Key Components of Latent Heat Storage Devices

Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications.
Received April 29, 2022;

Accepted manuscript posted August 21, 2022. doi:10.1115/1.4055370
Copyright © 2022 by ASME
1 Analysis based key components selection of latent heat thermal

energy storage system along with active heat transfer enhancement
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7 Abhishek Agrawal, Dibakar Rakshit*
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8 Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
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9 Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
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22 _________________________________________________
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23 Corresponding Author: Email: dibakar@iitd.ac.in, Ph: +91-11-26597313, Fax: +91-11-2658-2037
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Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications. Received April 29, 2022;
25 Abstract
26 Energy storage is an effective approach to bridging the gap between energy supply and demand
27 created due to the sporadic nature of solar energy. Thermal performance enhancement is a key
28 research subject for effective energy storage using latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES)
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29 systems. This paper focuses on the analysis-based design of suitable LHTES system components
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30 for solar absorption-based cooling applications with a working temperature of up to 200 °C.
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31 Initially, medium-temperature range (80 °C to 200 °C) phase change material (PCM) is selected
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32 using Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). Further, a
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33 suitable heat transfer fluid (HTF) is selected along with the design of a geometrical assessment
34 and an appropriate LHTES system. Finally, the effect of the stirrer on the thermal performance of
35
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the LHTES system has been discussed. The melting time of PCM reduces by 58 % while input
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36 energy increase by 20 kJ with an increase in HTF inlet temperature from 180 °C to 190 °C.
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37 However, input energy increases faster with a further increase in HTF inlet temperature while melt
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38 time doesn’t reduce significantly. Therefore, selecting optimum HTF inlet temperature is an
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39 important criterion for efficient LHTES system design. Implanting a rotating stirrer at 200 RPM
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40 inside a PCM tube decreases the net input energy by 73 kJ. Using back-of-the-envelope
41 calculations, the analysis-based selection of key components of the LHTES system will pave the
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42 way forward to designing an application-specific LHTES system. Further, this study can be
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43 instrumental in theoretically scrutinizing the stirring effect on PCM charging before experimental
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44 analysis.
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45 Keywords: PCM ranking, HTF selection, LHTES system design, Stirrer design, energy balance,
46 charging efficiency, Prandtl number
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48 Nomenclature and symbols
A Heat transfer area (m2)
b Height of stirrer blade (m)
Cp Specific heat [kJ/kg-K]
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d stirrer diameter (m)
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D Diameter (m)
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E Energy (J)
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Ex Exergy (J)
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f Friction factor
Fo Fourier number
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

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H Liquid depth (m)
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k Thermal conductivity [W/m-K]

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L Latent heat of fusion [J/kg-K]

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m Mass (kg)
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𝑚̇ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
n Stirrer rotational speed

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np Number of stirrer blades

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Ns Entropy generation number

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P Power consumption (W)

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Pr Prandtl number
r Radius [mm]
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Re Reynolds number
𝑅𝑒𝑑 Stirrer Reynolds number
𝑅𝑒𝐺 Modified Reynolds number
Ste Stefan number
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t Time (s)
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T Temperature [°C]
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t Time [s]
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U Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 °C)
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u Velocity (m/s)
V Volume
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Z Length of the tube [mm]
49
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50 Greek Letters
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α Thermal diffusivity of PCM [m2/s]

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ε Effectiveness
ρ Density [kg/m³]
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η Efficiency
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𝜑 Angle of the stirrer blade

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ω Angular velocity
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μ Dynamic viscosity (kg/m-s)

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υ Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
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52
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53 Subscripts
c Charging
des Destroyed
f HTF
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i Inner
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i/p Input
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l Liquid-phase of PCM
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m Melting
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o Outer
s Solid-phase of PCM
st Stored
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54
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55 1. Introduction
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56 The rapid depletion of fossil-based resources and increasing global energy demand are alarming
57
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concerns for upcoming generations. The use of non-conventional sources of energy such as solar
58 energy is a promising alternative to overcome this challenge. Despite the humungous potential of
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59 solar energy to meet the worldwide energy demand, tapping solar energy for non-stop usage is
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60 difficult because of its unavailability during non-sunny hours. Hence, storage of solar energy is
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61 important to reduce our over-dependency on natural resources to meet the energy demand
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62 uninterruptedly. Thermal energy storage is primarily of two types, including sensible and latent
63 heat storage. However, latent heat storage is preferable to sensible heat storage as latent heat has
64 a high energy storage density and can be used for practical applications such as solar absorption
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65 cooling, heating and electricity generation [1]. Hence, thermal energy storage using a PCM-based
66 LHTES system is likely to solve this problem. Despite having high latent heat to store a large
67 amount of heat energy during phase change, the poor thermal conductivity suppresses the virtuous
68 qualities of PCMs. However, it is always preferred to efficiently store the thermal energy to
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69 mitigate the efforts and time required. Therefore, effective LHTES system design and thermal
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70 performance enhancement techniques are key research areas among the research fraternity
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71 working in this field. Many previous studies focus on improving the thermal performance of the
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72 LHTES system by introducing various heat transfer enhancement techniques such as the addition
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73 of high thermal conductivity nanoparticles, insertion of metallic foams, expanded graphite, and
74 encapsulation of PCMs. The use of extended surfaces/fins is also a well-known method to improve
75
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the thermal performance of PCM-based heat transfer systems [2–4]. Liu et al. [5] numerically
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76 investigated the effect of using different tube arrangements on the PCM charging process in a shell
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77 and tube heat exchanger. Melting becomes quicker when one large tube and two small tubes are
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78 taken. However, the diameter of the large tube was two times as compared to the diameter of the
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79 small tubes. A numerical and experimental study was performed by Abdulateef et al. [6] using a
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80 triplex tube heat storage unit. The charging time of PCM was reduced by 15% by inserting
81 longitudinal triangular fins. The experimental examination performed by Ezan et al. [7] shows that
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82 the melting of PCM majorly depends on parameters such as the diameter of the shell enclosing
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83 PCM, inlet temperature and thermal conductivity of PCM. Kibria et al. [8] experimentally and
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84 numerically analyzed the thermal performance of the shell and tube LHTES system.
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85 The research outcomes suggested that the HTF inlet temperature is a more influential parameter
86 for faster melting than the HTF flow rate. Wang et al. [9] evaluated the storage performance of the
87 paraffin-based PCM in a shell and tube LHTES unit through a numerical study. The consequence
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88 of the research highlights that the insertion of expanded graphite inside PCM improves energy
89 storage performance. Yang et al. [10] proposed the widespread ε-NTU based design methodology
90 for shell and tube storage system. Liang et al. [11] used the effective NTU method to attempt the
91 optimization-based performance analysis of tube in shell PCM-LHTES system. Kumar and Saha
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92 [12] performed the numerical and experimental analysis to examine the thermal behavior of shell
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93 and tube-based LHTES system. The authors reported that the system's energy efficiency increased
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94 by 7.9% when HTF temperature increased by 20 °C as compared to the initial inlet temperature of
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95 180 °C.
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96 Pahamli et al. [13] presented a numerical study to understand the effect of mass flow rate and inlet
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97 temperature of HTF on the PCM charging process. The results revealed that the inlet temperature
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98 is more influential than the mass flow rate on PCM charging. Kumar and Saha [14] numerically
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99 proposed the thermal performance enhancement using a funnel LHTES system. While compared
100 with the conical and cylindrical LHTES system, the authors observed that the temperature
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101 distribution inside the PCM becomes more uniform using a funnel LHTES system. Further, when
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102 compared with the cylindrical LHTES system, an 11.5% increase in melt fraction is reported using
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103 the funnel LHTES system. Gholaminia et al. [15] numerically studied the performance of shell
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104 and tube storage unit considered for melting of PCM. The authors reported that PCM melting
105 depends on the HTF inlet temperature, the diameter of the storage tank, and the number of fins
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106 used. The analysis shows that more energy can be stored at a higher speed with an increase in HTF
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107 temperature. Qureshi et al. [16] presented the review paper discussing the thermal performance
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108 improvement methods by inserting high thermal conductive additives, metallic foams, expanded
109 graphite and encapsulation of PCM. Wang et al. [17] experimentally studied the charging and
110 discharging of erythritol in a vertical LHTES unit. The authors concluded that natural convection
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111 is a dominating mode of heat transfer while melting the PCM. Further, an increase in HTF flow
112 rate and inlet temperature increases the heat transfer inside the PCM. At the same time, HTF
113 pressure does not play a significant role in enhancing the thermal performance of the PCM storage
114 unit. Das et al. [18] reported the decision analytics to select the appropriate PCM using MADM
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115 methodologies. Rastogi et al. [19] attempted a MADM-based TOPSIS approach to select PCMs
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116 for HVAC applications. The authors concluded that the MADM approach for ranking and
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117 shortlisting PCMs selection is an economical and effective technique.
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118 The above discussion infers that the shell-and-tube type LHTES systems are extensively
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119 considered for PCM charging and discharging processes among numerous LHTES configurations.
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120 The concrete reasons for selecting this configuration for HTF-PCM heat transfer are minimal heat
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121 loss [20], modest design, easy manufacturing and low-pressure drop [10,21]. Moreover, shell and
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122 tube configuration comprises high effectiveness and a large heat transfer area [22]. As far as
123 thermal performance improvement of PCM storage units is concerned, researchers are more
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124 focused on using passive thermal performance enhancement techniques. Limited research has been
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125 attempted to understand the effect of the stirrer in enhancing the charging performance of PCM-
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126 based LHTES system. However, stirring action agitates the fluid during heating, resulting in
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127 uniform heating and hence, stirring with heating increases heat transfer and improves thermal
128 performance [23,24]. This concept motivated the authors to attempt the study of active stirring
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129 during PCM melting.

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130 The key components of any latent heat thermal energy storage system are mainly PCM, HTF, heat
131 storage tank, and heat storage method. These four components are studied separately in this study,
132 and the best-suited combination of these parameters is proposed to obtain the effective LHTES
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133 system for solar absorption cooling application. A best PCM candidate is selected using the
134 ranking method followed by selecting an appropriate HTF by analyzing their thermo-physical
135 properties. Consequently, geometric and system design parameters are assessed to achieve the
136 best-suited heat exchange system. Finally, the selection and design of the stirrer are attempted to
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137 improve the melting performance of PCM based LHTES system. Hence, this paper will act as a
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138 basic guide to select the appropriate PCM, HTF and storage unit to perform the experimental study
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139 of PCM charging. A systematic preliminary design methodology like the one presented in this
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140 paper will reduce the repetitive efforts to analyze the thermal performance of PCM-based storage
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141 systems before performing an actual numerical or experimental study.
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142 2. Methodology tN
143 This section explains the methodologies for selecting different key components of the LHTES
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144 system, such as ranking procedure of PCM, PCM ranking technique, LHTES system design
145 methodology, design calculations of LHTES system and design criteria of active heat transfer
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146 using a stirrer.

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147 2.1 The ranking procedure of PCMs

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148 The PCM is selected based on its important thermophysical properties such as melting point, latent
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149 heat, specific heat, thermal conductivity and density. Further, the cost of PCM is also important in
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150 selecting a suitable PCM. Figure 1 shows the flow chart describing the comprehensive
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151 methodology adopted to shortlist the suitable PCM for the selected application. The literature
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152 review is conducted to tabulate the commonly used PCMs in the medium temperature range, i.e.,
153 80 °C - 200 °C; else, all other PCMs are screened out. The desired thermo-physical properties and
154 cost of all these PCMs candidates are considered for analysis.
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155 2.2 PCM ranking
156 The ranking of PCM is used to get the best PCM candidate and would be based on weighted
157 attributes using the Multi-Attribute Decision Making (MADM) tool. MADM is generally used to
158 solve problems involving selection from among a finite number of alternatives like the case
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159 presented in this study, where 26 PCMs are considered for ranking analysis. Out of the numerous
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160 decision-making methods, TOPSIS is an appropriate and useful MADM-based technique to rank
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161 and select the number of possible alternatives by measuring Euclidean distances. In the analysis,
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162 alternative refers to all the PCMs and criteria are based on the thermo-physical properties and cost
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163 of the PCM. There are two types of criteria, including positive criteria and negative criteria. The
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164 positive criteria are the quantities to be increased, while the negative criteria belong to the
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165 decreasing quantities to reduce the risk. For over thirty-five years, TOPSIS has been used to rank
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166 finite alternatives, while literature reveals the good agreement of TOPSIS with real-world
167 interpretations. The standard steps to be followed for ranking alternatives under TOPSIS are as
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168 follows [18,25]:

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169 1) Assume that there is m number of alternatives, i.e., m number of PCMs called A = {A1, …,
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170 Am}. These alternatives are to be evaluated against certain criteria, C = {C1, …, Cc}. Here, in
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171 the present case, alternatives are referred to as PCM against the criteria such as latent heat,
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172 specific heat, thermal conductivity and cost of PCM.

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173 2) Assign ratings to alternatives and criteria using matrix X given by equation (1), where xmc
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174 indicates the value of alternative Ai for criterion Cg:
175 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑔 𝐶𝑐
10
𝐴1 𝑥11 𝑥12 ⋯ 𝑥1𝑐

𝐴 ⋮ ⋮ 𝑥𝑖𝑔 ⋮
𝑋𝑚×𝑐 = 𝑖 [ ⋮ ⋮ ]
1)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝐴𝑚 𝑥𝑚1 𝑥𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑥𝑚𝑐
176 3) Weight criteria calculations by using the entropy technique to normalize the decision matrix
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177 are shown in equation (2)
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𝑥𝑖𝑔
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𝑞𝑖𝑔 = ; 𝑖 ∈ {1, … , 𝑐}; 𝑔 ∈ {1, … . . , 𝑚} 2)
√∑𝑐𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖𝑔 2
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178 Further, weightage must be assigned to all parameters starting from 𝑥11 , 𝑥12 , ………𝑥1𝑐 based
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179 on their importance. The entropy of criterion g is given by the definition of information entropy,
180 given by equation (3)
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𝑚
∆𝑔 = −𝑘 ∑ 𝑞𝑖𝑔 . ln 𝑞𝑖𝑔 ; ∀𝑔 ∈ {1, … , 𝑐} 3)

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𝑖=1
181 Where 0 ≤ ∆𝑔 ≤ 1
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182 The entropy technique for measuring the weights of criteria is an objective weight method
183 determined by statistical data properties. Usually, the index with bigger information entropy ∆g
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184 has greater variation. Therefore, the weight through deviation degree dg can be estimated by the
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185 equation given below:

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𝑑𝑔 = 1 − ∆𝑔 , (𝑔 = 1,2, … . , 𝑐) 4)
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186 Therefore, the weight for criteria by the entropy method can be calculated by:
𝑑𝑔
𝑤𝑔 = 5)
𝑑1 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑐
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187 4) Make a weighted normalized decision matrix using the vector normalization method.
188 Determine normalized value rig
189 𝑟𝑖𝑔 = 𝑞𝑖𝑔 . 𝑤𝑔
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190 5) Compute the positive ideal solution (PIS) A+ and the negative ideal solution (NIS) A- of the
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191 alternatives:
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𝐴+ = {(max 𝑣𝑖𝑔 |𝑔 ∈ 𝐺); (min 𝑣𝑖𝑔 |𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ′ )} = (𝑣1+ , 𝑣2+ , … , 𝑣𝑐+ )
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6)
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𝐴− = {(min 𝑣𝑖𝑔 |𝑔 ∈ 𝐺); (max 𝑣𝑖𝑔 |𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ′ )} = (𝑣1− , 𝑣2− , … , 𝑣𝑐− ) 7)
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192 G and G' are the subsets of positive and negative criteria, respectively.
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193 6) Compute the distance of each alternative from PIS 𝑑𝑖+ and NIS 𝑑𝑖− :
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𝑑𝑖+ = √ ∑(𝑣𝑖𝑔 − 𝑣𝑔+ )2 8)

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𝑔=1
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𝑐
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𝑑𝑖− = √ ∑(𝑣𝑖𝑔 − 𝑣𝑔− )2 9)

𝑔=1
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194 7) Compute the closeness coefficient of each alternative

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𝑑𝑖−
𝐶𝐶𝑖+ =
ce
; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … . , 𝑚 10)
(𝑑𝑖− + 𝑑𝑖+ )
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195 8) Rank the alternatives
𝑣 = {𝑣𝑖 | max (𝐶𝐶𝑖+ )} 11)

1≤𝑖≤𝑚
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197 2.3 LHTES system design methodology
198 Designing the latent heat thermal energy storage system for efficient melting of PCM is an
199 important step in achieving good thermal performance. It includes selecting storage tank type,
200 geometric assessment such as estimation of storage volume and heat exchanger design based on
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201 input parameters such as initial temperature of HTF, HTF mass flow rate, nature of flow
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(laminar/turbulent), energy storage capacity of PCM based LHTESS system. The ϵ-NTU method
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202
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203 is used to design the LHTES system. Figure 2 shows the design process of the PCM-based storage
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204 unit.
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205 2.4 Physical domain
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206 As shell and tube storage units are the best choices, the physical domain considered to study the
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207 charging phenomenon of PCM is shell and tube configuration. The geometrical parameters such
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208 as the height of the storage system and radius of tube and annulus considered for this study are
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209 shown in figure 3. The geometry of the LHTES system is referred to investigate the melting
210 behavior of a double effect solar chiller system having a minimum temperature at the generator
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211 inlet is 140 °C [26]. The negligible thickness of the tube and shell wall is considered, while the
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212 outer shell wall is considered thermally insulated to sidestep thermal losses. The initial PCM
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213 temperature and HTF mass flow rate is considered 145 °C and 0.1 kg/s, respectively. In order to
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214 have design ease and symmetric installation of the stirrer, PCM must be filled in an inner tube, and
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215 HTF must flow through the outer annulus in a shell and tube type LHTES system. When HTF
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216 flows from the outer shell, the outer layer of PCM will absorb heat and start to soften. Hence, such
217 a PCM-HTF arrangement lessens the stirring resistance significantly. Moreover, high resistance
218 imposed by stirred viscous PCM may damage the PCM tube wall during melting. It is easy and
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219 economical to replace tube rather than outer shell annulus. Therefore, this paper prefers the design
220 arrangement of a tube loaded with PCM and the flow of HTF through the outer shell. The selected
221 cross-section of the LHTES system, as shown in figure 3, is modified in such a way that the amount
222 of PCM filled in the tube is the same as that of the PCM filled in the annulus of the LHTES system.
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223 Figure 4 shows the modified cross-sectional geometry of the LHTES system. An additional margin
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224 of 10 mm in the height of the storage unit is allotted to compensate for the forced vortex created
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225 due to stirring.
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226 2.5 LHTES system design
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227 The important parameters to design the LHTES system are HTF heating power, HTF pumping
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228 power, heat exchanger effectiveness and energy stored by storage tank etc. For this purpose, input
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229 parameters such as HTF mass flow rate, HTF inlet temperature, and flow type must be selected.
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230 This section deals with heat exchanger design considering predefined input parameters for
231 calculations. The ϵ-NTU method evaluates the design configuration, such as the overall heat
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232 transfer coefficient and effectiveness of the heat exchanger. While performing design calculations,
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233 the major assumptions considered such as PCM is homogeneous and isotropic, HTF flow is
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234 incompressible, inlet temperature and velocity of the HTF are constant, thermo-physical properties
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235 of the HTF and the PCM are constant, the phase change occurs at a fixed PCM temperature, and
236 sub-cooling effects are neglected. During melting, counter-flow heat exchange between PCM and
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237 HTF is considered because the HTF flows from top to bottom. At the same time, there will be an
238 upward movement of PCM inside a closed shell due to the effect of natural convection and buoyant
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239 force [27].
240
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241 Heat transfer inside a shell and tube LHTES System
𝑚𝑃𝐶𝑀
𝑄̇ = × [𝐶𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑖 ) + 𝐿] = 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐶𝑝𝑓 (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 ) = 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 12)
𝑡𝑚
1 − 𝑒 𝑁𝑇𝑈(1−𝑅)
∈𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13)
1 − 𝑅 ∗ 𝑒 𝑁𝑇𝑈(1−𝑅)
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242
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243 Power required to heat the HTF (𝑸𝒇 ):
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244 In this paper, HTF flows inside a concentric annulus; therefore, Davis correlation for heat transfer
245 from the concentric annulus [28] will be applicable. The correlation for the Nusselt number can be
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246 written as:
ot1 𝜇 0.14
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𝑓
𝑁𝑢𝑓 = 0.038𝑎0.15 (𝑎 − 1)0.2 𝑅𝑒𝑓 0.8 ∗ 𝑃𝑟 3 ( ) 14)
𝜇𝑤
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𝐷𝑜
247 Where 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑎) = 𝐷𝑖
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4𝑚̇𝑓
248 𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
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𝜋(𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 )𝜇𝑓
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𝑁𝑢𝑓 ∗ 𝑘𝑓
249 ℎ𝑓 =
(𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 )
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𝑄𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) 15)
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250 Time required to melt the PCM:

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251 Agrawal et al.[29] reported the condition for complete melting of PCM inside a cylindrical shell
252 and tube LHTES system using the analytical solution as follows:
15
𝑆𝑡𝑒 × 𝜃𝑓 𝑖 2𝛽
= 𝜂𝑜 (𝑡)cos 𝑜 × 𝑒 4𝜂𝑜 (𝑡) sin 𝛽𝑜 cos 𝛽𝑜 × tan 𝛽𝑜 16)
4
253 Where, 𝜂𝑜 (𝑡), 𝛽𝑜 and 𝜃𝑓 𝑖 represent the predefined non-dimensional numbers as described below:
𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖
254 𝜃𝑓 𝑖 =
d
𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑖
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𝑍
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255 𝜂𝑜 (𝑡) =
4𝐹𝑜 (𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 )
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𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖
256 𝛽𝑜 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑍
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257 Pumping power required for HTF flow:
𝑑𝑢 ot
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𝑃𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝜇𝐴𝑢 17)
𝑑𝑟
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258 Where u is the fluid velocity, and A is the surface area of the pipe.
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259 Exergy Analysis

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260 The quality of energy stored during the charging process in the LHTES system is evaluated using
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261 the concept of exergy analysis stated as per the second law of thermodynamics. A completely
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262 insulated LHTES system is considered during exergy analysis, where heat provided by HTF is
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263 fully transferred to PCM without heat loss. Exergy input is due to the inlet and outlet temperature
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264 of HTF, while the amount of exergy stored depends on PCM temperature during melting.
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265 However, entropy generation is responsible for the difference between exergy input and exergy
266 stored and is eventually known as the exergy destroyed. The exergy analysis for the same condition
267 is explained below [30]:
16
𝑇𝑓𝑖
268 (𝐸𝑥)𝑖/𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐶𝑝 𝑓 [(𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 ) − 𝑇𝑜 ln ]
𝑇𝑓𝑜
269 The exergy input is defined as the rate of exergy supplied by the HTF during the charging of
270 PCM
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te
𝑇𝑜
271 (𝐸𝑥)𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄̇ [1 − ]
𝑇𝑃𝐶𝑀
e di
272 (𝐸𝑥)𝑑𝑒𝑠 = (𝐸𝑥)𝑖/𝑝 − (𝐸𝑥)𝑠𝑡
py
Co
(𝐸𝑥)𝑠𝑡
𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = = 1 − 𝑁𝑠
(𝐸𝑥)𝑖/𝑝 18)
ot
273 tN
274 Charging efficiency with and without stirrer
rip
275 𝐸𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚𝑃𝐶𝑀 [𝐶𝑃𝑠 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑖 ) + 𝐿𝑃𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃𝑙 (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑚 )]

sc
𝑡
nu
276 𝐸𝐻𝑇𝐹 = ∫ ℎ𝑓 𝐴 [𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡

0
Ma
𝐸𝑃𝐶𝑀
(𝜂𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑟 =
𝐸𝐻𝑇𝐹 + 𝐸𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 19)
ed
𝐸𝑃𝐶𝑀
(𝜂𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑟 =
pt
𝐸𝐻𝑇𝐹 + 𝐸𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 20)

ce
277 2.6 Stirrer design

Ac
278 As already mentioned, stirring of PCM helps in uniform mixing and improves the heat transfer
279 rate during melting due to increased forced convection effects. However, there are different types
280 of stirrers used for different applications. Hence, it is important to select a suitable stirrer based on
17
281 the desired purpose of stirring. In general, stirrer selection depends upon criteria such as the
282 volume of the stirring vessel, the viscosity of the PCM to be stirred and the purpose of stirring. In
283 our case, an anchor type stirrer is more suitable as an anchor stirrer can sustain a large shear force
284 exerted by partially melted PCM during the charging process. Moreover, the anchor type stirrer
d
285 primarily stirs the PCM adjacent to the tube wall, and hence it is more suitable for the proposed
te
286 modified LHTES system.
di
e
287 After shortlisting the suitable stirrer based on our conditions and requirements mentioned above,
py
288 designing a stirrer is another imperative step. In the case of stirrer design, the power requirement
Co
289 of the stirrer is an important parameter to calculate. Furukawa et al. [31] measured power
ot
290 consumption for an anchor type stirrer used for varied flow regions. The author developed the
tN
291 correlations for the power number of the anchor was reproduced by assessing the anchor as a wide
rip
292 paddle stirrer. The power correlations used to determine the power consumption are as follows:
sc
𝐷 0.611
1.57 + (𝑛𝑝 ln 𝑑 )
𝜓 = 0.711 ∗ [( )] 1)
𝑑 2
nu
𝑛𝑝 0.52 (1 − )
𝐷
Ma
𝐷
2 ln 𝑑 2)
𝛽= 𝐷 𝑑
(𝑑 − 𝐷)
ed
pt
1⁄
𝐷
3 3)
𝜓 ln 𝑑
ce
𝛾= [ ]
𝐷 5
(𝛽 𝑑 )
Ac
𝛾𝑛𝑝 0.7 𝑏 sin1.6 𝜑 4)

𝑋=
𝐻
18
−1
𝐶𝑡 = [(1.96𝑋1.19 )−7.8 + 0.25−7.8 ]7.8 5)
𝑑 6)
𝑓̴ = 0.0151 ( ) 𝐶𝑡 0.308
𝐷
d
𝑑 −3.24 𝑏 ∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜑 −1.18 −0.74 7)
𝐶𝑡𝑟 = 23.8 ( ) ( ) 𝑋
te
𝐷 𝐷
di
−1
𝑚 = [(0.71𝑋 0.373 )−7.8 + 0.333−7.8 ]7.8 8)
e
py
1
𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑏 ∗ sin 𝜑 𝑛𝑝 3 9)
Co
𝐶𝐿 = [0.215𝜓𝑛𝑝 ( ) (1 − ) ] + 1.83 ( )( )
𝐻 𝐷 𝐻 2 ∗ sin 𝜑
ot
𝐷
𝜋𝜓 ln
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝐺 = ( ) ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 10)
tN
(4𝑑⁄𝛽𝐷)
rip
1 𝑚
−1
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑡𝑟 𝑓̴ 𝑚
𝑓̴ = ( ) + 𝐶𝑡 ‖[( ) + 𝑅𝑒𝐺 ] + ( ) ‖ 11)
sc
𝑅𝑒𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝐺 𝐶𝑡
nu
1.2𝜋 4 𝛽2
𝑁𝑃𝑜 = { } 𝑓̴ 12)
Ma
8𝑑 3
(𝐷2 𝐻)
ed
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃𝑜 𝜌𝑛3 𝑑5 13)

pt
293 Where 𝜓, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝑋, 𝐶𝑡 , 𝑓̴, 𝐶𝑡𝑟 , 𝑚, 𝐶𝐿 represent the correlation-based dimensionless numbers used to
ce
294 determine the Reynolds number, friction factor and power number associated with the determination of
Ac
295 stirring power.
296
297
19
298 3. Material assessment
299 In this study, materials comprise of PCM and HTF. The primary screening of materials must be
300 done in order to rank and finalize the best suitable material candidate for further investigation of
301 LHTES system design. Pre-screening of material can be based on the selected temperature range
d
te
302 of desired application. As this study focuses on medium temperature applications ranging from 80
di
303 °C to 200 °C, the PCM candidates not falling in this range are ruled out straightforwardly. Table
e
304 1 shows the list of selected PCMs for ranking analysis, while table 2 shows the list of HTF
py
305 considered for assessment and final shortlisting.
Co
306 4. Results and discussion
ot
tN
307 This section discusses the final selection of PCM and selection of Suitable HTF. Further, the effect
308 of variation of HTF inlet temperature on various design parameters such as heat and momentum
rip
309 transport, the energy required to pump the HTF inside the annulus of the LHTES system and the
sc
310 energy required to melt the PCM is discussed. Moreover, the effect of stirrer geometry on stirring
nu
311 energy and condition to improve the charging efficiency of PCM using stirrer is conferred in this
Ma
312 section.
ed
313 4.1 Final Selection of PCM

pt
314 Based on the selection procedure and PCM selection technique mentioned in sections 2.1 and 2.2,
ce
315 the ranking methodology is applied to PCMs listed in table 1. To screen out the non-suitable
Ac
316 candidates, qualitative parameters such as phase segregation problem and low thermal cyclic
317 stability are considered. During the literature survey, MgCl2.6H2O was discarded due to the phase
318 segregation problem [32]. However, urea eutectic mixtures showed high degradation in their
20
319 melting point and latent heat within the initial few cycles and did not melt after a few cycles [33].
320 Therefore, it cannot be used for latent thermal energy storage applications. Due to the low thermal
321 cyclic stability of PCMs such as LiNO3 – NaNO3 – KNO3, Adipic acid and Oxalic acid di-hydrate
322 are discarded due to relatively low thermal stability compared to other PCMs. Finally, d-mannitol
d
323 stood first while ranking and selected as per the solar absorption chiller system's operational
te
324 requirements at the University of Seville [26]. Moreover, d-mannitol has a high maximum thermal
e di
325 stable temperature (259 °C) and high final degradation temperature (424 °C) [34] and therefore is
py
326 the best candidate for the selected application. Further, PCM testing must be done to identify the
Co
327 actual properties of the selected PCM sample. This is necessary to avoid a discrepancy between
328 the values of actual and literature cited PCM properties as there exists a variation in the proportion
329
ot
of ingredients of PCM commercially available. Furthermore, the mismatch between actual PCM
tN
330 properties and literature-based values is because of the absence of clear standards for the
rip
331 characterization of PCMs. However, thermo-physical properties are important for designing an
sc
332 LHTES system and require precise experimental estimation for the effective design of the LHTES
nu
333 system [26]. Table 3 shows the list of instruments/apparatus used to identify various
Ma
334 characterization properties of PCM. One can perform all or a few of these tests as per the
335 requirement. However, DSC is the most common and widely used characterization tool to provide
ed
336 important thermal properties such as melt temperature, specific heat, thermal stability (number of
pt
337 cycles), degree of sub-cooling, enthalpy, latent heat of fusion and outset temperature with high
ce
338 accuracy.
Ac
339
340
341
21
342 4.2 Selection of Suitable Heat Transfer Fluid
343 After finalizing the best-suited PCM for the desired application, an appropriate heat transfer fluid
344 must be chosen for the effective charging process. In order to select appropriate HTF, a few
345 commercially available HTF are shortlisted for final selection. The list of HTFs with their thermo-
d
te
346 physical properties at 200 °C is mentioned in table 2. It is found that the temperature difference
di
347 between PCM and HTF should be nearly 30 °C or more for a good heat transfer rate [24]. The heat
e
348 transfer capability of an HTF majorly depends on fluid properties such as thermal conductivity,
py
349 density, viscosity and its specific heat. For high heat transfer, the value of viscosity and Prandtl
Co
350 number of liquid HTF must be small. However, high specific heat signifies the high thermal energy
ot
351 storing capability of HTF. The Prandtl number, viscosity and heat capacity of selected fluids are
tN
352 compared and shown in figure 5 (a). It is observed from the figure that the viscosity and Prandtl
rip
353 number of HT Therm 60 is the lowest, while heat capacity is higher than other HTFs. To get further
354 clarity on heat transfer and fluid flow among the selected HTFs, figure 5 (b) compares the
sc
355 Reynolds number and Nusselt number of HTFs. The mass flow rate of fluids is considered 0.1
nu
356 kg/s. Figure 5 (b) displays that all the HTFs fall in turbulence regime while Reynolds number is
Ma
357 highest for HT Therm 60. A high Reynolds number in turbulence flow signifies additional
358 transverse motion of fluid particles due to which energy and momentum transfer rate between fluid
ed
359 particles increases. Moreover, the Nusselt number is also maximum for HT Therm 60, which
pt
360 indicates the highest heat transfer coefficient of HT Therm 60 among all HTFs. Based on this
ce
361 discussion, it can be observed that HT Therm 60 is a preferred HTF selected for melting of d-
Ac
362 mannitol.
363
22
364 4.3 Effect of inlet temperature of HTF on momentum and heat transport
365 As concluded in the previous section, “HT Therm 60” is the preferred HTF based on its dominating
366 thermo-physical properties. The effects of an increase in selected HTF temperature on thermo-
367 physical properties of HTF are shown in figure 6. In order to perceive the simultaneous effect of
d
368 heat and momentum transport of flowing fluid, a dimensionless number called the Prandtl number
te
369 is taken into consideration. The viscosity of any fluid must be low for easy flow, while high
e di
370 specific heat signifies the high thermal energy storing capacity of any fluid at a given temperature.
py
371 It is seen from the figure that with an increase in HTF temperature, kinematic viscosity and Prandtl
Co
372 number decrease while specific heat capacity increases. Specific heat capacity of HTF increases
373 to 4% with an increase in HTF temperature from 180 °C to 210 °C. Further increase in HTF
374
ot
temperature by another 30 °C, a 2.8% increase in specific heat capacity is observed. The variation
tN
375 of kinematic viscosity with HTF temperature follows the same pattern as that of the Prandtl number
rip
376 and is similar. At 200 °C, the kinematic viscosity trend and Prandtl number show an abnormal
sc
377 decreasing slope. The Prandtl number decreases by 23.4 % with an initial rise in HTF temperature
nu
378 by 20 °C, while only a 3% reduction in Prandtl number is observed with a further increase in HTF
Ma
379 temperature by another 20 °C. Hence, at 200 °C, heat capacity increases as usual without
380 significantly reducing the kinematic viscosity. It can be inferred that the effect of the increase in
ed
381 HTF temperature on the Prandtl number is more effective up to 200 °C. Such behavior of HTF
pt
382 shows good heat transfer characteristics of HTF at 200 °C due to the inherent thermo-physical
ce
383 properties of the HTF. Further, an increase in HTF temperature beyond 200 °C will not
Ac
384 significantly reduce the viscosity of fluid but will increase the input power required to heat the
385 HTF. Therefore, an optimum value of HTF temperature must be chosen where optimum effects of
386 momentum and thermal transport can be obtained.
23
387 4.4 Effect of HTF inlet temperature on pumping energy and PCM melting
388 Figure 7 shows variation in pumping energy, PCM melting time and energy required to melt the
389 PCM using HT Therm 60 w.r.t. change in HTF inlet temperature. The inlet temperature of HTF is
390 kept higher than that of the PCM melting point to observe the melting performance of PCM. The
d
te
391 mass flow rate of HTF is considered 0.1 kg/s. It is seen from the figure that melting time, as well
di
392 as pumping energy, decreases with an increase in HTF inlet temperature. At HTF temperature of
e
393 180 °C, PCM melts in 5.6 hours while melting time is reduced by 58% with an increase in
py
394 temperature by 10 °C. However, with further increases in temperature from 190 °C to 200 °C, 200
Co
395 °C to 210 °C and 210 °C to 220 °C, melt time reduced by 34%, 26% and 14%, respectively. It
ot
396 shows that melt time reduces significantly when HTF inlet temperature increases from 180 °C to
tN
397 190 °C. A similar trend is shown by pumping energy variation w.r.t. in HTF temperature. With the
rip
398 increase in the HTF temperature from 180 °C to 190 °C, pumping energy decreases by 6 kJ while
399 melting energy increases by 26 kJ and hence net energy input increases by 20 kJ. However, with
sc
400 a further increase in HTF temperature by 10 °C, pumping energy reduces by only 1.3 kJ while
nu
401 melting energy increases by 40 kJ and hence net energy input increases by 38.7 kJ. Furthermore,
Ma
402 an increase in net-input energy by 48 kJ and 54 kJ is observed with an increase in HTF temperature
403 from 200 °C to 210 °C and 210 °C to 220 °C, respectively. It means net input energy increases
ed
404 faster with an increase in HTF inlet temperature above a certain limit. Hence, an optimum HTF
pt
405 inlet temperature must be chosen to get fast melting with less energy input. Referring to the above
ce
406 discussion, it can be concluded that HTF inlet temperature must be around 190 °C for faster
Ac
407 melting and low net energy input.
408
24
409 4.5 Variation of input and stored exergy with time
410 Figure 8 shows the time-wise variation of input exergy provided by flowing HTF and exergy stored
411 by PCM during the charging process inside the LHTES system. The inlet temperature mass flow
412 rate of HTF is considered 200 °C and 0.1 kg/s, respectively, while the initial temperature of PCM
d
te
413 is considered 145 °C. It is seen from the figure that exergy input is 1.15 times higher than that of
di
414 exergy stored during the initiation of the charging process. After 1000 seconds of melting, exergy
e
415 input and exergy stored decrease by 77% and 79%, respectively. However, it takes another 5800
py
416 seconds to decrease the input exergy and exergy stored up to a minimum level. This is due to the
Co
417 fact that PCM starts storing the energy released by HTF during the melting process, and available
ot
418 energy accumulates inside PCM. However, HTF and PCM tend to reach the equilibrium condition,
tN
419 which results in a decrease in exergy with the progression of melting. After complete melting of
rip
420 PCM, the value of exergy input becomes equal to exergy stored while the exergy efficiency of the
421 charging process is 82%. The higher value of exergy efficiency is attributed to the higher
sc
422 temperature difference between the operating temperature and ambient temperature, providing
nu
423 higher available energy.

Ma
424 4.6 Effect of the geometry of stirrer on Stirring Energy

ed
425 The basic design of the stirrer depends upon its geometric parameters, such as stirrer diameter and
pt
426 stirrer blade height. The effect of stirrer blade height (b) on stirring energy is captured in figure
ce
427 9(a). The rotating speed of the stirrer is considered constant at 100 RPM, while the stirrer diameter
Ac
428 is considered 80 % of the PCM tank diameter. It is already mentioned that anchor type stirrer is
429 more suitable for the proposed latent heat storage unit. It is observed from the figure that stirring
430 energy increases with an increase in stirrer blade height up to a certain limit. The stirring energy
25
431 increases from 4.2 to 5.6 kJ by increasing the stirrer blade height from 5% to 10% w.r.t. PCM
432 height (H). However, with an increase in stirrer blade height beyond 15% of PCM tank height,
433 stirring energy does not increase while more fabrication material is required and hence will not be
434 economical. Therefore, stirrer blade height up to 15% of PCM tank height is preferred. Figure 9(b)
d
435 shows the effect of stirrer diameter on stirring energy. The rotational speed of the stirrer is taken
te
436 at 200 RPM, while the stirrer blade height is considered 50 mm. The stirring energy increases from
e di
437 1.8 kJ to 9 kJ when the stirrer blade diameter increases from 20% to 40% of the PCM tank diameter.
py
438 The stirring energy increases by a similar proportion by further increasing the stirrer blade
Co
439 diameter. It shows that the higher the stirrer diameter, the higher will be the stirrer energy at a
440 particular RPM. However, the stirrer blade diameter must be smaller than the PCM tank diameter.
441
ot
From the above argument, it can be concluded that the stirrer blade diameter must be 80% to 90%
tN
442 of the PCM tank diameter, and a 10% to 20% radial margin must be considered to avoid
rip
443 interference and abrasion of the stirrer with the PCM tank wall.
sc
444 4.7 Effect of Stirrer on energy input and charging efficiency of PCM
nu
445 The impact of implanting a stirrer in a PCM-based LHTES system can be justified when there is a
Ma
446 reduction in the net energy input, hence, the efficiency of PCM charging. The input energy required
ed
447 to melt the PCM consists of energy required to heat the HTF and energy required to flow the HTF
pt
448 over the PCM tube jacket. While inserting a stirrer inside the PCM tube, additional input energy
ce
449 for stirring the PCM will act. Nevertheless, the stirrer enhances the heat transfer rate and reduces
Ac
450 the energy required to melt the PCM. Therefore, an optimum energy balance must be performed
451 to get an efficient LHTES system. The HTF inlet temperature is considered 200 °C while the stirrer
452 rotates inside the PCM tank for 1 hour, and the initial rotating speed of the stirrer is 200 RPM. For
26
453 theoretical analysis, melt time is assumed to reduce by 10 minutes with an increase in rotational
454 speed of the stirrer by every 100 RPM. Figure 10 shows the variation in stirring energy, HTF heat
455 energy and charging efficiency with and without a stirrer. Here, the HTF pumping energy is not
456 considered as its value is relatively small, and its variation would not affect the net input energy.
d
457 The energy required to heat the PCM is 1013 kJ, and charging efficiency is 65% without using a
te
458 stirrer. However, by inserting the stirrer inside the PCM tank and rotating it at 200 RPM, the
e di
459 stirring energy of 40 kJ is applied while HTF heating energy decreases by 73 kJ. The decrease in
py
460 net input energy by 66 kJ and hence increase in charging efficiency from 65% to 67% can be
Co
461 inferred. However, changing the stirring speed from 200 to 300 RPM increases the stirring energy
462 by 127 kJ while net input heat energy decreases by only 106 kJ. Hence, net-input energy increases
463
ot
by 21 kJ resulting decrease in charging efficiency by 3%. Furthermore, charging efficiency
tN
464 decreases by another 7% when the stirring speed increases from 300 RPM to 400 RPM as stirring
rip
465 energy increases more than the reduction in input heat energy. The above discussion infers that
sc
466 inserting the stirrer may reduce the net energy input and increase charging efficiency. However,
nu
467 the rotational speed of the stirrer must be carefully chosen to utilize the stirrer efficiently.
Ma
468 Although, this is an indicative analysis using back-of-the-envelope calculations to lead the way
469 forward to further investigate and scrutinize the stirring effect on PCM melting using experimental
ed
470 analysis.
pt
471 5. Conclusions
ce
472 The present study attempts the hybrid approach of analysis based selection of design components
Ac
473 of the LHTES system along with heat transfer enhancement using a stirrer. Faster melting of PCM
474 is desirable to reduce the efforts and energy required for PCM charging. Therefore, researchers
475 always strive to enhance the thermal performance of PCM-based LHTES systems. This paper
27
476 explains the step-by-step procedure to finalize the design components of the LHTES system for
477 solar absorption cooling applications having desired working temperature range of 80 °C to 200
478 °C. This study focuses on the PCM and HTF selection using the ranking method, LHTES system
479 design and active heat transfer enhancement technique by implanting a stirring unit. The TOPSIS-
d
480 based analysis shows that d-mannitol is a suitable PCM for solar absorption chilling application,
te
481 while HT Therm 60 is a preferred HTF selected for melting of d-mannitol. The analysis states that
edi
482 the charging time of PCM decreases by 58% while input energy increases by 20 kJ with an increase
py
483 in HTF inlet temperature from 180 °C to 190 °C. However, input energy increases faster with a
Co
484 further increase in HTF inlet temperature while melt time doesn’t reduce significantly. Therefore,
485 the selection of HTF inlet temperature is an important criterion for efficient LHTES system design.
486
ot
Stirrer design calculations show that the height of the stirrer blade must be 15% of PCM tank
tN
487 height while the stirrer diameter must be 80% to 90% of the PCM storage tank diameter.
rip
488 Implanting a rotating stirrer at 200 RPM inside a PCM tube increases the net input energy by 73
sc
489 kJ. Further, an increase in rotating speed results in an increase in input energy and hence charging
nu
490 efficiency decreases. The proposed work will be worthwhile to select the key components of an
Ma
491 LHTES system to develop the experimental setup. Further, this study will pave the way forward
492 to explore the stirring effects on PCM melting through experimental or numerical observations.
ed
493 However, the vigilant selection of important design factors under actual operating conditions is
pt
494 recommended while designing the actual LHTES unit.

ce
495
Ac
28
496 6. Acknowledgement
497 The authors would like to offer their sincere thanks to the Department of Science and Technology,
498 Government of India funded project titled “Different Energy Vector Integration for Storage of
499 Energy,” Grant No. TMD/CERI/MICALL19/2020/03(G) for providing the necessary sources for
d
500 carrying out the research.
te
di
501 7. References
e
py
502 [1] Wu, S., 2010, “Heat Energy Storage and Cooling in Buildings,” Materials for Energy
Co
503 Efficiency and Thermal Comfort in Buildings, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., pp. 101–126.
ot
504 [2] Agrawal, A., and Rakshit, D., 2021, “Review on Thermal Performance Enhancement
tN
505 Techniques of Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES) System for Solar and Waste
506 Heat Recovery Applications,” New Research Directions in Solar Energy Technologies,
rip
507 Springer, pp. 411–438.

sc
508 [3] Singh, R. P., Sze, J. Y., Kaushik, S. C., Rakshit, D., and Romagnoli, A., 2020, “Thermal
nu
509 Performance Enhancement of Eutectic PCM Laden with Functionalised Graphene

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510 Nanoplatelets for an Efficient Solar Absorption Cooling Storage System,” J. Energy
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511 Storage, (October), p. 102092.

pt
512 [4] Singh, R. P., Kaushik, S. C., and Rakshit, D., 2018, “Solidification Behavior of Binary
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513 Eutectic Phase Change Material in a Vertical Finned Thermal Storage System Dispersed
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517 [6] Abdulateef, A. M., Mat, S., Sopian, K., Abdulateef, J., and Gitan, A. A., 2017,
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519 Tube Heat Exchanger with Longitudinal/Triangular Fins,” Sol. Energy, 155, pp. 142–153.
520 [7] Ezan, M. A., Ozdogan, M., and Erek, A., 2011, “Experimental Study on Charging and
d
te
521 Discharging Periods of Water in a Latent Heat Storage Unit,” Int. J. Therm. Sci., 50(11),
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522 pp. 2205–2219.
e
py
523 [8] Kibria, M. A., Anisur, M. R., Mahfuz, M. H., Saidur, R., and Metselaar, I. H. S. C., 2014,
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524 “Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer in a Shell and Tube Thermal
525 Energy Storage System,” Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf., 53, pp. 71–78.
ot
Wang, X. L., Li, B., Qu, Z. G., Zhang, J. F., and Jin, Z. G., 2020, “Effects of Graphite
tN
526 [9]
527 Microstructure Evolution on the Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity of Expanded

rip
528 Graphite/Paraffin Phase Change Materials and Their Thermal Energy Storage
sc
529 Performance,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 155, p. 119853.

nu
530 [10] Yang, L., Xu, H., Cola, F., Akhmetov, B., Gil, A., Cabeza, L. F., and Romagnoli, A., 2021,
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531 “Shell-and-Tube Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage Design Methodology with Material
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ed
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533 4180.
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ce
534 [11] Liang, H., Niu, J., and Gan, Y., 2020, “Performance Optimization for Shell-and-Tube PCM
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535 Thermal Energy Storage,” J. Energy Storage, 30, p. 101421.
536 [12] Kumar, A., and Saha, S. K., 2020, “Experimental and Numerical Study of Latent Heat
537 Thermal Energy Storage with High Porosity Metal Matrix under Intermittent Heat Loads,”
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538 Appl. Energy, 263, p. 114649.
539 [13] Pahamli, Y., Hosseini, M. J., Ranjbar, A. A., and Bahrampoury, R., 2018, “Inner Pipe
540 Downward Movement Effect on Melting of PCM in a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger,” Appl.
541 Math. Comput., 316, pp. 30–42.
d
te
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630 Temperature Applications,” Energy Procedia, 158, pp. 4375–4382.

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638 Effect H2O/LiBr Absorption Refrigeration System,” Sol. Energy, 110, pp. 398–409.
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641 [52] Leonesi, D., Braghetti, M., Cingolani, A., and Franzosini, P., 1970, “Molten Mixtures of K,
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644
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645
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646 List of Tables
S. No. Title
1 List of selected PCMs for Ranking Analysis
2 Thermo-physical properties of HTFs at 200 °C [35], [36]
d
3 List of important tests to characterize the PCM
te
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647
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648
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649 Table 1
Melting Latent Cp
Phase Change Mass Cp (solid) k (solid) k (liquid) Density Cost
Point heat (liquid) Source
Materials fraction (kJ/kg K) (W/m K) (W/m K) (kg/m3) (INR/kg)
(°C) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K)
Acetamide 82 260 2 3 0.4 0.25 1160 950.00 [37]
d
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Urea–NaNO3 83 187 1.6 2.03 0.75 0.59 1502 30.00 [38]
di
MgNO3.6H2O 89 140 2.5 3.1 1.63 0.8 1640 5000.00 [39][40]
Urea–NH4Cl 102 214 1.77 2.09 0.76 0.58 1348 23.00 [38]
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Oxalic acid
dehydrate 105 264 2.11 2.89 0.9 0.7 1653 16830.00 [41]
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Urea–KNO3 109 195 1.6 1.9 0.81 0.58 1416 38.00 [38]
Urea–NaCl 112 230 1.72 2.02 0.8 0.6 1372 41.00 [38]
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Urea–KCl 115 227 1.69 1.96 0.83 0.6 1370 26.00 [38]
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Erythritol 117 340 1.38 2.76 0.73 0.33 1450 350.00 [41]
MgCl2. 6H2O 117 168.6 2 2.4 0.7 0.57 1570 9.00 [42]
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LiNO3–NaNO3–
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KNO3 30-18-52 123 140 1.17 1.44 0.79 0.53 2068 1442.00 [43]
LiNO3–KNO3 34-66 133 150 1.17 1.35 0.96 0.52 2018 1631.00 [43]
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Urea 134 250 1.8 2.11 0.8 0.6 1320 26.00 [44]
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KNO3–NaNO2 56-44 141 97 1.18 1.74 0.73 0.57 1994 45.60 [45]
KNO3–NaNO3–
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NaNO2 53-6-41 142 110 1.17 1.73 0.72 0.57 2006 44.94 [45]
KNO2–NaNO 48-52 149 124 1.05 1.63 0.58 0.52 2080 40.00 [45]
pt
Adipic acid 152 275 1.59 2.26 0.162 0.142 1360 150.00 [46][47]
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LiNO3–NaNO 62-38 156 233 1.57 1.91 1.12 0.66 2296 2914.00 [38]
LiNO3–KCl
Ac
58-42 160 272 1.26 1.35 1.31 0.59 2196 2726.00 [39]
LiNO3–NaNO3–KCl 45-50-5 160 266 1.32 1.69 0.88 0.59 2297 2150.00 [38]
LiNO3-KCl 50-50 164 154.8 1.1 1.87 1.749 0.3315 2010 2360.00 [48]
d-Mannitol 165 300 1.53 2.5 0.19 0.11 1490 750.00 [49][26]
38
Hydroquinone 172 230 1.59 1.64 0.45 0.612 1300 500.00 [50][51]
HCOONa–HCOOK 45-55 176 175 1.15 0.93 0.63 0.43 1913 63.00 [52]
LiOH–LiNO3 19-81 183 352 1.6 2 1.33 0.69 2124 4073.00 [45]
LiNO3–NaNO3 49-51 194 262 1.35 1.72 0.87 0.59 2317 2367.00 [45]
650
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652 Table 2
Name of HTF Cp (kJ/kg-K) k (W/m-K) ν (m2/s) [10-6] ρ (kg/m3)
Dynalene-HT 2.220 0.107 0.95 915
HT Therm 60 2.535 0.112 0.90 755
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Dynalene SF 2.624 0.120 1.28 756
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HT Therm F 57 2.612 0.110 1.16 766
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Dynalene 600 1.611 0.121 13.6 783
653
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655 Table 3
Name of Instrument/method Properties identify
Micro-morphology (to ensure homogeneous

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
mixing)
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X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Chemical structure
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Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
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Crystalloid phase
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(FT-IR)
Hot wire method or Laser flash method Thermal conductivity
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pH meter Toxicity
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656 tN
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658 List of Figures
S. No. Title
Fig. 1 Flow diagram of a comprehensive methodology for PCM selection
Fig.2 Design process of the PCM based storage unit
d
Fig. 3 Cross-sectional geometry of LHTES system
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Fig. 4 Modified cross-sectional geometry of LHTES system with stirrer
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Fig.5 (a) Comparison of thermo-physical properties of HTFs
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Fig.5 (b) Comparison of Reynolds number and Nusselt number of HTFs
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Fig.6 Effect of inlet temperature of HTF on momentum and heat transport
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Fig.7 Effect of variation of HTF inlet temperature on pumping and melting energy
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Fig.8 Variation of exergy input and exergy stored with time
Fig.9 (a) Effect of stirrer blade height on stirring energy

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Fig.9 (b) Effect of Stirrer diameter on stirring energy

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Fig.10 Variation in stirring energy, HTF energy and charging efficiency with and
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without stirrer
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660
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Figure 1
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Figure 2
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664
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Figure 3
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Figure 4 rip
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160 3
2.5
120
2
ν (10-6) , Cp
Pr
80 1.5
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0.5
di
0 0
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Dynalene-HT HT Therm 60 Dynalene SF HT Therm F 57 Dynalene 600
py
Pr Cp ν
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Figure 5 (a)
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40000 250
Re
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200
30000 Nu
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150
Nu
Re
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20000
100
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10000
50
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0 0
Dynalene-HT HT Therm 60 Dynalene SF HT Therm F 57 Dynalene 600
pt
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Figure 5 (b)
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670
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Figure 6
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Figure 7
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4
Exergy Rate (kJ/s)
3 Exergy input
2 Exergy stored
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0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
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Time (s)
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Figure 8
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6.0
Stirring Energy (kJ)
5.0
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RPM 100, β = 0.9917
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4.0
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5% 25% 45% 65% 85% 105%
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b/H
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Figure 9 (a)
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Stirring Energy (kJ)
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RPM 200, b = 10%

30
25
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10
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20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

d/D
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Figure 9 (b)
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679

Key Components of Latent Heat Storage Devices

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Key Components of Latent Heat Storage Devices

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Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications.

Received April 29, 2022;

1 Analysis based key components selection of latent heat thermal

46 charging efficiency, Prandtl number

48 Nomenclature and symbols

A Heat transfer area (m2)

Cp Specific heat [kJ/kg-K]

h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

k Thermal conductivity [W/m-K]

L Latent heat of fusion [J/kg-K]

𝑚̇ Mass flow rate (kg/s)

n Stirrer rotational speed

np Number of stirrer blades

Ns Entropy generation number

P Power consumption (W)

𝑅𝑒𝑑 Stirrer Reynolds number

Ste Stefan number

α Thermal diffusivity of PCM [m2/s]

𝜑 Angle of the stirrer blade

μ Dynamic viscosity (kg/m-s)

υ Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

129 during PCM melting.

146 using a stirrer.

147 2.1 The ranking procedure of PCMs

155 2.2 PCM ranking

168 follows [18,25]:

172 specific heat, thermal conductivity and cost of PCM.

174 indicates the value of alternative Ai for criterion Cg:

𝐴1 𝑥11 𝑥12 ⋯ 𝑥1𝑐

180 given by equation (3)

∆𝑔 = −𝑘 ∑ 𝑞𝑖𝑔 . ln 𝑞𝑖𝑔 ; ∀𝑔 ∈ {1, … , 𝑐} 3)

185 equation given below:

188 Determine normalized value rig

𝑑𝑖+ = √ ∑(𝑣𝑖𝑔 − 𝑣𝑔+ )2 8)

𝑑𝑖− = √ ∑(𝑣𝑖𝑔 − 𝑣𝑔− )2 9)

194 7) Compute the closeness coefficient of each alternative

195 8) Rank the alternatives

𝑣 = {𝑣𝑖 | max (𝐶𝐶𝑖+ )} 11)

197 2.3 LHTES system design methodology

239 force [27].

241 Heat transfer inside a shell and tube LHTES System

250 Time required to melt the PCM:

259 Exergy Analysis

267 is explained below [30]:

275 𝐸𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚𝑃𝐶𝑀 [𝐶𝑃𝑠 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑖 ) + 𝐿𝑃𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃𝑙 (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑚 )]

276 𝐸𝐻𝑇𝐹 = ∫ ℎ𝑓 𝐴 [𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡

𝐸𝐻𝑇𝐹 + 𝐸𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 20)

277 2.6 Stirrer design

𝛾𝑛𝑝 0.7 𝑏 sin1.6 𝜑 4)

𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃𝑜 𝜌𝑛3 𝑑5 13)

295 stirring power.

298 3. Material assessment

313 4.1 Final Selection of PCM

342 4.2 Selection of Suitable Heat Transfer Fluid

386 momentum and thermal transport can be obtained.

407 melting and low net energy input.

409 4.5 Variation of input and stored exergy with time

423 higher available energy.

424 4.6 Effect of the geometry of stirrer on Stirring Energy

494 recommended while designing the actual LHTES unit.

507 Springer, pp. 411–438.

509 Performance Enhancement of Eutectic PCM Laden with Functionalised Graphene

511 Storage, (October), p. 102092.