A UNIFIED APPROACH TO DAMAGE

ACCUMULATION AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

V. V. BOLOTIN
Institute of Mechanical Engineering, USSK Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR

Abstract-An approach is proposed to the theory of fatigue cracks propagation based on the
following postulate: a growing crack at least once in a cycle becomes a nonequilib~um one (in
the Griffith’s sense) under the condition that the resistance to crack growth is calculated with
an account of damage accumulated at the crack tip during the loading history. The theory is
used for nonuniaxial stress states including jumplike growth, stops, kinking and branching phe-
nomena. The general structure of differential equations is discussed for the averaged crack
growth rate under nonuniaxial loading.

1. INTRODUCTION
FATIGUE CRACK growth is accompanied by the accumulation of dispersed damage in material.
Moreover, there is reason to suppose that the damage accumulation is the main mechanism
governing fatigue crack growth [I]. This idea in a more or less explicit form has been mentioned
by a number of authors (see, e.g. the survey papers in Ref. 121). A number of mathematical
models based on this idea were suggested with the application to low-cycle fatigue. Discussion
of these models, can be found in Ref. [3]. The models of fatigue crack growth taking into account
dislocation phenomena near the crack tip were proposed in Refs. [4,5]. In this paper, the model
of high-cycle fatigue proposed first in Ref. [I] is developed based on the concepts of continuum
mechanics and the energy approach extended to the damage accumulation at the crack tip.
The energy approach to fracture phenomena proposed primarily by Griffith remains fun-
damental in the fracture mechanics, although a number of alternative approaches have been
proposed since. Moreover, Griffith’s results are used mostly to test all new proposals. The
basis of Griffith’s theory, as it is known, is rather vague and often subjected to critical dis-
cussions. Some of critical statements may be rejected if we treat the theory as axiomatic. The
central notions of this theory are as follows: the Griffith variation, the equilibrium of a cracked
body (in the Griffith’s sense) and the stability of a cracked body (in the Griffith’s sense, also).
These notions do not enter into the framework of classic mechanics because they relate to
nonreversible phenomena in continuum systems with a variable number of continuum con-
straint .
Let us consider a functional characterizing the state of a system as “a cracked body-loading.”
Introduce a small isochronic increment of the functional due to the virtual irreversible variations
of sizes of cracks and calculated under the following set of conditions: both initial and disturbed
states satisfy the equilibrium and compatibility equations (except maybe the vicinities of the
crack tips), the heat flow to the body is absent and external loads and external displacements
are fixed. We call this increment the Griffith variation of the functional. Consider the Griffith
variation of the whole energy of the system “a cracked body-loading” taken with the opposite
sign:

61 = -6iJ + SA - S@ - SA,. (1.1)

Here U is the potential energy of the body, SA is the elementary work of external loads, 6Q,
is the elementary dissipation in the body’s volume and &A, is the elementary work spent on
crack growth. A body is in equilibrium, in the Griffith’s sense, if SZ = 0. We say it is in
subequilibrium if SZ < 0 and in nonequilibrium if 61 > 0. Subequilibrium states are stable by
definition. Stability of equilibrium states depends on the sign of the second Griffith variation
S*Z = 6(6Z). If 6*Z < 0, an equilibrium state is stable; if 6’1 > 0, it is unstable. In the case z2Z
= 0, the study of variations of higher order is necessary.
Let us formulate the introduced concepts in terms of analytical statics. A set of cracks is
387
388 V. V. BOLOTIN

given by the vector 1 = (11, . . . , EJ, where lj is the characteristic size of cracks. The first
variation (1. I) takes the form

61 = 2 (Gj - I’j)Slj, (1.2)

j=i

where Gj is the generalized force moving the cracks, and l7j is the corresponding resistance
forces. The latter relates to the elementary work 6A, on the right-hand side of eqn (1.1). The
generalized forces Gj and Ij are of the same nature as quantities G and G, in Irwin’s energy
approach. The equilibrium condition 61 = 0 results in

Gj = rj (j = 1, . . . , m), (1.3)

and the stability of equilibrium depends on the sign of the quadratic form

(1.4)

The following table presents both terminology and classification of the states of a cracked body
taking into account a superior position of the concept of equilibrium in comparison with the
concept of stability.

2. STATIC FATIGUE CRACKS

The content of the previous section is auxiliary. Its aim is to prepare conceptual and analytical
tools to study fatigue crack propagation. We distinguish the static fatigue under long-acting
and slowly varying loads, and the cyclic fatigue that depends mostly on extremal magnitudes
of loads during the cycles. The theories of static and cycfic fatigue crack growth are very close,
but the case of static fatigue from a formal viewpoint is a little simpler. Let us first consider
the static fatigue.
Assume the following postulate: a quasi-equilibrium fatigue crack propagates in such a way
that at each time moment it satisfies the equilibrium and stability conditions (in the Griffith’s
sense) with account of dispersed damage accumulated during the loading history. If the state
of a crack comes to be subequilibrium, its growth stops. If a crack reaches the nonequilibrium
state on account of accumulated damage, its size increases in a jumplike manner. The new size
should again satisfy the conditions of equilibrium and stability. If there is no new equilibrium
and stable size in the limits of the body, final fracture occurs.
To describe the damage at crack tips, we introduce the vector Ji = (Jti, . . . , +J. Each
component of JI is connected with the corresponding component of the vector 1. Loading is
given by the vector process s(t). The differences,

z+(t) = Gjlr(r), s(t), *(t)l - rirl(t), s(r), 4401, (2.1)

are of special significance in the proposed theory. For a body with slowly growing cracks, all
H,(t) < 0. In particular, if a crack grows with respect to the generalized coordinate 4, Hi(t)

Table 1. States of a cracked body

Subequilibrium Equilibrium Nonequilibrium

61 < 0 61 = 0 61> 0

821 < 0 621 > 0

Stable Unstable
 A unified approach to damage accumulation and fatigue crack growth 389

= 0. For those j values corresponding to the inequality Ilij(t) < 0, the generalized coordinate
b remains constant until sufficient damage accumulates on the crack tips. Hence, we obtain a
set of relations for a body with cracks that grow with respect to ml generalized coordinates
and remain arrested with respect to others:

Hj(t) = 0 (j = 1, . . . ) m,); H,(t) < 0 (j = ml + 1, . . . , m). (2.2)

Dispersed damage is accumulated throughout the volume of the body. We are interested in the
effect of the damage on the eventual prolongation of cracks. Assuming that the configuration
of cracks is known, introduce the vector of dispersed damage 9(X, t) accumulated on crack
prolongation. On the crack tip, A = t(r). The damage vector is governed by the differential
equation

ho, t>
- = t,’ @[A, f(t), s(t), cp(X,t)]. (2.3
6t

The right-hand side contains a time constant, t,, and the known function Q(s) taking into ac-
count, in particular, the distance between the crack tips and the points with the vector A. The
initial condition, cp(h, 0) = go(A), is supposed to be stated. As a rule, for virgin material q)(A)
= 0. We close eqns (2.2) and (2.3) using the inequalities lj(t2) 2 /Jr) at t2 > tr and the identity

At a certain time, t, a cracked body, reaches the nonequilibrium state, which is unstable. For
example, it occurs when the load level increases suddenly. If the generalized coordinate b is
responsible for the nonequilibrium state, its new value 1,‘(f) can be found from the energy
balance [ 11

1,;:’
(%[A~ t)l dA = j-2:’
s(t),cp(A> rj[A, s(t), cp(~, t)] dA. (2.5)

Other coordinates are assumed to be constant during this jumplike growth, and energy dissi-
pation due to dynamics of growth is negligible. If the new value, b+(t), satisfies the inequality
Hj(t) < 0, further growth is governed by eqns (2.2)-(2.4). Under additional restrictions, eqns
(2.2)-(2.4) are reduced to a system of nonlinear integral equations with respect to the com-
ponents of the process l(t). An equation of this type was derived and solved numerically in
Ref. [I] for a fatigue crack in the Griffith’s problem. It is of practical interest to reduce the
general problem to ordinary differential equations analogous to semiempirical equations of
fatigue crack growth 16, 71. Since the crack tip is a strong stress concentrator, the function
~(h, t) decays very rapidly when the distance Aj - 4 increases. Let characteristic scales, pj,
exist such that at Aj - lj g pj the dispersed damage to the crack prolongation is negligibly small.
Let all cracks grow continuously and sufficiently slowly so that during the time of crack advance
at the distance pj, the velocity dl,ldt may be assumed to be constant. Then

where Atj is the characteristic time of crack advance at the distance pi. The approximate in-
tegration of eqn (2.3) results in

(2.7)

Substituting eqn (2.7) into the equilibrium conditions of growing cracks, we obtain a set of m
ordinary differention equations with respect to I{(f), . . . , I,,,(t).
390 V. V. BOLOTIN

3. CYCLIC FATIGUE CRACKS

Approaching cyclic fatigue let us modify the basic postulate as follows: a crack propagates
during a cycle with respect to one of generalized coordinates, if even once in a cycle it comes
to the nonequilibrium state with respect to this coordinate under the condition that the cor-
responding resistance force to crack growth is calculated taking into account the damage ac-
cumulated at the crack tip.
To develop the postulate analytically, let us consider the functional, Hj(n), of the processes
I(t), s(t) and 4(t) at the time segment, (t, _ 1, t,], corresponding to nth cycle:

Hi(n) = sup {Gj]l(t), s(t), +(t)l - rj[Kt), s(t), +(r)l (j = 1, . . . , m). (3.1)
f”_1<r==20

When Hj(n) < 0, the generalized coordinate 4 remains constant, and damage is accumulating
at the arrested crack tip. If Hi(n) > 0, it means that during the nth cycle, the crack at least
once reaches the nonequilibrium state. To find the new size Ij(tn), we use the energy balance
equation analogous to eqn (2.5):

(3.2)

Here cp(A,t), as above, is the vector function of dispersed damage accumulation on the crack
prolongation. The time moment corresponding to the supremum condition of the right-hand
side of eqn (3.1) is denoted by tJ!.
Equation (3.2) is valid if one of the coordinates increases jumplike during a cycle. If cracks
propagate during a cycle with respect to several coordinates, it is sufficient to require that
dynamic processes decay rapidly at intervals between the neighboring time moments tl? and
tz . If there exists a new value of the vector I( t,) corresponding to a stable set of cracks in the
limits of the body, further propagation of cracks is possible. Then the signs of the functional
Hj(tn+l) have to be determined, eqns (3.2) have to be solved, etc.
A typical picture of the fatigue crack growth is as follows. After the jumplike growth up to
the size Ij(tn), the crack stays in the subequilibrium state, since its tip is in the area where
material is relatively undamaged. Hence, Hj(n + 1) < 0. A number of cycles are required to
overcome the subequilibrium. Then jumplike growth again occurs, providing a natural expla-
nation of the furrowlike pictures observed in fractographs.
To obtain a closed set of equations, the equation of damage accumulation at crack prolon-
gation is necessary. Instead of eqn (2.3), we use the finite-difference functional equation with
respect to cp(A, t):
*=f”
q(A, t,) - cp(A, G-1) = Q, [A, l(t), s(t), cp(A, t)l. (3.3)
t=*n-l

Here @[*I is the known functional of the loading and damage history at the time segment
corresponding to the nth cycle.
For high-cycle fatigue, the number of cycles, n, may be interpreted as a continuous variable.
If the loading parameters vary slowly from cycle to cycle, the vector function s(t) may be
replaced by the continuous vector function s(n). Components of s(n) include extremum mag-
nitudes of the loading parameters and, in the general case, loading frequency and body tem-
perature. The vector functions I(n) and +(n) are also slowly varying. Applying the mean value
theorem to eqn (3.2), we obtain the set of equations

Gj[4n), s(n), e(n)1 = rj[Kn), s(n), 4441 (j = 1, . . . , m). (3.4)

Therefore, slowly propagating fatigue cracks are, in fact, very close to the equilibrium cracks
(in the Griffith’s sense) if the damage accumulation is taking into account [l]. In eqn (3.4)

4(n) = cp[l(n), nl. (3.5)

 A unified approach to damage accumulation and fatigue crack growth 391

Instead of eqn (3.3), we use the equation

(3.6)

similar to eqn (2.3). If loading varies rapidly, for example, the loading level or the nominal
stress state makes a jumplike change, we should come back to eqns (3.2) and (3.3).

4. EXAMPLE: GRIFFITH’S FATIGUE CRACK

Consider a fatigue crack in an unbounded body which is in the plane strain with the nominal
stresses cr,, a, and lx,, (Fig. 1). The length of the crack is denoted by 21. On this phase of
analysis we assume that the crack propagates without kinking and braching, that is, its pro-
longation is on the axis Ox. Because of the symmetry, the crack is one-parametrical, given by
the size 1. Suppose that in all aspects, except damage accumulation, the material of the body
has the same properties as the conventional continuum of linear fracture mechancis. The gen-
eralized force G, can be found from Irwin’s formula [2]

(1 - v2)w: + G) I”, = T,,$IT~)“~,

G =

K, = uv(nl) K2 (4.1)
E ’

where the input of regular components of the stress fieid into the value of released energy is
neglected. We do not also take into account the effect of dispersed damage on the magnitude
of the force G. Hence G = G(I, a,, T.<~).
Two measures of dispersed damage entering the vector function cp(h, t) are to be distin-
guished. The measure (PI takes into account normal microcracks oriented parallel to the axis
Ox. These microcracks are born primarily from the cyclic variation of the nominal stress cr,.
Another measure, cp2, takes into account shear microcracks and cleavages oriented in the same
direction. The cyclic variation of the nominal stress, T.~~,is mostly responsible for this type of
damage. The equations of damage accumulation that are in agreement with conventional semi-
empirical equations 181 take the form

(&(A, t,) - cp*(X, t,_,) = (Au- Auth)m’

a(F” (4.2)
(IArt - A7Jmz
cpz(h, t,) - (P~(A, tn- I) =
Ty

Here Aa(A, a) and Al(A, n) are ranges of the nominal stresses during nth cycle at the point
located on the crack prolongation, of and TS are the parameters of materiaf characterizing the
resistance against dispersed damage accumulation, Aulh 1: 0 and Alrh 3 0 are the threshold
parameters and ml and m2 are similar to exponents of the fatigue curves. Equations (4.2) are

Fig. 1. A crack in the plane stress state.

392 V. V. BOLOTIN

valid for Au 2 A(rlh, / AT/ 2 ATE/,. If any of these inequalities are not satisfied, the right-hand
side of the corresponding equation ought to be put to zero.
The analytical dependence of CTand +ron the distance A - I should correspond to bounded
values of the stress concentration factors at the crack tip and approach asymptotically to nom-
inal stresses at X * I. A length scale, p <c f, enters naturally into consideration in this way.
which is an essential component of the developed theory. The scale p, in principle, takes values
from a wide interval beginning with the characteristic width of grain boundaries up to the
characteristic size of grains. We choose this scale from the condition that the stress concen-
tration factors on crack tips have an order of magnitude equal to (IIp)“2. This condition is
satisfied by the formulas

1:2
o = 1Yltnhlo41 3 7 = K*[Trh*(h)] - 1’2, (4.3)

where the function Iz~,~(X),for example, is (see Fig. 2)

The form factors xl,2 entering into eqns (4.4) depend on the configuration of the crack-tip
boundary.
Continuous approximation is expedient in the case of high-cycle fatigue. The damage ac-
cumulation near the crack tips is governed by the equations

d+l
-= WI - ilKt/,.~Y
dn K”’
fl (4.5)
dJf2 C/AK/ - AKt~.2)mz2
-=
dn K;;

Notations AK1 and AK2 are introduced in eqns (4.5) for the ranges of stress intensity factors.
Resistance of material against dispersed damage accumulation is also expressed in terms of
stress intensity factors:

Kf, = cr&TXlpY2, K,z = Tf(7rX~p)“2

(4.6)
AKth.1 = Aa,&~,p)“~, AK,h.z = Ad~x2~)~‘~.

The generalized force, IY, has in form

I- = rogGh, 4J2). (4.7)

Here r. is the resistance force for virgin material, for example, To = 4yo, where y. is the
specific work of crack propagation. The function g(+ , 4~~)satisfies requirements g(0, 0) = 1,
g(1, 0) = 0 and g(0, 1) = 0. This means that the resistance to crack growth vanishes if even

Fig. 2. Stress concentration near the crack tip.

 A unified approach to damage accumulation and fatigue crack growth 393

one of the damage measures becomes equal to unity. The function g(& , ~JJ*)is specified below
as

SHJl, *2) = [1 - ($1 + ~2>“lB, (4.8)

with positive exponents IXand B.

The qualitative illustration of the fatigue crack growth is shown in Fig. 3a. The function
G(A) is taken according to eqn (4.1), and the maximum nominal stresses are assumed inde-
pendent of n. The Griffith’s critical size 1, satisfies the equation G(h) = To. In the beginning
of the nth cycle, let G < I. The damage accumulation on the length I(t,,+ ,) s A s l(tn)
+ p proceeds until the time moment t,, when the equality G = I is reached at the crack tip.
The new size, I,,, is to be found from eqn (3.2). This size corresponds to the equality of areas
of the triangles shaded in Fig. 3a. The increment of the crack’s length is Al = l(t,) - l(tn_ 1)
> p. Then the process repeats. The crack becomes unstable in the whole when the critical size
l,r, < 1, is reached, since at all A > lo+ the inequality G > I holds.
The assumption that stresses and damage measures are distributed homogeneously in an
elementary volume with the characteristic size p is not compulsory. An alternative situation
is illustrated in Fig. 3b. Crack propagation takes place at the moment when G(A + p) = I’.
Evidently, this situation can be described analytically, substituting l(t, _ ,) + p for f(t, _ 1) in
eqn (3.1). Equations (3.4) for the case of quasi-equilibrium crack growth remain without change.
Now we develop differential equations governing very slow crack propagation. The duration
required for a crack tip to cross the length p is estimated by eqn (2.6) as An = p(dl/dn)-I.
Neglecting dispersed damage accumulated before the considered element has approached the
crack tip, we obtain from eqn (2.7)

%2(n). (4.9)

The functions @,.2(n) coincide with the right-hand sides of eqns (4.5). The equilibrium condition
that accounts for eqns (4.1) and (4.7)-(4.9) results in the equation

dl p [(AK1 - AK/z,,YK~,P’ + [(IA& - AK,~,2)lKfz]mz

-= (4.10)
dn [ 1 - (K: + K:):Q/K:;a]“~

Here G, = ETO(l - u2)-l, for example, K1, is a critical value of the stress intensity factor
for the virgin material. Equation (4.10) for the special case KZ = 0 was derived in Ref. [l].
The right-hand side in eqn (4.10) depends essentially on special assumptions concerning the
structure of the right-hand sides in eqns (4.2) and (4.5) as well as the form of the function g(+ ,
4~~) in eqn (4.7). But the general structure of equations of crack propagation derived by the
proposed approach is invariant with respect to a rather wide class of assumptions. The nom-

(9 (:$
Fig. 3. Relationship between generalized forces during fatigue crack growth: (a) damage is
distributed homogeneously within an elementary volume; (b) damage is distributed nonhomo-
geneously.
394 V. V. BOLOTIN

inator in the right-hand side of eqn (4.10) and of related equations is proportional to the velocity
of dispersed damage accumulation. The denominator contains the ratio of the maximum value
of released energy to the correspondent critical magnitude for the virgin material. The maximum
relates to the supremum condition in eqn (3.1).

5. KINKING AND BRANCHING OF CRACKS

Kinking and branching of fatigue cracks appear to be the most interesting problem of current
fracture mechanics. Experimental data on crack propagation in nonuniaxial nominal stress
states are rather vague and sometimes controversial [9]. Fatigue cracks show a tendency to
kink and branch even in the case of uniaxial tension. A discussion of the problem can be found
in Refs. [lo-131. Application of analytical methods to this problem is difficult because of the
lack of knowledge about the stress distribution in the vicinity of cracks of complicated con-
figuration. Z-shaped cracks are one of the exceptions. The stress intensity factors near the
short kinked tips of Z-shaped cracks, that is, at X - 1 @ 1 were calculated in Refs. [IO-121.
The most comprehensive numerical data seem to be published in Ref. [133. We use these data
for the analysis of kinking and branching of an initially straight crack.
A crack tip can turn at the angle 0, where 0 E [--?r, rr] (Fig. 4). Equation (3.4) takes the
form

Following the preceding assumptions, the left-hand side is independent on +, and the right-
hand side is independent on S. The force G depends on 0 explicitly, and the force I depends
on 8 through the damage measure. Using the Irwin’s formula and taking into account the angular
distribution of the stress intensity factors, we obtain

G = (1 - v”)([K*flr(e) + K2fd8)12 + tK,f*lw + &f*2(WlZ~

(5.2)
E

Here K, and K2 are the stress intensity factors for the straight crack, that is for the case 0
0. The graphs for f&0) are presented on Fig. 5, plotted with the use of data from Ref. [13].
ihe nominal stress a, and the regular components of the stress field do not enter into eqn (5.2),
which is in accordance with the notions of linear fracture mechanics. If any of the quantities
within the first square brackets appears to be negative it should be set equal to zero.
Let us generalize eqns (4.2), taking into account the angular dist~bution of the damage
measures cpl and cp2. We assume that the increment of the measure (pl depends on the range
Aa@of the normal stress at an elementary plane with the angle 0. We introduce an analogous

Fig. 4. A Z-shaped crack in the plane stress state.

 A unified approach to damage accumulation and fatigue crack growth 395

Fig. 5. Angular distribution of stress intensity factors (so/id lines) and damage measures (broken
lines).

relation between the measure (~2and the range ATE of the tangential stress on the same ele-
mentary plane. For example,

(Au0 - Aurh)“”
cpl(h, 8, t,) - cpl(L 8, r,-1) =
V’ (5.3)
(1Acre ) - Audnz
cPz(L e, tn) - cpz(h, 8, t,,-I) =
Tf”’

The material constants have the same meaning. Stress distribution in the vicinity of the crack
tip should be coordinated with eqns (4.3) and (4.4). Thus,

ue = [Klgl,w + K2&2(e)l [h@)l -1’2

(5.4)
T,e = [Klg2l(e> + K2g22ce)l [~TTh2@)1- 1’2.

The angular functions gjk(e) are

g11 = cos3 ;0 ) g12 = -

3
-cos
2
8
0 -2 sin 8
(5.5)
8 1 8
g21 = ; cos 0 -2 sin 8, g22 = 2 (3 cos 8 - I) cos 0 2 ’

They are taken from Inglis-Williams’s formulas for the stress distribution around a straight
mathematical cut [2, 61. The stresses calculated from eqns (5.4) at 1 c A c I + p coincide with
those calculated from Inglis-Williams’s formulas putting in the latter the polar radius r = p/2
(Fig. 6). Therefore, the notion of finite stress concentration at the crack tip is settled in ac-
cordance with conventional concepts of linear fracture mechanics. Graphs of the functions
gjk(Cl)are similar to those of the functions fjk(f3). Both are presented in Fig. 5. With rather good
accuracy (the maximum error does not exceed lo%), we may put fjk(0) = gjk(e) at 8 E [-d
2, ?-r/2].
396 V. V. BOLOTIN

Fig. 6. Interpretation of anguiar distribution of stresses near the crack tip.

Equations (5.3) for slowly growing cracks, with the use of eqns (5.4) and notations given by
eqns (4.6), transfer to

dJll
-= [AK,g,,(f3) + A&g,z(W - AK~.II’~”
dn KY?’

The general representation of the resistance force, r, given by eqn (4.7) and its special case
given by eqn (4.8) remain unchanged. The angular dependence enters into eqns (4.7) and (4.8)
inexplicitly through the solution of eqns (5.6).

6. DISCUSSION
Consider the classic Griffith’s crack under normal cyclic loading (Fig. l), introduced at the
beginning of this paper. If properties of material are such that fatigue crack propagation is
governed by normal microcracks only, we should put in eqn (5.6) Kf, * ~0. Instead of eqn
(4.7), we should take r = ra(l - @)P. The quasi-equilibrium growth of a crack is depicted
schematically in Fig. 7a. Line 1 corresponds to G(6, n) calculated from eqn (5.2) and line 1’
to lY(e, n). The slowly growing crack declines very little from the equilibrium state (in the
Griffith’s sense). The angular distribution during further growth is depicted by lines 2, 3 and
2’, 3’, respectively. The angle of propagation, 0 = 0, remains constant until final fracture.
If crack growth is governed by tangential microcrack accumulation, the picture changes
substanti~ly (Fig. 7b). The generalized force G(0, II) is given as above by line 1, but force r(@,
n) is given by line 1’ . The equilibrium condition holds at 0 = f 13~.This means that the crack

(4 61
Fig. 7. Angular distribution of generalized forces during fatigue crack growth under cyclic
normal tension. Damage is due to (a) normal microcracks; fb) tangential microcracks.
 A unified approach to damage accumulation and fatigue crack growth 397

Fig. 8. Angular dist~bution of generalized forces during fatigue crack growth under cyclic
normal tension replaced by cyclic shear. The state of the crack after the change of loading is
(a) subequilibrium; (b) nonequilibrium.

has a tendency to branch and, moreover, to propagate in a zigzag manner at these angles
(although the analytical form used for stress distribution does not include secondary kinkings).
In the general case, damage is a result of the summation of microcracks of both types. The
angular distribution for r(e, n) may, for example, take the form drawn in Fig. 7b by line 2’.
All directions of kinking from the segment [ - e2, ez] approximately satisfy the conditions of
equilibrium. This means that all of these directions are almost equally probable. Hence, ele-
ments of unpredictability in crack propagation phenomena may be explained, taking into ac-
count the interaction between various mechanisms of damage. The most probable direction of
crack propagation in this case remains % = 0.
Nonunidirectional loading is illustrated in Fig. 8. First, the crack develops normally. This
is shown by the lines 1 and 1’. A certain moment, the nominal stress state changes abruptly,
for example, cyclic tension is replaced by cyclic shear. The angular distribution of G(%, n) for
the new stress state is depicted by line 2 in Fig. 8a. At the first stage of the new loading process,
the crack is in a subequilibrium state. It stays in this state until the angular distribution of r(%,
n) takes the form drawn by line 2’. Then the crack begins to develop at angle e2 (in this example
7x3,< 0).
Another situation is illustrated in Fig. 8b. After the change of the nominal stress state, the
crack passed to a nonequilibrium state. The crack propagates in a jumplike manner. The new
angles of propagation are distributed at the segment (%;, %;), where the inequality H(%, n) =
G(%, n) - I’(%, n) > 0 holds. The crack may grow both by kinking and by branching. The
probability distribution of angles depends primarily on the value of H(%, n). For example, it is
reasonable to suppose that the probability density function f(e) for the random value e is

f(9) = const {l - exp [ - r*jtr(%, n)]},

where JJ is a positive constant. The most probable direction of the crack propagation corre-
sponds to the maximum of H(%, n). Analogous conclusions are expected when the stress level
varies in a jumplike manner under the same nominal stress state. Consider a normal crack
under unidirectional tension (Fig. 7a). Let line 1 of the generalized force G(%, n) be changed
by line 2. The angles of eventual branching are distributed at the segment ( - g2, %,) where w(e,
pz) > 0. The most probable direction of crack propagation is % = 0.

7. CONCLUSION
1. The growth of static and cyclic fatigue cracks may be described by means of the gen-
eralized energy approach, taking into account the damage accumulation near the crack tips.
2. Under particular assumptions, the differential equation of the cracks’ growth can be
398 V. V. BOLOTIN

obtained from the general theory. These equations are similar to the well-known semiempirical
equations. Contrary to the latter, the theoretical equations have an explicit mechanical meaning
with direct reference to the damage accumulation and the energy balance conditions.
3. To predict branching and kinking of fatigue cracks, the angular distribution of the released
energy and the accumulated damage ought to be included in the theory. Jumplike and zigzag
propagation, as well as elements of unpredictability of crack growth, can be described within
the framework of the proposed theory.

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