work in a written form.
written form.

Written in Future Tense Past Tense

Preparation At the beginning of the After the completion of the project

project
 BASIS FOR
RESEARCH PROPOSAL RESEARCH REPORT
COMPARISON

Length Short Comparatively long

Deals with Problem or topic to be Results of the completed research work.

investigated.

Determines What will be researched, What is researched, what sources are used to
why the research is important collect data, how the data is collected, what
and how the researched will are the findings, what are the
be conducted? recommendations for future research?

Chapters Introduction, Literature Introduction, Literature Review, Research

Review, Research Methodology, Results, Interpretation and
Methodology Analysis, Conclusion and Recommendation

Definition of Research Proposal

Research Proposal can be defined as the document prepared by the researcher so as to give a
description of the research program in detail. It is typically a request for research funding, for the
subject under study. In other words, a research proposal is a summary of the research process,
with which the reader can get quick information regarding the research project.

The research proposal seeks final approval, for which it is submitted to the relevant authority.
After the research proposal is submitted, it is being evaluated, considering a number of factors
like the cost involved, potential impact, soundness of the plan to undertake the project.
It aims at presenting and justifying the need and importance to carry out the study, as well as to
present the practical ways, of conducting the research. And for this, persuasive evidence should
be provided in the research proposal, to highlight the necessity of the research.

Further, it must discuss the main issues and questions, which the researcher will address in the
study. Along with that, it must highlight the fundamental area of the research study.

A research proposal can be prepared in a number of formats, which differs on the basis of their
length. It contains an introduction, problem hypothesis, objectives, assumptions, methodology,
justification and implication of the research project.

Definition of Research Report

Research Report can be defined as the document in which the researched and analysed data is
organized and presented by the researcher in a systematic manner. It is a publication, comprising
of the purpose, scope, hypothesis, methodology, findings, limitations, recommendations and
conclusion of the research project.

Simply put, a research report is the record of the research process. It is one of the most important
segments of the research, as the research work is said to be incomplete if the report is not
prepared.

A research report is a document containing collected and considered facts, taken to provide
succinct and comprehensible information to people.

Once the research process is over, the entire work is produced in a written material, which is
called a research report. It covers the description of the research activities, in an elaborated
manner. It contains Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Data Collection, Data
Analysis, Discussion of Results and Findings, Bibliography and Appendices.

A research report acts as a method to record the research work and its outcome, for future
reference.
Key Differences Between Research Proposal and Research Report

The difference between research proposal and research report is discussed as under:

1. A research proposal signifies a theoretical framework within which the research is carried
out. In finer terms, a research proposal is a sketch for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. A research report implies a scientific write-up on the research findings,
which is prepared in a specific format.
2. While the preparation of a research proposal is considered as the first step to research
work, preparation of a research report is the final step to the research work.
3. A research proposal is prepared at the beginning of the project. In contrast, the research
report is prepared after the completion of the project
4. A research proposal is written in the future tense, whereas the tense used in the research
report is past tense, as well as it is written in the third person
5. The length of a research proposal is about 4-10 pages. On the contrary, the length of the
research report is about 100 to 300 pages.
6. The research proposal is concerned with the problem or topic to be investigated.
Conversely, the research report focuses on the results of the completed research work.
7. The research proposal determines what will be researched, the relevance of the research
and the ways to conduct the researched. As against, the research report determines what
is researched, sources of data collection, ways of data collection (i.e. survey, interview, or
questionnaire), result and findings, recommendations for future research, etc.
8. Research Proposal includes three chapters i.e. Introduction, Literature Review, Research
Methodology. Contrastingly, Research Report covers the following chapters –
Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology, Results, Interpretation and
Analysis, Conclusion and Recommendation.

reference in research report

References are the source materials; therefore, each reference should be listed only once in your
references section. Citations are meant to identify the source of the information you use in
your paper. You can cite a reference multiple times.
 Therefore, the number of citations you have is typically larger than the number of references an
average paper includes. The opposite situation should never happen!

Key Factors Influencing the Number of References You Use

The following are some of the many factors that may influence the number of references you
use:

1. The number of references required for a paper will depend largely on your work’s purpose. For
example, literature and systematic reviews are surveys of existing studies. Therefore, their
reference lists will be more exhaustive than those of research papers whose primary focus is the
current authors’ findings. Indeed, if you examine many journals’ author guidelines, you’ll note
that journals have a higher maximum reference limit for review articles than original research
papers.
2. The length of your reference list will also depend on your research paper’s subject matter. For
example, if you are writing about a field that is less studied (such as a subfield of
neuroparasitology) you may discover that there aren’t many papers to cite. Similarly, newer
fields will have fewer published papers that can be referenced. If you find yourself in this
situation, review the references used by relevant current literature and see if you can expand your
research, and thus your reference list, with valuable content from there.

3. Another factor will be your institution or journal’s requirements. If you are preparing a

dissertation or thesis, double-check your department’s requirements. While rare, they may have
specific limits. More commonly, journals restrict the number of references due to printing
constraints.

4. It may happen that you don’t have access to certain literature that could have served as a
reference. In such a situation, you may wish to look for an institution that may be able to provide
you access to that literature for the purposes of reviewing the content or contact one of the
authors directly and ask for a copy.

5. Given that more papers are being published than ever before in most fields, it is likely
that reference lists will grow longer simply because there are more data and discussions of
 existing data available to cite. Keep track of changes to the size of reference lists in publications
related to your field.

6. Finally, a paper’s length bears some correlation to the number of references.

What is the “Right” Number of References?

Below, we provide tips on how to decide if you have enough resources. We also provide some
general reminders on how to effectively use references. After all, references are meant to
enhance your paper while still maintaining your research as the focal point.

Let journals be your guides

 One way to gauge how many references you should have is to survey academic journals for your
article type in your field. Review their author guidelines for limits on the number of references
for your article type, and make sure your reference list complies with those journal restrictions.
 Read recent articles relevant to your topic; check how many references other authors have
included in their papers for the same article type as yours, and how frequently those works were
cited per page.

 Keep in mind that the above methods will give you an estimate of how many references you
should include overall but will not tell you how many citations you’ll need per page. The latter is
impossible to state simply because certain sections may have no citations at all (the results
section, for example).

Statistics regarding the number of references and citations

To give you a general idea, the following are some estimates from a couple of studies that
examined the citation characteristics of articles published in various disciplines.
 According to Milojević’s study encompassing research in the fields of astronomy, mathematics,
robotics, ecology, and economics, the highest and average number of references per article page
were as follows:

 Ecology: highest, ~58; average reference per page, 6;

 Math and robotics: highest, ~28; average reference per page, <1; and

 Economics: highest, ~ 32; average reference per page, >1 but <2.

The above findings were based on data compiled from the first 20 years of the author’s research.
Since then some fields have increased the number of references. Thus, make sure to examine
your target journal’s most recent and relevant publications for a better idea of how many
references to include based on the specific type of article you plan to write.

In another study by Falagas et al. (2013), medical journals averaged 29 references for articles
that were 7.88 pages long (as printed in journals).

Finally, although the sample size was small (63 journals), Gali Halevi observed the
following citation trends of a broader range of disciplines.

 The average number of references per article was the highest for the social sciences, physics, and
astronomy, and arts & humanities (roughly 54 references per article).
 On the other hand, health professions and earth and planetary sciences had the fewest references
per article at an average of 8 and 17 references, respectively.

 Math and engineering averaged at roughly 29 references per article.

 Biochemistry, genetics and molecular and other biological sciences averaged at 51.

 Hard and natural sciences more frequently cited recent literature while social sciences and math
were likely to include older sources.
Q.5 What type of research tools are used in qualitative research? Mention the
characteristics of any three tools for qualitative research.

ANS

Different methods are used in qualitative research. The most common are interviews, focus
group discussions, observational methods and document analysis. Combining two or more
data collections methods, for instance interviews as well as focus groups ('data triangulation')
enhances the credibility of the study.

Likewise, what are the different types of qualitative research? The six types of qualitative
research are the phenomenological model, the ethnographic model, grounded theory, case
study, historical model and the narrative model.

 Phenomenological Method.
 Ethnographic Model.
 Grounded Theory Method.
 Case Study Model.
 Historical Model.
 Narrative Model.

In respect to this, what are the 3 characteristics of qualitative research?

Characteristics of Qualitative Observational Research

 Naturalistic Inquiry. Qualitative observational research is naturalistic because it studies a

group in its natural setting.
 Inductive analysis.
 Holistic perspective.
 Personal contact and insight.
 Dynamic systems.
 Unique case orientation.
 Context sensitivity.
  Empathic neutrality.

What are the 8 characteristics of qualitative research?

Terms in this set (8)

 Natural setting. Qualitative researchers often collect data in the field at the site where
participants experience the issues or problem under study.
 Researcher as key instrument.
 Multiple methods.
 Complex reasoning.
 Participants' meanings.
 Emergent design.
 Reflexivity.
 Holistic account.

There are two kinds of research: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research relies on
subjective judgment and cannot be quantified, but the research can uncover invaluable data
due to its open collection process and allows researchers to develop hypotheses. Quantitative
research can be quantified, and can be used to prove hypotheses.

There are two kinds of research: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research relies on
subjective judgment and cannot be quantified, but the research can uncover invaluable data due
to its open collection process and allows researchers to develop hypotheses. Quantitative
research can be quantified, and can be used to prove hypotheses.

Interviews

Interviews are a qualitative research tool to provide data about a person’s attitude and
behavior. Interviews may be conducted in person or on the phone, and may be scripted or
unscripted. This tool is used by researchers looking for a personal approach to their research.
In-person interviews allow researchers to analyze non-verbal communication, but they
typically take up more time than a phone interview.
Surveys

Mail, phone and online surveys are popular research tools. They normally use numeric scales
with demographic information. Surveys are one of the most popular quantitative tools available
to researchers because they are affordable, quantifiable and quick. Advances in technology
have enhanced the survey process with survey software, which calculates results within
minutes.

Focus Groups

A focus group consists of six to 10 people, who are asked about their opinions, attitudes,
beliefs and perceptions toward a product, service or idea. Trained moderators ask questions
and ensure everyone in the room has an opportunity to contribute to the discussion. Typically,
a focus group meets a minimum of two times, always with the same group of people so that the
group dynamic is not interrupted.

SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis is a strategic tool utilized by companies to identify their strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This qualitative research tool examines internal factors
(strengths and weaknesses), and external factors (opportunities and threats). A comprehensive
SWOT analysis provides a company with insight into where the business has room to grow,
allows a company to capitalize on a competitive advantage and delivers a company with the
foresight to identify looming threats so that it can prepare.

Qualitative research uses three main methods of data collection: interviewing, observation and
artifact analysis. Main interview types that qualitative researchers use are in-depth, one-on-one
interviews and focus-group interviews.

Tools versus Methods

The term "research tool" can simply be another name for a research method, or it can apply to
specific techniques and materials that researchers use in the study.
Qualitative research uses three main methods of data collection: interviewing, observation and
artifact analysis. Main interview types that qualitative researchers use are in-depth, one-on-one
interviews and focus-group interviews. Artifact analysis usually means analysis of written texts,
but sometimes objects, such as art work, undergo analysis. Each of these methods employs
specific tools that facilitate and enrich the data collection process.

Role of the Researcher

The main tool of qualitative research (be it in-depth individual interviews, focus groups or
observations) is the researcher. Qualitative approaches emphasize the role of the researcher,
accept that all data gathering is more or less subjective and value-laden. In many ways,
qualitative interviewing is a two-way process.

Interviewing Tools

Interviewing techniques that qualitative research uses often derive from clinical and diagnostic
interviews in medicine or psychology. In addition to straightforward questioning, qualitative
interviewers use probing, clarification requests, paraphrasing, reflection, laddering and listening
techniques to explore the topic in depth.

Most qualitative interviews use a topic list, sometimes called the guide or the agenda. This might
be a short overview of all issues that the researcher needs to cover or a more specific list of
questions, usually open ended. In all cases, the focus is on obtaining particular information, not
on asking a specific, standard question.

Projective Techniques

Qualitative studies often incorporate projective techniques. Projective techniques have roots in
the psycho-dynamic tradition, and work on the assumption that people cannot easily access
certain mental content directly, but can express it indirectly by “projecting” their feelings and
beliefs on other objects. Projective techniques are popular in marketing research, particularly
brand image and attitude studies.
Popular projective and indirect techniques include personification/animization (if this brand was
a person/animal, what kind of person/animal would they be?), word association, collage,
expressive drawing, imaginary party (if these brands, people or places were at the party, what
would they do and how would they behave?), mapping and sorting; sentence completion and
many others.

Other Tools

Qualitative research has other data-gathering techniques in its toolkit, from accompanied
shopping (a form of observation used in market research) to Kelly Grid (rep-test), Delphi
technique, simple inventories and more.

Textual analysis is a traditional tool of social sciences, while analysis of artifacts and other
material objects is becoming more popular within the academia and starting to appear in the
world of consumer research.

Role of Technology

ICT development is another source of tools for qualitative research. Gone are the times where
researchers only equipment consisted of a pencil, a notebook and, at best, a creaky tape recorder.
Researchers record interviews and focus groups using specialized audio and video equipment,
often straight to digital formats. Voiced recognition software helps with the transcription of the
tapes and textual analysis software makes complex investigations into long documents and
transcripts possible.

Internet research opportunities increase as the bandwidth and penetration grow. On-line focus
groups and interviews using instant messenger software are now commonplace, and there is a lot
of research that examines material, both textual and visual, found on the Internet.