Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2017) 10:537

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3330-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

Domestic water demand challenges in Qatar

Husam Musa Baalousha 1,2 & Omar K. M. Ouda 3

Received: 3 August 2016 / Accepted: 5 December 2017

# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2017

Abstract
Qatar is an arid country with limited water resources due to the low amount of rainfall it receives. With no surface water and an
average annual rainfall of 80 mm per year, Qatar relies upon desalination to meet the increasing domestic water demand. The
average annual rainfall recharge is around 60 million m3, whereas the total groundwater abstraction is 250 million m3 per year. As
a result, groundwater level drops dramatically, thereby inducing brackish water upconing and saline water intrusion. Desalination
provides 99% of domestic water demand, which increases continuously as a result of the influx of migrants into the country. The
current capacity of desalination plants in Qatar is around 540 million m3 per year. Around 30% of this volume is being lost as a
result of leakage in the water system network, and the rest is used for domestic purposes. This paper discusses three different
scenarios of water demand until the year 2040. The results of these scenarios show water demand will vary between 516 and
2718 million m3 in the year 2040, depending upon the various trends in population growth, and assuming the current per capita of
500 l/day. The results of this study highlight the need for water rationing and conservation and may help the planners of future
water demand.

Keywords Qatar . Water management . Forecast scenarios . Domestic water demand . Groundwater . Desalination

Introduction of Qatar has exponentially increased from about 50,000 in

Qatar is an arid country located to the east of Saudi Arabia and
extending as a peninsula into the Arabian Gulf. The total area
of Qatar is 11,586 km2 stretches in the north-south direction
(Kimrey 1985), as shown in Fig. 1. The maximum length of
Qatar is 180 km and its maximum width is 85 km. It is bound-
ed by the Arabian Gulf from all directions except the south,
where it borders Saudi Arabia. Over the last few decades,
Qatar has seen a substantial increase in its population, and
urbanization resulted from rapid economic development,
which is based on fossil-fuel industry (Qatar General
Secretariat for Development Planning 2009). The population
* Husam Musa Baalousha
Baalousha@web.de
1
Qatar Environment and Energy research Institute (QEERI), Hamad
Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Doha, Qatar
2
College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University
(HBKU), PO Box 34110, Doha, Qatar
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Prince Mohamed Bin Fahd
University, PO Box 1664, Al-Khobar 31952, Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia
1960 to about 2.5 million in 2015 (The World Bank
Databank 2015; Ministry of Development Planning and
Statistics 2016; Trading Economics 2016). This increase in
population was associated with an increase on demand on
the country limited water resources. As a result, the limited
natural renewable water resources in the country have been
heavily overexploited. The current water consumption per
capita is 500 l/day, which is the highest in the world (Qatar
General Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa) 2015).
Aquifers are the only source of natural water in the country.
Extensive groundwater pumping for farms irrigation over the
last few decades has resulted in substantial decline in ground-
water levels and deterioration of groundwater quality. Farms
are clustered mainly in the northern area of Qatar, where the
groundwater is fresh (see Fig. 1). Qatar is currently relying on
desalination of seawater to meet the ever-increasing domestic
demand of its rapidly increasing population and urbanization.
Desalination meets 99% of domestic demand, whereas the
remaining 1% is met by groundwater (Darwish and Mohtar
2012). At present, no big storage facilities for the produced
desalinated water exist, and the stored water is enough for
2 days of supply. Therefore, one of the main grand challenges
in Qatar is to diversify water resources, including artificial
537 Page 2 of 12
Fig. 1 Location map of Qatar
(Baalousha 2016a)
groundwater recharge to increase water security. Qatar
Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa) is planning to
build mega reservoir (on-land tanks) for domestic water sup-
ply, which may increase water security to 7 days, from current
2 days. This is not comparable to aquifer storage and recovery,
where the storage capacity is much higher.
Treated wastewater can be used to meet a substantial por-
tion of the non-domestic water demand, if probably utilized
and managed (Ouda 2015). Currently, treated wastewater pro-
duced in Qatar is not fully utilized, as most of it is being
discharged to open fields. A small proportion (14%) of the
treated wastewater is being used for landscaping purposes
and for fodder crops (Qatar General Secretariat for
Development Planning 2011).
The scarcity of renewable water resources and the ever-
increasing water demand for various economic sectors are
the major challenges Qatar sustainable development is facing.
It is essential to investigate and to analyze the water supply
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
and demand situation to understand the complexity of these
challenges and to put a roadmap to overcome them.
This paper reviews the status of water resources and de-
mands in Qatar and considers three forecast scenarios: opti-
mistic, moderate, and pessimistic. The study also suggests
initiatives and measures to improve the sustainability of water
resources development.
Water resources status in Qatar
Qatar is located in an extreme desert environment with an
average annual rainfall of about 80 mm. The rainfall is low,
variable, unpredictable, and highly erratic in time and space
while the annual rate of evaporation is more than 2000 mm
(Al-Kaabi 1987). Accordingly, rainfall recharge is far below
the country’s domestic and agricultural demand. The country
does not have any natural surface watercourses such as rivers
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
or lakes (Abu Sukar et al. 2007; Ali et al. 2014). Qatar utilizes
one conventional and two non-conventional water resources
to satisfy the expanding domestic, industrial, and agricultural
water demands. Groundwater is the conventional source,
while non-conventional sources include desalinated seawater
and treated wastewater (Ali et al. 2014).
Groundwater
Qatar is part of the Arabian Peninsula with similar geology to
adjacent countries. The sub-surface strata in Qatar comprise a
series of little dipping layers of limestone. The topography of
Qatar is generally flat except for some areas in the south-west,
where the land surface elevation reaches 107 m above mean
sea level. Large sand dunes and hills exist in the south of Qatar
(Kimrey 1985). The limestone layers in Qatar are from
Paleocene and Eocene periods, with Holocene sediments only
along the coast line. Dam and Dammam Formation are the
uppermost layers in the country, representing the shallow
aquifer. These formations are situated atop of older Rus
Formation from the Lower Eocene Epoch. Umm er
Rhadhuma Formation (Paleocene Epoch) represent the lower
aquifer, with most of its water is saline or connate. At present,
aquifers provide 36% of the country’s demand, which goes
mainly to agriculture.
Groundwater occurs in lower parts of Dammam Formation
and in the underlying Rus Formation. Groundwater basins are
classified into three: the northern, central, and southern basins.
The northern basin has the lowest salinity whereas the south-
ern basin is generally saline. Fresh water lenses in the northern
basin occur on the top of brackish and saline groundwater.
Aquifers are recharged by rainfall, which has an average of
80 mm/year. Rainfall distribution increases in the northern
direction (Alsharhan et al. 1990). Most recharge occurs in land
depressions that exist all over the country (Baalousha 2016b).
These depressions were created when the land collapse due to
cavities resulting from dissolution of limestone. Numerous
studies were done to estimate natural groundwater recharge
(Eccleston et al. 1981; Schlumberger Water Services 2009;
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) 2015; Baalousha 2016c). Based on these studies, the
average annual groundwater recharge from rainfall is around
60 million m3. There are limited studies about lateral ground-
water inflow across the boundary between Qatar and Saudi
Arabia. FAO estimated this amount to be about 2 million m3
per year and has a poor quality (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2015). Irrigation
return flow constitutes an inflow source into the aquifer and
contributes towards aquifer recharge. The amount of return
flow is estimated at 55 million m3 per year (Schlumberger
Water Services 2009. Table 1 shows the groundwater balance
in 2014. It should be noted that the losses from water network
Page 3 of 12 537
Table 1 Groundwater balance as per 2014
Component Inflow (million m3) Outflow (million m3)
Net rainfall recharge 60 –
Lateral inflow into aquifer 2 –
Irrigation return flow 55 –
Abstraction (for agriculture) 250
Total 117 250
Discrepancy −133
are not included in the table because these losses occur only in
Doha area. If the losses are considered, the results will be
misleading as the groundwater level increases under Doha
City, contrary to elsewhere in the country.
As a result of the aquifer overexploitation, many ad-
verse environmental effects appeared. This includes a
sharp drop of water level up to more than 10 m in some
places. The quality of groundwater has deteriorated due to
upconing of brackish and saline water from lower layers
underneath the fresh groundwater lenses and intrusion of
seawater. Figure 3 shows contour maps of total dissolved
solids (TDS) in groundwater as salinity indicator for the
years 1971 and 2009. A comparison between the two maps
shows a reduction in fresh groundwater lenses and increase
in salinity. The TDS level of the northern and central aqui-
fers varies from 500 to 5000 mg/l, and it reaches
10,000 mg/l near the shoreline. In addition, salinization
of wells became very common due to upcoming of deeper
brackish groundwater into the fresh water, and the seawater
intrusion has extended further inland (Fig. 2).
Desalination
Desalination is the main source of domestic water supply in
Qatar as it meets about 50% of the total water demand in the
country. Qatar Electricity and Water Corporation
(Kahramaa) distributes water that comes from desalination
plants to people. The current annual produced desalinated
water is about 540 million m 3 per year (Qatar General
Secretariat for Development Planning 2011). This produced
desalinated water meets 99% of domestic use while 1% is
supplied by groundwater. The country has invested heavily
in desalination infrastructure, which resulted in almost dou-
bling the production capacity of desalinated plants over the
last decade (Fig. 3). The figure shows the increase in pro-
duced desalinated water over the period from 2007 to 2014.
Plans are in place to maintain a similar level of growth in
desalinated plants supply capacities over the coming decade
to meet the ever-increasing domestic water demand. Table 2
shows the desalination plants in Qatar and their capacities
(Baalousha 2016d). The majority of desalination plants are
537 Page 4 of 12 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537

Fig. 2 Total dissolved solids (TDS) in groundwater [mg/l] in 1971 and 2009 (Schlumberger Water Services 2009)

located in the outskirt of Doha City, and one at the western Treated wastewater
coast of the country (Dukhan). The total produced water
from desalination plants is 1.48 million m3, which is equiv- Treated wastewater provides about 14% of Qatari total water
alent to 540 million m3 per year. demand. Wastewater treatment started in Qatar in the early

Fig. 3 The produced desalinated

water (million m3)
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
Table 2 Desalination plants and
their capacity (Baalousha 2016d) Plant
Ras Abu Fontas A
Ras Abu Fontas A1
Ras Abu Fontas B
Ras Abu Fontas B2
RLPC
Q Power
RG
Dukhan
Total
1970s, but the usage of treated wastewater is limited while
farmers and public are suspicious about its quality. Treated
wastewater can be a good source of water, especially in a
country like Qatar with scarce water resources. The treated
wastewater is around 330 million m3 per year. Currently,
50% of treated wastewater is used for landscaping (Ali et al.
2014) and to produce forage crops (Almuhanadi 2006). If the
whole volume of the treated wastewater is used, it can cover
all the irrigation demand without any need for groundwater
abstraction. Figure 4 shows the treated and reused amounts of
wastewater in Qatar over the period from 2004 to 2011 (Ali
et al. 2014).
Water demand overview
High-water demand by the wealthy has become a common
phenomenon in the developed world (Al-Mohannadi et al.
2003) and is emerging in the Gulf Collaborations Council
Countries (GCC) in unprecedented level (Ouda 2014a, b).
Qatar has witnessed massive socioeconomic development
over the last five decades coupled with a sharp increase in
population and urbanization growth rate resulted from high
fossil-fuel revenue. The water demand per sector in 2012
was 59% agriculture, 39% domestic, and 2% industry
Fig. 4 Treated and reused wastewater amounts (Al Mansouri 2014)
Page 5 of 12 537
Technology Capacity (million m3/day)
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.25
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.20
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.15
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.13
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.18
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSFE) 0.27
Multiple-effect distillation (MED) 0.29
Multiple-effect distillation (MED) 0.01
1.48
(excluding oil and gas). Oil and gas industries have developed
their own desalination plants for water supply purposes. To
meet the growing demand for various sectors and given the
country limited water resources, the country strategy in water
consumption is to use groundwater for agriculture, desalinated
water for domestic water, and the reclaimed treated wastewa-
ter for the irrigation of forage crops and landscaping (Darwish
and Mohtar 2012). A similar strategy has been adopted in the
neighboring country such as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(KSA), which considered desalinated water as the country
strategic supply source for domestic water demand (Ouda
2015).
While the focus of this paper is on domestic water demand,
it is important to present a quick overview of the agricultural
water demand for several reasons. The agriculture water de-
mand consumes a significant part of the water budget in the
country, which would otherwise be used for domestic supply.
The environmental problems associated with over-pumping,
in addition to other reasons related to water security, prompted
an artificial recharge project, which will rely on desalinated
water to artificially recharge the aquifer. As a consequence,
this will put more pressure on desalination plants in the
country.
Prior to the discovery of the fossil fuel, Qatar’s economy
relied on fishing and pearl industry. In 1956, there were only
119 farms over 86 ha of land, which increased to more than
12,935 ha in 2006 (Almuhanadi 2006). This increase in farm-
ing is due to economic development from fossil-fuel revenue.
As the country is dry, agriculture is completely dependent on
irrigation. Given the almost cost-free access to groundwater,
farmers have used mainly open channels and flooding irriga-
tion system. Currently, 75% of agriculture land is irrigated
with this system. The open canal and flooding irrigation sys-
tem is the least financial intense system and characterized by
low water application efficiency where a substantial portion of
irrigation water is lost for evaporation. Farmers pay a small
pumping charge but otherwise, have free use of groundwater
(Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning 2011).
As a result of this policy, groundwater abstraction has
537 Page 6 of 12
increased from 44 million m 3 in 1974 (Kimrey 1985;
Baalousha 2016c) to about 250 million m3 per year in 2013
(Ali et al. 2014). Figure 5 shows the trend in groundwater
abstraction for the period between 1976 and 2009. Around
70% of abstraction takes place in the northern part of the
country, where the groundwater quality is better than else-
where. The total number of different purpose wells is more
than 8500 (Schlumberger Water Services 2009). The total vol-
ume of abstracted groundwater over the last few years is
around 250 million m3 per year.
To manage the depletion of the groundwater resources,
Qatar’s government has issued the ministerial decree no. 20
on BRationalizing the use of groundwater and preventing its
deterioration^; the decree banned the digging of new produc-
tion wells to prevent this over-extraction. Furthermore, the
Qatari government set its goals to protect and sustain its nat-
ural environment, and the decree was amended and a pro-
posed banning of the existing wells in the specific areas under
a groundwater salinity < 2000 ppm for irrigating fodder crops
in 2008. (Ali et al. 2014).
Water demand key factors
Domestic water demand is the biggest challenge facing the
country of Qatar, as the agricultural demand is almost steady
over the last few years. No expansion of irrigation land took
place due to depletion and increases in the salinity of ground-
water and absent of fertile soil and agricultural land
(Baalousha 2016b).
The main factor affecting domestic water demand is the
population increase, which has seen a sharp jump in the last
few years. Several large projects such as underground train
network and stadiums building for the anticipated World
Cup in 2022 have created a large influx of expats into the
country. This put high stresses on the limited water resources
of the country. The other key factor is related to the socioeco-
nomic development of the country and the full subsidy of
water and energy for locals. As a result, the water consump-
tion per capita is the highest in the world. People (mainly
Fig. 5 Trend in groundwater
abstraction
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
locals) fill their swimming pools, wash their cars, and water
their backyards using the freely available desalinated water.
Other factors affecting water demand is the high leakage
through the network, which also includes illegal connections.
This loss amounts to approximately one third of the total de-
salinated water supply (Qatar General Secretariat for
Development Planning 2011).
Domestic water demand
The high population, urbanization, and standards of leaving
growth coupled with the development of water supply infra-
structure have resulted in a substantial increase in domestic
water demand. The population of Qatar has increased from
about 50,000 in 1955 to about 2.5 million in 2016 (Al-
Mohannadi et al. 2003; Ministry of Development Planning
and Statistics 2016; Trading Economics 2016). The develop-
ment of water supply infrastructure, including desalination
plants and the relatively low water tariff, has resulted in a
significant increase in per capita water consumption. The per
capita consumption has increased from about 29 m3 per year
(80 l per capita per day) in the 1960 (Al-Mohannadi et al.
2003) to about 182 m3 per year (500 l per capita per day) in
2012 (Gulf times 2013), with a total consumption of about
500 million m3 in 2013.
Table 3 below summarizes the sustainable water resources’
yields from both conventional and non-conventional sources
in 2014 and the water demand for the various economic sec-
tors. The table shows that Qatar cannot meet its present de-
mand based on conventional water resource (groundwater)
and needs to utilize the non-conventional source. The present
supply capacity of the non-conventional and conventional wa-
ter resources can satisfy the current demand from all sectors.
Water demand strategies
The Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation
(Kahramaa), which is responsible for water resources in the
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537 Page 7 of 12 537

Table 3 Qatar sustainable water resources yields vs. water demand country is highly needed to understand the long-term implica-
Water resources sustainable yields 3
Quantity (million m /year) tion of this approach on desalinated water industry and the
country water budget. Domestic water demand depends on
Groundwater 62 several variables, variables, including population, urbaniza-
Surface water 0 tion, standard of livings, climate conditions, and climate
Total conventional sources 62 changes.
Treated wastewater 330 The population of Qatar has increased from about 50,000
Desalinated water 540 in 1955 to about 2.5 million in 2016 with an average annual
Total non-conventional sources 870 growth rate of about 7.4% as shown in Fig. 6 (Al-Mohannadi
Total water resource yields 932 et al. 2003; Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics
Water demand 2016; Trading Economics 2016). The population growth dur-
Domestic 500 ing this period can be referred to two main sources: the natural
Agricultural 250 growth and the flux of economic migrants to satisfy the eco-
Total 750 nomic development needs for workers. The Qatari citizen
forms only 12% of the 2014 population while the rest are
*No information is available on industrial water demand. Fossil-fuel in- expatriate workers (Snoje 2014). During the 50-year period,
dustry, the main industry in Qatar, has its own water sources
(desalination) while small-scale industry demand is mixed within domes-
the population growth rate fluctuated heavily; the peak annual
tic water demand growth reported in the period from 2006 to 2010 and reach
about 14.5% while the growth went down up to 0.8% during
country has initiated several projects to increase water security the period from 1991 to 1995 as shown in Fig. 7. It is worth to
in the country. The main is building mega reservoirs (i.e., notice that the state of population growth can be highly related
tanks) that can accommodate 5-day domestic water demand to the state of the economy in the country which is historically
(7.5 million m3). Once completed, these reservoirs will in- dependent on fossil-fuel prices. Figure 7 shows a strong cor-
crease the domestic water security from the currently 2 to relation between changes in crude oil prices and the popula-
7 days. tion growth where periods associated with high crude oil price
In addition, Kahramaa is working on reducing water losses growth typically followed by high population growth period.
in the distribution network through rehabilitation of the net- This fact makes the forecast of Qatari population, and domes-
work regularly. On the consumption side, Kahramaa has ini- tic water demands a challenging task.
tiated a conservation program called (Tarsheed) to reduce con-
sumption through public awareness. Some studies are being
done to explore the possibility of using solar and nuclear en-
ergy for water production. Forecast methodology
Some other projects initiated by Kahramaa in cooperation
with stakeholders and international partners include looking To forecast the future domestic demand, three scenarios of
into unconventional water resources such as domestic water demand were developed: optimistic, moder-
paleogroundwater at the coastal areas. ate, and pessimistic. These scenarios are based on projection
of population growth. The optimistic scenario was developed
to stimulate the Qatar government plan to increase the effi-
ciency of water use and reduce the per capita water consump-
Domestic water demand forecast tion level to 300 l per capita per day (LCD) coupled with a

The review of Qatar’s water management shows that the

Qatari government has developed and implemented regula-
tions to reduce agricultural water demand and to encourage
the utilization of treated wastewater for landscape and fodder
irrigations. Furthermore, groundwater resources have histori-
cally been used for agriculture while desalinated water has
been used for domestic water supply, in a simple word; do-
mestic water demand was almost completely met by desali-
nated water. The Qatari government is planning to maintain
the same approach to water management in the country.
Future growth in water demand is expected to be mainly from
domestic sector. Forecast of domestic water demand in the Fig. 6 Population trend in Qatar from 1961 to 2016
537 Page 8 of 12 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537

Fig. 7 Population growth rate and percentage changes in crude oil price from the year 1961 to 2015 (Analysis after Statista 2016 and Trading Economics
2016)

population growth of 2.5%. The moderate scenario was based
on a comprehensive historical review of the population, stan-
dards of living, and socioeconomic development growth
trends. The scenario presents a midway between the optimistic
scenario of water demand development and the historical
trend of water demands growth. The pessimistic scenario re-
flects the historical water demand trends over the last five
decades to the future. Simply, the history repeats itself. The
key assumptions for the three scenarios are presented in
Table 4.
The year 2015 was considered the start year for scenar-
ios’ developments. The year 2040 was selected as the
scenario’s end year. The optimistic scenario assumes an
annual decrease of consumer water demand of 2% to
reach about 300 LCD by the end of the forecast period.
The moderate scenario assumes 0.5% diminishing rate,
while the pessimistic scenario assumes no change on
consumer water demand for the forecast period. The re-
duction of consumer water demand requires the imple-
mentation of intensive demand management measures
such as public awareness campaigns for water conserva-
tion, restructuring the current water tariffs system, and
increasing the performance of the water distribution sys-
tem. It has been assumed all domestic water demand will
be supplied from desalination. The following formula was
utilized to calculate the annual desalination water demand
for the three scenarios.
   
P0 ð1 þ GD ÞN i  LCD0 ð1 þ Gw ÞN i  365
WDi ¼
1000
where WDi is the desalinated water demand in the ith year
in million m3/year, P0 is the 2015 population (start year)
in million, Ni is the number of year in future from the

Table 4 Forecast scenario

assumptions No. Assumption Unit Optimistic Moderate Pessimistic

1 Forecast start year Year 2015 2015 2015

2 Forecast end year Year 2040 2040 2040
3 Start year population Million 2.5 2.5 2.5
4 Population growth rate % 2.5 5 7.4
5 Consumer domestic water demand at the start year LCD 500 500 500
6 Consumer water demand annual growth rate % −2 − 0.5 0
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
start year, GD is the population growth rate %, LCD0 is
the consumer water demand at the start year (500 LCD),
and Gw is the consumer water demand growth rate %.
Forecast results
The population forecast results for the three scenarios are pre-
sented in Fig. 8. The population is projected to increase by
almost twofold based on the optimistic scenario, and about
sixfold based on the pessimistic scenario. This substantial in-
crease in population requires careful consideration in the
country strategic planning. Maintaining the historical trend
level of population growth (pessimistic scenario) resulted in
tremendous pressure on the country natural resources. Worth
to notice, the substantial historical growth of Qatar’s popula-
tion was mainly resulted from the influx of expatriate workers
to cover the socioeconomic development needs during the
previous period.
The results of domestic water demand forecast for the three
scenarios are presented in Fig. 8. The optimistic scenario, if
realized, shows a total domestic water demand of about
516 million m3/year, in year 2040. Given the current desali-
nation capacity of about 540 million m3/year, no further ex-
pansion in desalination is required and the government needs
only to invest on maintaining the current capacity assuming
elimination of losses in the water system. The moderate sce-
nario, if realized, shows a total domestic water demand of
about 1200 million m3/year in 2040, which is about twofold
higher than the 2015 domestic water demand and the existing
desalination production capacity (Fig. 9). The pessimistic sce-
nario, if realized, shows a total domestic water demand of
about 2700 million m3/year in 2040 which is fivefold higher
than the 2015 domestic water demand and existing
Fig. 8 Qatar population forecast
results up to the year 2040 based
on the three scenarios
Page 9 of 12 537
desalination production capacity. The forecast results pose a
huge challenge to Qatari water officials towards maintaining
the growth in domestic water demand with the optimistic sce-
nario level otherwise substantial investment will be needed to
expand the desalination and water supply infrastructure. This
will be again a key challenge to the country in the long run due
to furcation in fossil-fuel international prices. The following
section will discuss the various measures available to Qatar to
enhance the sustainability of the water resource’s development
in the country.
Ways towards sustainability
The review of water resource’s status and the forecast of do-
mestic water demand show that the sustainability of water in
Qatar is at a great risk. The abstraction of groundwater water is
many folds higher than its replenishment rate. Groundwater
use is economically and technically inefficient, as it is mainly
being used for the agriculture sector through the open basin
irrigation system. The per capita water demand is the highest
in the world. The country depends solely on the costly desali-
nated water for domestic water supply, which is a major security
concern for a country located in a politically unstable region.
Desalination has substantial environmental impacts such as
greenhouse gases’ emissions and thermal pollution of the ma-
rine environment, which diminished the sustainability of the
system. Furthermore, the country’s ability to cover the cost of
desalinated water demand, in the long run, is questionable given
the fluctuated fossil-fuel prices. The use of treated wastewater is
limited to fodder agriculture and landscape irrigation, in spite
the great value of treated wastewater as a non-conventional
water supply source for all economic sectors. Currently, less
than 50% of treated wastewater is used and the rest is being
537 Page 10 of 12
Fig. 9 Domestic water demand
forecast results up to the year
2040 based on the three scenarios
discharged to open sea. Many initiatives and measures are high-
ly needed towards improving the sustainability of water re-
sources’ development in the country including the following:
i). The development of water management strategy aims at
the sustainable development of the country water re-
sources with clear objectives, implementation plan, and
key performance indicators. The strategy shall evaluate
the water resources’ sustainable supply capacities and
plans to optimize the utilization of the water resources
in a sustainable manner. Furthermore, the strategy shall
coordinate and integrate the work of water agencies, elim-
inate wasteful practices, adopt an advanced and appropri-
ate technology, and constrain extravagant or unnecessary
consumption.
ii). The development and implementation of water conser-
vation program for all water sectors. This might include
raising public awareness and education, using water con-
servation measures, restructuring water tariff to be used
as a demand management measure for water conserva-
tion, install water meter for each consumer, prohibition
of the inefficient irrigation system, abandon of illegal
groundwater wells, and significantly reduce the unac-
counted for water in the water distribution network.
Qatar National Vision 2030 highlights the need for effec-
tive water pricing system in the country and stated, BIn
general, underpricing or zero-pricing practices sustain
overuse and do not reflect the scarcity value of water.
They potentially compromise intergenerational equity.
Water pricing needs to reflect the true value of water so
that governments do not end up subsidizing the depletion
of an essential natural resource^.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
iii). The promotion and encouragement of the use of treated
wastewater for all sectors, including industrial applica-
tions for cooling and processing, landscape, non-potable
domestic use, and different types of crops’ irrigation.
There is a need to enhance the treated wastewater quality
to match the quality need for the various sectors. The
country needs to develop treated wastewater reuse
guidelines and standards for each economic sector.
iv). The promotion and encouragement of using injection
wells to recharge the aquifer by treated wastewater and
collecting from the occasional storm and treated waste-
water. In this direction and towards improving the coun-
try water security, Qatar Environment and Energy
Research Institute (QEERI) initiated a project on aquifer
storage and recovery. The project aims at mitigating the
adverse effects of overexploitation of groundwater,
countering the seawater intrusion and increasing the na-
tional water security. At present, the country relies solely
on desalination to meet the increasing demand for water.
The produced water from desalination plant meets 2 days
of demand (Qatar General Electricity and Water
Corporation (Kahramaa) 2015) as no large storage facil-
ity exists. In case of emergency or failure of a plant,
there will be no enough water supplies. Therefore,
Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) are necessary as
it can store huge amounts of water that meets the country
needs for months. It is important to consider all
hydrogeological and environmental factors to establish
a successful artificial recharge scheme. The most chal-
lenging issue is to find the appropriate location for re-
charge to maximize recovery and maintain a good
quality.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
v). Increasing water security by importing water from other
countries (i.e., Turkey and Iran) through pipes was con-
sidered in the early 1990s. However, this option was
disregarded due to political and economic reasons. It
was estimated the cost of importing water nears the cost
of desalination (Almuhanadi 2006). The political insta-
bility of the Middle East region may reduce the potential
of this option.
All of the previously mentioned initiatives and mea-
sures need further in-depth analysis for their potential
economic, financial, political, and environmental impacts
of the long-term sustainability of the Qatar water manage-
ment system.
Conclusion
Qatar is an arid country with limited natural water re-
sources. The substantial socioeconomic development over
the last five decades has resulted in a chronic water short-
age problem in the country. Currently, the country utilizes
its limited groundwater resources for agriculture use while
domestic water demand is supplied with desalinated wa-
ter. The high population growth, urbanization, and stan-
dard of living have resulted in a substantial per capita
water demand of 500 l. Qatar considers seawater desali-
nation as a sole source to meet the country ever-growing
domestic water demand. This paper reviews the status of
water resources and water demand in Qatar; forecasts do-
mestic water demand in the country up to the year 2040 in
the context of three scenarios: optimistic, moderate, and
pessimistic; highlights the key challenges facing the water
sector; and presents initiatives and measures towards im-
proving the sustainability of water resources development
in the country. The scenario results show that Qatar will
need desalination water capacity of about 516, 1205, and
2718 million m3/year based on optimistic, moderate, and
pessimistic scenario, respectively in 2040. The long-term
desalination industry’s ability to meet the ever-increasing
domestic water demand is a valid concern, especially, if
the moderate or pessimistic scenario is realized. The
country needs to consider new initiatives and measures
towards improving the long-term sustainability of water
resources development and protecting the marine environ-
ment and ecosystem. Qatar needs to develop water re-
sources management strategy and implement water de-
mand management program to reduce per capita water
demand. Domestic water demand program may include
conducting public awareness campaigns, upgrading the
current water tariff system, and minimizing the unac-
counted for water in the water supply system.
Furthermore, promoting groundwater recharge and treated
Page 11 of 12 537
wastewater use in addition to evaluating importing water
option would help resolve water demand problem.
References
Abu Sukar HK, Almerri FH, Almurekki AA (2007) Agro-hydro-
meteorological data book for the state of Qatar. DAWR, Canberra
Al Mansouri J (2014) The state of Qatar’s experience in reducing loss in
the potable water network. Presented at Second Arab Water
Conference, Doha, Qatar, May, 2014
Ali H, Mohamed H, Hama Y, Al-Murikhi A (2014) Current and future
water source for agriculture in Qatar State, presented at Second Arab
Water Conference, Doha, Qatar, May 27-29, 2014
Al-Kaabi ZH (1987) The determinants of the future of agriculture in
Qatar, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham
E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6677/
Al-Mohannadi HI, Hunt CO, Wood AP (2003) Controlling residential
water demand in Qatar: an assessment. Ambio 32(5):362–366.
https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-32.5.362
Almuhanadi HI (2006) Depletion of groundwater resources in Qatar.
Araa Magazine 22:48–51 (in Arabic)
Alsharhan AS, Rizk ZA, Nairn AEM, Bakhit DW, Alhajari SA (1990)
Hydrogeology of an arid region: the Arabian Gulf and adjoining
areas, 1st edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam ch 8, pp. 193–200
Baalousha HM (2016a) Development of a groundwater flow model for
the highly parameterized Qatar aquifers. Model Earth Syst Environ
2(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0124-8
Baalousha HM (2016b) Groundwater vulnerability mapping of Qatar
aquifers. J Afr Earth Sci 124:75–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jafrearsci.2016.09.017
Baalousha HM (2016c) Using Monte Carlo simulation to estimate natural
groundwater recharge in Qatar. Model Earth Syst Environ 2(2).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0140-8
Baalousha HM (2016d) The potential of using beach wells for reverse
osmosis desalination in Qatar. Model Earth Syst Environ 2(2).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0151-5
Darwish MA, Mohtar R (2012) Qatar water challenges. Desalin Water
Treat 51(1–3):75–86
Eccleston BL, Pike JG, Harhash I (1981) The water resources in Qatar
and their development. Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations, Rome
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) (2015)
AQUASTAT global water information system. Available: http://
www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm
Gulf Times (2013) Daily per capita water usage in Qatar: 500 liters.
Av a i l a b l e : h t t p : / / w w w g u l f t i m e s c o m / s t o r y / 3 7 2 8 2 7 /
DailypercapitawaterusageinQatar500litres Accessed 10 Apr 2016
Kimrey J (1985) Proposed artificial recharge studies in northern Qatar.
United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey. Open
file report 85–343, 1985 Last accessed May 2016
Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics (2016). Population
Statistics. url: http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en
Ouda OKM (2014a) Impacts of agricultural policy on irrigation water
demand: case study Saudi Arabia. Int J Water Resour Dev 30(2):
282–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2013.876330
Ouda OKM (2014b) Water demand versus supply in Saudi Arabia: cur-
rent and future challenges. Int J Water Resour Dev 30(2):335–344.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2013.837363
Ouda OKM (2015) Treated wastewater use in Saudi Arabia—challenges
and initiatives. Int J Water Resour Dev 32(5):799–809. https://doi.
org/10.1080/07900627.2015.1116435
537 Page 12 of 12
Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (Kahramaa) (2015)
Sustainability Report 2013 Available: https://www.km.com.qa/
MediaCenter/Publications/KM%20Sustainability%20Report%
202014.pdf
Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning (2009) Qatar
National Vision 2030, advancing sustainable development Qatar’s
second human development report, July 2009. Published by
MZ&Partners, Printed by Gulf Publishing and Printing Company
Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning (2011) Qatar
National Development Strategy 2011~2016 Towards Qatar
National Vision 2030
Schlumberger Water Services (2009) Studying and developing the natural
and artificial recharge of the groundwater in aquifer in the State of
Qatar. Project final report
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10:537
Snoje J (2014) Population of Qatar by nationality. Available: http://www.
bqmagazine.com/economy/2013/12/populationqatar. Accessed 1
Apr 2016
Statista (2016) Average annual OPEC crude oil price from 1960 to 2016
(in U.S. dollars per barrel) Available: http://www.statista.com/
statistics/262858/change-in-opec-crude-oil-prices-since-1960/.
Accessed 10 Apr 2016
The World Bank Databank (2015) Available: http://data.worldbank.org/
country/qatar. Accessed 10 Apr 2016
Trading Economics (2016) Qatar population 1960-2016. Available:
http://wwwtradingeconomicscom/qatar/population. Accessed 10
Apr 2016