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1Kingdoms:

Animals

Eukaryotic

Do not photosynthesize

No cell wall/chloroplasts

Multicellular

Heterotroph (cannot make its own food, feeds off other organisms)

Nervous coordination

Mammals, insects

Carbs stored as glycogen

2Plants

Eukaryotic

Cell walls (cellulose) and chloroplasts

Multicellular

Photosynthesize

Autotroph (makes its own food, e.g. photosynthesis in plants)

Carbohydrates stored as starch, sucrose

1 Kingdoms

2 Plants

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Flowering and non-flowering

Maize, peas, pines, ferns

3Fungi

Eukaryotes

Have cell walls (chitin) and no chloroplasts

Multicellular/unicellular

Saprotrophic (secrete digestive enzyme and absorb broken down digestive matter)

Store carbs as glycogen

Made of mycelium, contain hyphae

Mushrooms, single celled yeast

4Bacteria

Prokaryotes

Unicellular

Have cell walls and loops of DNA

Some photosynthesize, others feed off decaying matter

Lactobacillus (rod-shaped), Pneumococcus (spherical)

5Protoctista

3 Fungi
4 Bacteria
5 Protoctista

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Unicellular

Eukaryotic

Have nuclei (contain genetic material)

Amoeba (similar to animal), Chlorella (similar to plant)

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6Pathogens

cause disease

Viruses (nl (no cells), tobacco mosaic virus, HIV, flu, layers of protein (coat))

Bacteria (l, produce toxins or directly)

Fungi (l, penetrate tissues, athlete’s foot)

Protoctists (l, transferred by a vector, plasmodium (malaria)

All living things contain: DNA (genetic material, instructions), Enzymes, Ribosomes, Cytoplasm (chemical
reactions take place), Cell membrane (selectively permeable)

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7Tissues

Epithelial tissue (animals, plants) lines stomach

Epidermal tissue (animal, plants) skin

Mesophyll (plants, photosynthesis)

6 Pathogens
7 Tissues
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Muscular tissue (animals) moves around contents of stomach during digestion

Glandular tissue: produces digestive juices

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8Metabolism:

all chemical processes going on continuously inside your body to keep you alive and your organs
functioning.

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9Digestive organs:

Liver produces bile

Stomach digests food

Large Intestine absorbs water molecules from the remaining undigested food. This allows it to produce
faeces

The small intestine digests food and absorbs soluble (can be dissolved) food molecules

Glands (pancreas and salivary) produce digestive juices

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10Levels of Organization in Multicellular Organisms (in Descending Order of Complexity):

8 Metabolism
9 Digestive Organs
10 Levels of organization in multicellular organisms

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➢ Organism
➢ Organ system
➢ Organ
➢ Tissue
➢ Cell
➢ Organelle

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11Animal cell
• Cell membrane (separates interior and exterior, selectively permeable)
• Nucleus (stores genetic information and controls the cell)
• Ribosome (synthesizes protein)
• Mitochondria (produces chemical energy for biochemical reactions. Energy stored in ATP,
aerobic respiration releases energy)
• Cytoplasm (place where cell’s chemical reactions take place)

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12Plant cell
• Permanent vacuole (fluid filled sac, stores water/sap, enclosed in a membrane, up to 90% of a
plant cell’s volume)
• Chloroplast (contains chlorophyll, needed for the process of photosynthesis)
• Cell wall (surrounds the cell, made of cellulose, increases structural strength of cell)

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13Cell differentiation

Cell differentiation (CD) is the process where a cell develops new sub-cellular structures (structures
inside a cell) to let it perform a specific function. When this happens, the cell becomes specialized.
• Embryos
CD happens during the organism's development. Organisms start as one cell, then these cells divide to
form embryos which differentiate, or specialize, to produce cells which can perform all the body’s
functions
• Plants
Keep the ability to differentiate throughout life. Because of this, plants can always create new tissues
• Adult animals

11 Animal cell
12 Plant cell
13 Cell differentiation

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Animals who are in their adult stages rarely undergo cell differentiation. Their cells divide in order to
replace lost cells and repair tissues, which are rarely created.
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14Stem Cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have not yet specialized to perform a specific function. They
can create more stem cells or differentiate (become a different type of body cell) to perform another
function. Stem cells are found in:

• Embryos

Differentiate into most cell types

• Bone marrow

Can be found in human adults

Can differentiate into fewer cells than stem cells in embryos

• Plant meristems

Plant stem cells are found in meristem tissue

Can differentiate into all types of plant cells

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15Uses of Stem cells

• Treatments

May replace damaged cells that cause paralysis or diabetes

Can also be used to treat patients with arthritis, burn injuries and Parkinson’s disease

• Therapeutic cloning

Produces an embryo with the same gene as the patient

Stem cells taken will have the same DNA as patient, so the patient's body will not reject them

Ideal for use in stem cell medical treatments

14 Stem cells
15 Uses of Stem cells
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16Disadvantages of stem cells

• Viral infection

Transplantation could transfer viral infections

• Ethical beliefs

Some people believe that life begins at conception (which means the embryo is alive), and view using
the embryonic stem cells as ‘killing’ the embryo

• Rejection

Introducing stem cells into a patient may cause the patient’s immune system to reject/destroy new cells

Stem cells are used in cloning. Why must we use stem cells, rather than normal cells, to clone an
animal?

➢ Stem cells are undifferentiated cells, meaning they differentiate into any kind of cell.
➢ By using a stem cell, we can use cloning techniques, such as replacing the stem cell's genome, to
ensure that the entire cloned animal contains only the desired DNA.

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17Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration. It describes the movement of particles in fluids (liquids and gases). The particles all move
randomly because they have kinetic energy. Substances can move in and out of cells across cell
membranes via diffusion (e.g CO2, urea).

Factors affecting diffusion

• Distance
• Temperature
• Concentration gradient
• Membrane surface area

The concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between two areas. The bigger the
difference in concentration, the greater the concentration gradient and the faster the rate of diffusion.

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16 Disadvantages of stem cells

17 Diffusion
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18Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Small organisms normally have higher surface area to volume ratios than large organisms. This means
that diffusion can happen through a large area in small organisms. This makes diffusion useful for
transporting molecules through a small organism.

How is a root hair cell adapted for absorption of water and nutrients?

➢ The large surface area of root hair cells increases the rate of diffusion.
➢ This allows more water and nutrients to enter the plant.

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19Osmosis

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution (high
concentration of water) to a concentrated solution (low concentration of water).

Water movement

Water will move to make the concentrations the same on both sides of the membrane:

When there are lots of water molecules (in a dilute solution) on one side of a partially permeable
membrane, but not many on the other side (in a concentrated solution), water will move from the dilute
to the concentrated solution.

It is important to remember that water molecules will move through the membrane in both directions,
but the net (overall) movement of water will be from the dilute solution to a concentrated solution.

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20Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts found in plants and algae. The reaction is endothermic
(needs energy). The source of this energy is sunlight. This sunlight is trapped by a chemical called

18 Surface area to volume ratio

19 Osmosis
20 Photosynthesis

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chlorophyll inside chloroplasts. It's used to make carbohydrates. Plants and algae are known as
producers and form the first level of all food chains.

Carbon dioxide + water –Light–> glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H20 + (energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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21Rate of photosynthesis factors

• Temperature

Increasing the temperature increases rate of photosynthesis

When temperature reaches 45C, the enzymes denature

• CO2 concentration

Increasing CO2 increases rate of photosynthesis

Above a certain threshold the CO2 concentration does not increase the rate of photosynthesis, because
there is another limiting factor

• Light intensity

Increases rate of photosynthesis because more energy is provided

Above a certain threshold the light intensity does not increase the rate of photosynthesis, because there
is another limiting factor

• Chlorophyll concentration

High chlorophyll concentration gives high rate of photosynthesis

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Adaptations of leaves

• Water loss

: waxy cuticle covers upper and lower epidermis and creates a water proof barrier across the surface of
the leaf, reducing water loss

: Guard cells in the lower epidermis close in certain conditions and reduce water loss

• Sunlight

21 Rate of photosynthesis factors

22 Adaptations of leaves
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: palisade mesophyll cells are located under the upper epidermis and packed tightly together so they can
absorb as much sunlight as possible

: Contain many chloroplasts for photosynthesis

• Gas exchange

: O2 and CO2 diffuse in and out of the leaf through the stomata

: There are air spaces between spongy mesophyll cells on the leaf so CO2 and O can diffuse easily

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23Ion deficiencies

• Magnesium deficiency

Causes chlorosis (plant cannot photosynthesize well, and cannot produce glucose needed for growth)

Leaves are yellow

• Nitrate deficiency

Nitrates are needed for production and synthesis of proteins

Without proteins, plants cannot grow, and in nitrate deficiency, the plant’s growth is stunted

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24Diet

• Carbohydrates

Source of energy

• Fats

Insulation, making cell membranes, storing energy

• Protein

Building and repairing tissues

• Fibre

Keeping food moving through digestive system

• Water

Necessary for chemical reactions, waste removal, temperature regulation

23 Ion deficiencies
24 Diet
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Vitamins and minerals

• Vitamin A

Keeps immune system healthy and better vision

Carrots, apricots

• Vitamin D

Absorbing calcium and phosphorus

Oily fish and egg yolks

• Vitamin C

Making collagen and repairing bones

Citrus fruits

• Iron

To make hemoglobin

Red meat, nuts

• Calcium

Growing bones and teeth

Milk, broccoli

Respiration: 6O2+C6H12O6 --> 6CO2+6H2O

Oxygen + glucose-> CO2 + water + ATP

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