INTRODUCTION

TO
LITERATURE
IN
ENGLISH
 GENERAL
LITERATURE
 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

Literature may be said to be writing considered as an art form

which has artistic value. It may refer to any work of art which
has form, beauty and gives pleasure.

TYPES OF LITERATURE
Basically, there are two types of literature. These are:
 oral literature
 written literature
GENRES/DIVISIONS/BRANCHES OF LITERATURE
The three genres of literature are:
 prose (novel)
 drama (play)
 poetry
Prose
Prose is a literary work that uses direct narration of a story
either fictive or real. Examples of prose are “Changes: A love
story” by Ama Ata Aidoo, “Burning Grass” by Cyprian
kwensi.

Drama
Drama is a story in a play form meant to be acted (performed)
on stage. It is presented in a form of a dialogue. “Gods are not
to blame” by Ola Rotimi, “Dilemma of a Ghost” by Ama Ata
Aidoo are examples of drama.

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Poetry
Poetry is a literary work set in verse form. It is written in short
lines with rhythmic flow of words. Poetry is written in dense
or compressed language. Examples of poems are “Piano and
Drums” by Gabriel Okara, “The School Boy” by William
Blake.

Before we continue our discussion, let us remind ourselves

that the two basic types of literature are oral literature and
written literature.

ORAL LITERATURE
Oral literature is a kind of literature which is handed from
generation to generation by word of mouth. Oral African
literature is the oral literature in Africa.

Features of oral African literature

a. It has no specific author.
b. It is delivered orally.
c. It is performed on special occasions.
d. It involves the participation of audience.

Genres (forms) of oral African literature

The genres of Oral African Literature are;
 Oral prose
 Oral drama
 Oral poetry
 A. Oral African Prose
Oral prose is a story that is part of oral tradition of a people or
place. It is passed through generations, mainly by telling. It is
also said to be a popular story told at a particular moment
especially by fireside at night or at the moon night. In folktale,
animal and human beings interact freely without any barrier.

Types of Folktale
The three types of folktales are:
a. Didactic tale
b. Trickster tale
c. Dilemma tale

Didactic tale is a kind of story which teaches moral lesson. It

is usually called moral tale. It can create bad characters who
are punished accordingly by their evil behaviour and the good
behaviour is rewarded. It often gives moral lesson on hard
work, honesty, patriotism, patience, etc.
Trickster tale is a form of folktale made up of stories of
deceit, magic, etc. It is a kind of tale where a character tries to
deceive others through cunning means for either survival or
personal prestige. In such stories, Kwaku Ananse plays a
trickster’s role.
Dilemma tale is a kind of tale which presents a problem for
the listener/reader to solve at the end of the story. It is a kind of
story whose end begins a debate.
 Now, let’s look at the second type of oral prose –
myth.
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A myth is a story which is told to explain creation without any
scientific proof. A myth often explains natural in terms of
stories about gods, goddess, and how certain occur in the
world. The study of myth is called mythology.

There are two types of myth. Theseare;

 Primal tale or primal myth
 Aetiology tale or aetiology myth
A primal tale is a myth that explains the origin of creation.
For example, a story that tells how human beings came into
existence is a typical example of primal tale.

An aetiology tale is a myth that explains how certain things

happen in the world. It is also called anexplanatory myth. A
story that tells why a crab has no head is a classical example
of an aetiology tale.

Importance of Myths
a. They make people observe taboos in society.
b. They reveal the culture of the society.
c. They help consolidate the people’s beliefs in gods and
goddess.
Finally, let’s look at the third type of oral prose - legend.

A legend is a story of unknown origin that describes persons

of extraordinary achievements. A legend may also refer to a
person who has contributed significantly to the development of
his or her society. Stories that are told about legends are called
legendary stories. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and Yaa Asantewaa
are examples of legends in Ghana.
Importance of Oral African Prose
a. They are used to criticize the bad deeds in the society.
b. They are used to educate the members of society.
c. They are used as a source of entertainment.

B. Oral African Poetry

Oral African poetry is a verse in a song-like, highly
repetitive and rhythmic. Examples of Oral African prose
are funeral dirge, praise poetry, war chantsand proverbs.

1. Funeral dirge
A funeral dirge is often in a poetic form and is used
by women. A funeral dirge is sometimes used to
show the wretched state of the family, and to ask
for protection from the ancestors.

2. Praise poetry (Panegyric) is a form of poetry which is

used to praise very important personalities such as
kings and chiefs during special occasions like festivals
and durbars. Panegyrics are full of appellations and
epithets of persons of outstanding feat (achievements)
and qualities.

3. A war chant is a song sung during war to rekindle the

spirit of bravery. It is sung to put fear into the
opponents.

4. Proverb is a short, witty statement which contains

basic truth deduced from observation from life. A
proverb is used to strengthen an argument, give advice
and address a problem. It also enriches our speech.
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 C. Oral African Drama
An oral African drama is any African literary
work set in a form of play and meant to be acted. It
has characters, music and dance. Oral African
dramas are performed I festivals, and ceremonies
such as naming ceremony (christening), marriage
rite, etc.

Ballad
A ballad is a song that tells a dramatic story in a verse. It may
also refer to any story told in a song. A ballad is a folk song,
and it is one of the oldest forms of poetry and music.

Features of a ballad
1. A ballad makes use of stanzas.
2. It makes use of characterization.
3. It makes use of repetition.
4. It often reveals themes of love and tragedy.

INTRODUCTION TO WRITTEN LITERATURE

A written literature is the type of literature which is
consciously written by people.

Features of written literature

a. It has authorship.
b. It documented or written down.
c. It can be imaginative or real.
Genres of Written Literature
The three genres of written literature are;
 prose (novel)
 drama (play)
 poetry

Prose
Prose is any literary work that uses the direct narrative form as
distinct from verse or play. It may also be said to be a literary
work that uses direct narration of a story either fictive or
real.Examples of prose are “Changes: A love story” by Ama
Ata Aidoo, “Burning Grass” by Cyprian kwensi.

Types of prose
Basically, there are two types of prose. These are fiction and
non-fiction.
A. Fiction is a story (prose) that is not a true story. A
fiction is a story based on the writer’s imagination.
Examples of prose fictions are “Things Fall Apart” by
Achebe, “Weep not Child” by Ngugi, “Changes” by
Ama Ata Aidoo.

B. Non-fiction is a story (prose) which is based on truth.

Examples of non-fiction prose are biography,
autobiography, memoir, etc.

a) Biography is person’s life story written by another

person.

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 b) Autobiography is a self-written biography. It is a story
of one’s life written by himself
c) A memoir is a book describing the personal experience
of an author.
In simple language, fiction is imaginative writing while non-
fiction is factual writing.

Elements of prose
Elements of prose are the distinctive features of prose. These
are subject matter, theme, plot, characterization, mood,
tone, setting, etc.
 Subject matter is the topic which acts as the
foundation for the literary. A literary work has only one
subject matter.
 Theme is the main idea of a literary work. It may also
be said to be the underlying meaning of a literary work.
There are two types of themes in a literary work. These
are major theme and minor theme. Major theme is an
idea a writer repeats in his work, making it the most
significant idea in the work but minor theme refers to
an idea that appears in a literary work briefly.
 Plot refers to the sequential unfolding of events in a
story. A plot has introduction (exposition), conflict,
climax, resolution (denouement). This indicates how
the story will be told from the beginning to the end.
 Characterization is the representation of persons or
creatures in a literary work, while characters are the
specific persons, animals or objects used in the story to
interact with one another.
 Sometimes, animals may be used as the main
characters in a story. Such a story is called fable.
‘Animal Farm’ by George Orwell is a typical
example.

Again, some writers may use abstract things (such as Honesty,

Virtue, Love, Kindness, Wickedness, Impatience, Gullibility,
etc) as characters. Such characters are called allegorical
characters, and such stories are called allegories. An example
is ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’ by John Bunyan where we see ‘Virtue,
Honesty, Fault’ as characters.

What is more, if a character’s role is predictable (does not

change in behaviour), that character is a flat character or
static character. On the other hand, if the character’s role is
unpredictable (changes in behaviour), that character is
described round or dynamic character.

 Setting refers to both the time and the geographical

location in which a story takes place.
 Mood is the feeling or atmosphere perceived by the
reader. It is the emotions you feel while reading.
 Tone is the feeling of the writer towards a subject. The
tone can be revealed by writer’s choice of words and
details. The tone of a writer may be positive or
negative.

STYLE OF WRITING
Style of a writer refers to how a writer organizes his words to
present his message. It is a away in which the writer expresses
himself. One unique feature that distinguishes one writer from
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another is style. Style includes imagery, proverbs, diction,
symbolism, etc.

Narrator is the person who gives an account of a story. It is a

person who tells a story.

Suspense is the technique employed by the writer to keep his

readers in an expectant mood. It is the intense feeling an
audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of certain
events in a story.

Point of view refers to how a story is narrated. It is also called

narrative technique. Now, let us look at the types of point of
view. Point of view may be;
a. the first person point of view
b. the second person point of view
c. the third person point of view
The first person point of view involves the use of the first
person pronouns “I and we”. Here, the author says what s(he)
sees. This type of narration is also called autobiographic
technique.
For example: “My father was a very difficult man when he
was forty. I remember he called me into his room one day and
poured hot water on my face. I stood there, watching himas if
I were a statue…….”

The second person point of view employs the pronoun “you”.

This technique is not used by writers.
For example: “When you realized that the task was
challenging, you needed assistance…..”
The third person point of view uses the pronouns “he”,
“she”,“they”,“it” or name.
For example: “He was a strange visitor. When he arrived in
our village, he climbed a mahogany tree, suspended his head
down and began to laugh. He dangled on the tree and
continued laughing till noon.”

It must be noted Omniscient point of view is where the

narration is done in such a way that the narrator knows
everything about all the characters. In this case, the narrator
appears to be all-knowing. The omniscient point of view is
also called “The Eye of God”

 Now, let’s look at one type of prose called satire

(which has been given much prominence in your
English course)

SATIRE
Asatire is a piece of literary work that criticizes the ills (bad
deeds) of the society. The main aim of writing satires is to
correct bad behaviour in the society.

A person who writes to criticize the ills of society is called

satirist. In short, a satirist is a person who writes satire. A
satirist’s tool is ironical writings. That is, a satirist uses
ironical writings to criticize the society.

Types of Satire
The two types of satire are;
 horacian satire

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  juvenalian satire

Horacian satire criticizes the ills of the society in amusing

manner. “Animal Farm” by George Orwell is a typical
example.
Juvenalian satire criticizes the ills of the society bitterly. An
example is “Gulliver’s Travel” by Jonathan Suit.
Elements of drama are not different from that of prose.
However the most essential features of drama are dialogue
and actions.

a. Dialogue is the interchange between characters. It has

to do with what characters say in a play.
b. Action in drama refers to what causes characters to
behave the way they do.
 BASIC LITERATURE
One of the many definitions given to Literature is that, it is a
body of knowledge that deals with the creative expression of
individual and societal experiences that has a specific appeal.
The basic genres or divisions of Literature are PROSE,
DRAMA AND POETRY.
Prose: is a story that is presented in chapters, paragraphs and
sentences.
Drama: is a story presented in the form of acts and scenes on
stage before an audience.
Poetry: is a condensed message or story presented in stanzas
and lines.
In the creation of any literary work, certain terms or words
peculiar to literature are used. These terms or words are
referred to as literary terms or figures of speech. Some of these
have been discussed below.

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LITERARY TERMS/DEVICES
 Allegory: an allegory is a narrative in which the
characters often stand for abstract concepts. An
allegory generally teaches a lesson by means of an
interesting story.
 Alliteration: the repetition at close intervals of
consonant sounds for a purpose. For example: “wailing
in the winter wind”.
 Allusion: a reference to something in literature, history,
mythology, religious texts, etc. which are considered
common knowledge.
 Analogy: a point by point comparison between two
dissimilar things for the purpose of clarifying the less
familiar of the two things.
 Antagonist: the character or force that opposes the
protagonist. (It can be a character, an animal, a force, or
a weakness of the character.)
 Apostrophe: the device, usually in poetry, of calling
out to an imaginary, dead, or absent person, or to a
place, thing, or personified abstraction either to begin a
poem or to make a dramatic break in thought
somewhere within the poem.
 Assonance: the repetition at close intervals of vowel
sounds for a purpose. For example: mad as a hatter.
 Ballad: a narrative poem that was originally meant to
be sung. Ballads are generally about ordinary people
who have unusual adventures, with a single tragic
incident as the central focus. They contain dialogue and
repetition, and imply more than they actually tell.
 Character: is the person, animal or creation in a story.
 Characterization: refers to the techniques employed
by writers to develop characters.
 Climax: it is the highest point of conflict in a story.
 Conflict: the struggle between two opposing forces in a
story. (1) Internal conflict character struggling with
him / herself (2) External conflicts – character
struggling with forces outside of him/herself. For
example. Nature, god, society, another person,
technology, etc.

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 Connotation: the associations, images, or impressions
carried by a word, as opposed to the word’s literal
meaning.
 Consonance: the close repetition of identical consonant
sounds before and after differing vowel sounds.
 Denotation: the precise, literal meaning of a word,
without emotional associations or overtones.
 Denouement: the final unravelling or outcome of the
plot in drama or fiction during which the complications
and conflicts of the plot are resolved.
 Diction: the writer’s choice of words word
 Enjambment: the carrying of sense and grammatical
structure in a poem beyond the end of one line,
COUPLET, or STANZA and into the next.
 Epigram: is any witty, pointed saying. Originally an
epigram meant an inscription, or epitaph usually in
verse, on a tomb.
 Epigraph: a motto or quotation that appears at the
beginning of a book, play, chapter, or poem.
Occasionally, an epigraph shows the source for the title
of a work. Because the epigraph usually relates to the
theme of a piece of literature, it can give the reader
insight into the work.
 Epitaph: the inscription on a tombstone or monument
in memory of the person or people buried there.
Epitaph also refers to a brief literary piece that sums up
the life of a dead person.
 Exposition: background information at the beginning
of the story, such as setting, characters and conflicts. In
a short story the exposition appears in the opening
paragraphs; in a novel the exposition is usually part of
the first chapter.
 Falling Action: events that lead to a resolution after the
climax.
 Figurative Language: language employing figures of
speech; language that cannot be taken literally or only
literally.
 Flashback: a scene, or an incident that happened before
the beginning of a story, or at an earlier point in the
narrative.
 Foil: a character who provides a striking contrast to
another character.
 Foreshadowing: a writer’s use of hintsor clues to
indicate events that will occur later in the narrative.
 Hyperbole: an exaggeration for emphasis or humorous
effect.
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 Imagery: words and phrases that create vivid
experiences or a picture for the reader.
 Irony: a contrast between appearance and actuality:
 Verbal irony: a writer says one thing, but means
something entirely different.
 Situational irony: occurs when something happens that
is entirely different from what is expected.
 Dramatic irony: occurs when the reader knows
information that the characters do not.
 Metaphor: a figure of speech in which a comparison or
analogy is made between two seemingly unlike things,
as in the phrase “evening of life.”
 Metonymy: a figure of speech that substitutes the name
of a related object, person, or idea for the subject at
hand. E.g the crown has fallen this morning. “Crown”
in this sentence has been used in place of “king”
 Mood: the feeling, or atmosphere, that a writer creates
for the reader. Connotative words, sensory images, and
figurative language contribute to the mood of a
selection, as do the sound and rhythm of the language.
 Motif: A unifying element in an artistic work,
especially any recurrent image, symbol, theme,
character type, subject or narrative detail.
 Narrator: the person from whose point of view events
are conveyed.
 First person: the narrator is a character in the story,
uses the pronoun “I.” The first person narrator does not
have to be the main character in the story.
 Third person: is indicated by the pronouns he, she and
they. The third person narrator is not a participant in the
action and thus maintains a certain distance from the
characters.
A) In third person omniscient point of view, the narrator
is all-knowing about the
thoughts and feelings of the characters.
B) The third person limited point of view deals with a
writer presenting events as experienced by only one
character. This type of narrator does not have full
knowledge of situations, past or future events.
C) In third person objective the story conveys only the
external details of the characters—never their thoughts or
inner motivations.
 Onomatopoeia. The formation or use of words. Such
as: buzz, or cuckoo, whose meaning is suggested by the
sound of the word itself. (boom, click, plop)

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 Oxymoron: a figure of speech in which two
contradictory words or phrases are combined in a single
expression, giving the effect of a condensed paradox:
“wise fool,” “cruel kindness.”
 Paradox: a statement or situation containing obvious
contradictions, but is nevertheless true.
 Parallelism: the use of similar grammatical form gives
items equal weight, as in Lincoln’s line “of the people,
by the people, for the people.” Attention to parallelism
generally makes both spoken and written expression
more concise, clear and powerful.
 Parody: an imitation of a serious work of literature for
the purpose of criticism or humorous effect or for
flattering tribute.
 Personification: a figure of speech in which human
qualities or characteristics are given to an animal,
object, or concept.
 Plot: the plan of action or sequence of events of the
story.
 Point of view: the vantage point, or stance from which
a story is told, the eye and mind through which the
action is perceived. (See also narrator.)
 Protagonist: the central character in a story; the one
upon whom the actions centre. The protagonist faces a
problem and must undergo some conflict to solve it.
 Pun: A form of wit, not necessarily funny, involving a
play on a word with two or more meanings.
 Resolution: the final unwinding, or resolving of the
conflicts and complications in the plot.
 Rhyme scheme: the pattern of end rhyme in a poem.
 Rising Action: That part of the plot that leads through a
series of events of increasing interest and power to the
climax or turning point. The rising action begins with
an inciting moment, an action or event that sets a
conflict of opposing forces into motion.
 Satire: a literary technique in which foolish ideas or
customs are ridiculed for the purpose of improving
society.
 Setting: the time and place in which the action of a
story occurs.
 Simile: a figure of speech in which two seemingly
unlike things are compared. The comparison is made
explicit by the use of a word or phrase such as: like, as,
than, similar to, resembles, or seems—as in: He was
strong as a bull.
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 Soliloquy: A dramatic convention in which a character
in a play, alone on stage, speaks his or her thoughts
aloud. The audience is provided with information about
the characters’ motives, plans, and state of mind.
 Stream of Consciousness: the technique of presenting
the flow of thoughts, responses, and sensations of one
or more characters is called stream of consciousness.
 Style: the way in which a piece of literature is written.
Style refers not to what is said, but how it is said.
 Suspense: the tension or excitement felt by the reader
as he or she becomes involved in the story.
 Syllogism: a logical argument based on deductive
reasoning.
 Symbol: a person, object, idea or action that stands for
something else. It is usually something literal that
stands for something figurative. For example: Roads
can stand for choices.
 Synecdoche: a figure of speech in which a part of
something stands for the whole thing.
 Theme: the central idea in a literary work. The theme is
usually an idea about life or about people. Writers
sometimes state the story’s theme outright, but more
often they simply tell the story and let the reader
 discover the theme. Therefore, theme is an idea
revealed by the events of the story; plot is simply what
happens in the story; it is not the theme.
 Tone: the writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward a
subject.
 Understatement: a type of verbal IRONY in which
something is purposely represented as being far less
important than it actually is; also called meiosis.

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