Piaget’s four stages

Piaget’s stages are age-specific and marked by important characteristics of thought processes. They also
include goals children should achieve as they move through a given stage.

Stage Age Characteristics Goal

Motor activity without use of symbols. All

Birth to 18–24 Object
Sensorimotor things learned are based on experiences,
months old permanence
or trial and error.

Development of language, memory, and

Symbolic
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old imagination. Intelligence is both
thought
egocentric and intuitive.

More logical and methodical manipulation

Concrete 7 to 11 years Operational
of symbols. Less egocentric, and more
operational old thought
aware of the outside world and events.

Use of symbols to relate to abstract

Formal Adolescence to Abstract
concepts. Able to make hypotheses and
operational adulthood concepts
grasp abstract concepts and relationships.

Sensorimotor

The sensorimotor stage covers children ages birth to 18–24 months old. Characteristics include motor
activity without use of symbols. All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and error.

The main goal at this stage is establishing an understanding of object permanence — in other words,
knowing that an object still exists even if you can’t see it or it’s hidden.

Preoperational

The preoperational stage can be seen in children ages 2 through 7. Memory and imagination are
developing. Children at this age are egocentric, which means they have difficulty thinking outside of
their own viewpoints.

The main achievement of this stage is being able to attach meaning to objects with language. It’s
thinking about things symbolically. Symbolic thought is a type of thinking where a word or object is used
to represent something other than itself.

Concrete operational

Children are much less egocentric in the concrete operational stage. It falls between the ages of 7 to 11
years old and is marked by more logical and methodical manipulation of symbols.
The main goal at this stage is for a child to start working things out inside their head. This is called
operational thought, and it allows kids to solve problems without physically encountering things in the
real world.

Formal operational

Children 11 years old and older fall into Piaget’s formal operational stage. A milestone of this period is
using symbols to understand abstract concepts. Not only that, but older kids and adults can also think
about multiple variables and come up with hypotheses based on previous knowledge.

Piaget believed that people of all ages developed intellectually. But he also believed that once a person
reaches the formal operational stage, it’s more about building upon knowledge, not changing how it’s
acquired or understood.

Schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration

There are a variety of terms Piaget used in his theory to explain cognitive development and how it’s
achieved at different stages.

Schema is a term he used to represent the building blocks of knowledge. You may think of schemas as
different index cards inside the brain. Each one informs the individual on how to react to new
information or situations.

For example, picture a person visiting the grocery store to buy milk. In this event, the schema is a
mentally stored pattern of behavior that can be applied to this situation. The person remembers how to
go through the aisles, find the milk, select the preferred kind, and then pay at the register. Whenever
the person is tasked with getting milk, this particular “script” or schema is recalled from memory.

Other important terms:

 Assimilation is using an existing schema and applying it to a new situation or object.

 Accommodation is changing approaches when an existing schema doesn’t work in a particular

situation.

 Equilibration is the driving force that moves all development forward. Piaget didn’t believe that
development progressed steadily. Instead, it moved in leaps and bounds according to
experiences.

How can caregivers use schemas?

Parents and teachers can help build a child’s various schemas to promote learning and development
throughout the stages. This can be achieved by giving children plenty of exposure to the outside world.
Being exposed to a variety of learning-by-doing experiences from a young age may help build up those
internal index cards. Then, as children get older, it’s about broadening the experiences and applying
them to new, even hypothetical, situations.

How to apply Piaget’s stages to learning and development

So, how exactly can Piaget’s stages be applied to education? At the root, it’s about recognizing the stage
a child is currently in and catering to that developmental level.
Teachers and parents can help by providing children with different experiences or ways to explore and
experiment with their environments. It’s through these experiences that children may gain
understandings of different concepts in a hands-on way.

For young children entering preschool and kindergarten, Piaget’s theories align more with play-based
school programs, or environments where kids are offered opportunities for trial and error, and
interaction with the real world.

Piaget’s philosophy can be incorporated into any education program.

Examples include:

 Providing chances for trial and error. Focus on the process of learning versus the end result.

 Providing children with visual aids and other props, like models, to illustrate different ideas and
concepts.

 Using real-life examples to paint complex ideas, like word problems in math.

 Providing chances to classify or group information. Outlines and hierarchies are good examples
and allow kids to build new ideas from previous knowledge.

 Offering problems that necessitate analytical or logical thinking. Brain teasers can be used as a
tool in this instance.

You can also help your child throughout the stages by catering to their specific learning style at the time:

Sensorimotor

 Use real objects in play activities.

 Connect play to the five senses.

 Implement routines for the youngest children. They are predictable and may be highly useful
with developing communication.

Preoperational

 Children learn best by doing. Allow them to actively interact with a variety of things in their
environments, including books, people, games, and objects.

 Ask questions while children are engaged in daily routines and allow them to come up with their
own ideas.

 Point out new things and encourage children to question you about those things.

Concrete operational

 Create timelines, three dimensional models, science experiments, and other ways to manipulate
abstract concepts.

 Use brain teasers and riddles to foster analytical thinking.

 Focus on open-ended questioning.

Formal operational

 Offer step-by-step explanations of concepts and utilize charts and other visual aids.

 Explore hypothetical situations. You may relate them to current events or social issues.

 Broaden concepts whenever possible. For example, if talking about the Civil War, discuss other
issues that have divided the country since that time.

Cons of Piaget’s theory

There are some criticisms of Piaget’s stages. In particular, researchers in the 1960s and 1970s argued
that Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by using confusing terms and particularly
difficult tasks in his observations. In other studies, children have been successful with demonstrating
knowledge of certain concepts or skills when they were presented in a simpler way.

Piaget’s theory also expects children of a certain stage to primarily be at that stage across the board
with all tasks presented to them. Other researchers uncovered that there is a range of abilities with
cognitive tasks. In other words, some children may excel or struggle in one area over another.

Piaget’s theory also explains that trying to teach children particularly advanced concepts would be
unsuccessful. Yet in some cases, children may be able to learn advanced ideas even with brief
instruction. Children may be more adaptable and competent than Piaget’s stages give them credit for.

Last, Piaget primarily examined white, middle-class children from developed countries in his work. As a
result, his findings may be skewed to this subset of people, and may not apply as directly to other
groups or locations.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky developed his theory on child development at the same time Piaget was developing his
own theory. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children develop through stages. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky
believed that learning and development were tied to social interactions and culture. Whereas Piaget
believed that children learn through doing, Vygotsky believed that they learn through being shown.

Piaget vs. Montessori

Maria Montessori shared some ideas with Piaget, including how children move through stages. Their
theories are similar until children reach age 3. In school, Montessori classrooms are more child-directed.
Piaget classrooms are more teacher-directed with a focus on routine, though there is flexibility and
opportunity for child-directed activities.

The takeaway

Jean Piaget’s work has helped people understand how knowledge is developed at different stages of
childhood, starting at birth. His philosophy is still used in prekindergarten through 12th grade
classrooms today. Understanding the different stages may help you better understand your own child
and assist their learning development.

Birth to 18 months

During this period of profound growth and development, babies grow and change rapidly.

Doctors recommend that you speak to your baby a lot during this phase, because hearing your voice will
help your baby to develop communication skills. Other suggestions include:

 Short periods of tummy time to help strengthen your baby’s neck and back muscles — but make
sure baby is awake and you’re close by for this playtime.

 Respond right away when your baby cries. Picking up and comforting a crying baby builds strong
bonds between the two of you.

Development table: Birth to 18 months

9-12 12-18
1-3 months 4-6 months 5-9 months
months months

Shows Has
Recognizes
interest in learned
familiar faces
objects and Brings hands Watches how to use
human up to mouth things fall some basic
Notices
faces things like
Cognitive music
Passes things Looks for spoons
May get from one hand hidden
Responds to
bored with to the other things Can point
signs of love
repeated to named
and affection
activities body parts

Responds to May
Tries to facial engage in
look at you expressions simple
Enjoys mirrors May be pretend
or other
Enjoys clingy or games
Social and people
playing with Knows when a prefer
emotional
people stranger is familiar May have
Starts to
present people tantrums
smile at
people Responds
differently to May cry
different around
 voice tones strangers

Begins to
coo and Responds to
make vowel hearing their Points
Knows how
sounds name
to say
Begins to Knows
several
Becomes babble or May add what “no”
words
calm when imitate consonant means
Language
spoken to sounds sounds to
Says “no”
vowels Imitates
Cries Laughs sounds
Waves bye-
differently May and
bye
for communicate gestures
different with gestures
needs

Turns
Walks
toward
Sees things holding
sounds Starts sitting
and reaches onto
up without
for them surfaces
Follows support
Pulls up
objects
Pushes up into Stands
with eyes May bounce
with arms standing alone
Movement/Physical when held in
when on position
Grasps standing
tummy May climb
objects position
Crawls a step or
Might be two
Gradually Rolls in both
able to roll
lifts head directions
over May drink
for longer
from a cup
periods

18 months to 2 years

During the toddler years, children continue to need lots of sleep, good nutrition, and close, loving
relationships with parents and caregivers.

Doctors at Seattle Children’s Hospital offer this advice for creating a safe, nurturing space to maximize
your child’s early growth and development:

 Create predictable routines and rituals to keep your child feeling secure and grounded.

 Toddler-proof your home and yard so kids can explore safely.

  Use gentle discipline to guide and teach children. Avoid hitting, which can cause long-term
physical and emotional harm.

 Sing, talk, and read to your toddler to boost their vocabularies.

 Watch your child for cues about the warmth and reliability of all caregivers.

 Take good care of yourself physically and emotionally, because your child needs you to be
healthy.

Development table: 18 months to 2 years

18 months 24 months

May identify familiar things in

Builds towers from blocks
picture books
May follow simple two-part
Knows what common objects do
instructions
Cognitive
Scribbles
Groups like shapes and colors together
Follows single-step requests like
Plays pretend games
“Please stand up”

May help with tasks like putting

away toys
Enjoys play dates
Is proud of what they’ve
accomplished Plays beside other children; may start
Social and
playing with them
emotional
Recognizes self in mirror; may make
faces May defy directions like “sit down” or
“come back here”
May explore surroundings if parent
stays close by

May ask simple questions

Knows several words
Can name many things
Language Follows simple directions
Uses simple two-word phrases like
“more milk”
Likes hearing short stories or songs
Says the names of familiar people
 Can help in getting dressed
Runs
Begins to run
Jumps up and down
Drinks well from a cup
Stands on tip-toes
Movement
Eats with a spoon
/Physical
Can draw lines and round shapes
Can walk while pulling a toy
Throws balls
Dances
May climb stairs using rails to hold on
Gets seated in a chair

3 to 5 years old

During these pre-school years, children grow more and more independent and capable. Their natural
curiosity is likely to be stimulated because their world is expanding: new friends, new experiences, new
environments like daycare or kindergarten.

During this time of growth, the CDCTrusted Source recommends that you:

 Keep reading to your child daily.

 Show them how to do simple chores at home.

 Be clear and consistent with your expectations, explaining what behaviors you want from your
child.

 Speak to your child in age-appropriate language.

 Help your child problem solve when emotions are running high.

 Supervise your child in outdoor play spaces, especially around water and play equipment.

 Allow your child to have choices about how to interact with family members and strangers.

Development table: 3 to 5 years

3 years 4 years 5 years

Cognitive Can put together a 3-4 May be able to count Draws more complex
part puzzle “people”
Can draw stick figures
Can use toys that have Counts up to 10
moving parts like May be able to predict things
buttons and levers what will happen in a
story Can copy letters,
 numbers, and simple
shapes

May play simple board Understands the

Can turn door knobs games order of simple
processes
Can turn book pages Can name a few colors,
numbers, and capital Can say name and
letters address

Names many colors

Is aware of gender
Shows empathy for
hurt or crying children May play games that
Likes to play with
have roles like “parent”
friends
Offers affection and “baby”
Sings, dances, and
Understands “mine” Plays with, not just
may play acting
and “yours” beside, other kids
Social and games
emotional
May get upset if Talks about their likes
Switches between
routines are changed and dislikes
being compliant and
being defiant
Can get dressed Pretends; may have
trouble knowing what’s
Can tell the
Knows how to take real and what’s pretend
difference between
turns
made-up and real

May tell stories that

Talks using 2-3 Can talk about what
stay on track
sentences at a time happens in daycare or
at school
Recites nursery
Has the words to name
rhymes or sings songs
many things used daily Speaks in sentences
Language
May be able to name
Can be understood by May recognize or say
letters and numbers
family rhymes
Can answer simple
Understands terms like Can say first and last
questions about
“in,” “on,” and “under” name
stories

Movement/Physical Can walk up and down Can hammer a peg into May be able to
 somersault
a hole
Uses scissors
steps with one foot on
each stair Walks backwards
Hops or stands on
one foot for about 10
Runs and jumps with Climbs stairs
seconds
ease confidently
Can swing on
Catches a ball Can hop
swingset
Can slide down a slide Pours liquids with some
Goes to the
help
bathroom in the
toilet

School-age development

During the school years, children gain independence and competence quickly. Friends become more
important and influential. A child’s self-confidence will be affected by the academic and social challenges
presented in the school environment.

As kids mature, the parenting challenge is to find a balance between keeping them safe, enforcing rules,
maintaining family connections, allowing them to make some decisions, and encouraging them to accept
increasing responsibility.

Despite their rapid growth and development, they still need parents and caregivers to set limits and
encourage healthy habits.

Here are some things you can do to ensure that your child continues to be healthy:

 Make sure they get enough sleep.

 Provide opportunities for regular exercise and individual or team sports.

 Create quiet, positive spaces for reading and studying at home.

 Limit screen time and monitor online activities carefully.

 Build and maintain positive family traditions.

 Talk to your children about consent and setting boundaries with their bodies.

Development table: School-age

6-8 years 9-11 years 12-14 years 15-17 years

Cognitive Can complete Can use Develops views Internalize work

instructions common and opinions that and study
 may differ from
parents’ ideas

devices, Grows
with 3 or more
including awareness that habits
steps
phones, tablets, parents aren’t
and game always correct Can explain
Can count
stations their positions
backward
Can understand and choices
Writes stories figurative
Knows left and
and letters language Continues to
right
differentiate
Maintains longer Ability to think from parents
Tells time
attention span logically is
improving, but
prefrontal cortex
is not yet mature

Cooperates
and plays with
Increased
others
interest in
May have a best
May become dating and
May play with friend
more sexuality
kids of
independent
different Can see from
from parents Spends more
genders another
Social and time with
person’s
emotional Displays friends than
Mimics adult perspective
moodiness family
behaviors
Experiences
Increased need Growth in
Feels jealousy more peer
for some privacy ability to
pressure
empathize with
May be
others
modest about
bodies

Language Can read Listens for Can use speech Can speak,
books at grade specific reasons that isn’t literal read, listen, and
level (like pleasure or write fluently
learning) Can use tone of and easily
Understands voice to
speech and Forms opinions communicate Can have
speaks well based on what’s intentions; i.e. complex
 heard

Can take brief

conversations
notes
Can speak
differently in
Follows written
different groups
instructions
Can write
Draws logical
sarcasm persuasively
inferences based
on reading
Can understand
proverbs,
Can write about
figurative
a stated main
language, and
idea
analogies
Can plan and
give a speech

Can jump rope

or ride a bike Many females
May experience will have started
Can draw or signs of early periods
paint puberty like
breast Secondary sex
Can brush development characteristics Continues to
teeth, comb and facial hair like armpit hair mature
Movement/Physical
hair, and growth and voice physically,
complete basic changes continue especially boys
grooming tasks Increased skill
levels in sports Height or weight
Can practice and physical may change
physical skills activities quickly and then
to get better at slow down
them

What to do if you’re concerned

If you’re wondering whether some aspect of a child’s development may be delayed, you have several
options.

First, talk to your child’s pediatrician and ask for a developmental screening. The screening tools used by
doctors are more thorough than online checklists, and they may give you more reliable information
about your child’s abilities and progress.
You can also ask your pediatrician for a referral to a developmental specialist like a pediatric neurologist,
occupational therapist, speech/language therapist, or a psychologist who specializes in evaluating
children.

If your child is under the age of 3, you can reach out to the early intervention programTrusted Source in
your state.

If your child is 3 or older, you can speak to the special education director at the public school near your
home (even if your child isn’t enrolled at that school) to ask for a developmental evaluation. Make sure
you write down the date and director’s name so you can follow up if necessary.

It’s really important that you act right away if you suspect a developmental delay or disorder, because
many developmental issues can be addressed more effectively with early intervention.

What happens in a developmental screening?

During a screening, the healthcare provider may ask you questions, interact with your child, or conduct
tests to find out more about what your child can and cannot yet do.

If your child has a medical condition, was born early, or was exposed to an environmental toxin like lead,
the doctor might conduct developmental screenings more often.

TALKING TO PARENTS ABOUT MILESTONES

If you’re a caregiver or educator who needs to discuss a possible delay with parents, the CDCTrusted
Source recommends that you approach the topic in a clear, compassionate way. You may find these tips
helpful:

 Talk about milestones often, not just when you’re worried about a delay.

 Use good listening skills. Allow parents to speak without interrupting them, and repeat their
concerns so they’ll know you’re paying close attention.

 Consider having a colleague at the meeting to take notes.

Be aware that parents may respond emotionally. Family and cultural issues may shape parents’
reactions.

 Share any notes or records you’ve kept to document the child’s progress.

 Encourage contact with their family pediatrician.

 Follow up, making sure you share good news as well as concerns.

The takeaway

Babies, toddlers, and school-age children develop new skills and abilities in a steady progression as they
get older. Every child develops at an individual pace.

Using developmental milestone checklists may be helpful for parents and caregivers who want to be
sure that a child is growing in healthy ways. But it’s also important to keep all well child appointments,
as development is screened at each of these.
If you’re concerned about the possibility of a missed milestone, your child’s doctor can discuss it with
you and can conduct a developmental screening as needed to provide a clearer picture. You can also
connect with developmental specialists, early intervention programs, and special education programs in
local schools to have a child evaluated.

Strong parent-child bonds, good nutrition, adequate sleep, and a safe, nurturing environment at home
and school will help ensure that children have the best chance of developing as they should.

Last medically reviewed on December 9, 2019

 14 sourcescollapsed


 

FEEDBACK:

What Are Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development?

Medically reviewed by Janet Brito, Ph.D., LCSW, CST — Written by Gabrielle Kassel on February 20, 2020

 Origin

 Resolving conflict

 Getting stuck

 Oral stage

 Anal stage

 Phallic stage

 Latency stage

 Genital stage

 Limitations

 Changes over time

 Alternatives

 Takeaway
Share on Pinterest

Ever heard the phrases “penis envy,” “Oedipal complex,” or “oral fixation”?

They were all coined by famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud as part of his psychosexual theory of
development.

We won’t lie — without a PhD in human psychology, Freud’s theories can sound like a whole lot
of psychobabble.

Not to worry! We put together this conversational guide to help you understand what psychosexual
development is all about.
Where did this idea come from?

“The theory originated from Freud in early 1900s as a way to understand and explain mental illness and
emotional disturbance,” explains psychotherapist Dana Dorfman, PhD.

Each stage is associated with a specific conflict

The theory is more multilayered than a wedding cake, but it boils down to this: Sexual pleasure plays a
major role in human development.

According to Freud, every “healthy” child evolves through five different stages:

 oral

 anal

 phallic

 latent

 genital

Each stage is associated with a specific part of the body, or more specifically, erogenous zone.

Each zone is a source of pleasure and conflict during its respective stage.

“A child’s ability to resolve that conflict determines whether or not they were able to move onto the
next stage,” explains licensed professional counselor Dr. Mark Mayfield, founder and CEO of Mayfield
Counseling Centers.

It’s possible to get “stuck” and stop progressing

If you resolve the conflict in a given stage, you progress to the next level of development.

But if something goes awry, Freud believed you would stay exactly where you are.

You either remain stuck, never progressing to the next stage, or progress but exhibit remnants or
unresolved issues from the previous stage.

Freud believed there were two reasons people got stuck:

1. Their developmental needs weren’t adequately met during the stage, which caused frustration.

2. Their developmental needs were so well met that they didn’t want to leave the state of
indulgence.

Both can lead to what he calls a “fixation” on the erogenous zone associated with the stage.

For instance, an individual “stuck” in the oral stage may overly enjoy having things in their mouth.

The oral stage

 Age range: Birth to 1 year

 Erogenous zone: The mouth

Quick: Think about a baby. Chances are you visualized a little scoundrel sitting on their bum, smiling, and
sucking on their fingers.

Well, according to Freud, during this first stage of development, a human’s libido is located in their
mouth. Meaning the mouth is the primary source of pleasure.

“This stage is associated with breastfeeding, biting, sucking, and exploring the world by putting things in
the mouth,” says Dr. Dorfman.

Freud’s theory says that things like excessive gum chomping, nail biting, and thumb-sucking are rooted
in too little or too much oral gratification as a child.

“Overeating, overconsumption of alcohol, and smoking are also said to be rooted in poor development
of this first stage,” she says.

The anal stage

 Age range: 1 to 3 years old

 Erogenous zone: anus and bladder

Putting things into the anal canal may be in vogue, but in this stage the pleasure is derived not from
inserting into, but pushing out of, the anus.

Yep, that’s code for pooping.

Freud believed that during this stage, potty training and learning to control your bowel movements and
bladder are a major source of pleasure and tension.

Toilet training is basically a parent telling a kid when and where they can poop, and it’s a person’s first
real encounter with authority.

The theory says that how a parent approaches the toilet training process influences how someone
interacts with authority as they get older.

Harsh potty training is thought to cause adults to be anal retentive: perfectionists, obsessed with
cleanliness, and controlling.

Liberal training, on the other hand, is said to cause a person to be anal expulsive: messy, disorganized,
oversharing, and having poor boundaries.

The phallic stage

 Age range: 3 to 6 years old

 Erogenous zone: genitals, specifically the penis

As you might guess from the name, this stage involves fixation on the penis.

Freud proposed that for young boys, this meant obsession with their own penis.

For young girls, this meant fixation on the fact that they don’t have a penis, an experience he called
“penis envy.”
Oedipus complex

The Oedipus complex is one of Freud’s most controversial ideas.

It’s based on the Greek myth where a young man named Oedipus kills his father and then marries his
mother. When he discovers what he’s done, he pokes his eyes out.

“Freud believed that every boy is sexually attracted to his mother,” explains Dr. Mayfield.

And that every boy believes that if his father found out, his father would take away the thing the little
boy loves most in the world: his penis.

Herein lies castration anxiety.

According to Freud, boys eventually decide to become their fathers — through imitation — rather than
fighting them.

Freud called this “identification” and believed it was ultimately how the Oedipus complex got resolved.

Electra complex

Another psychologist, Carl Jung, coined “the Electra Complex” in 1913 to describe a similar sensation in
girls.

In short, it says that young girls compete with their mothers for sexual attention from their fathers.

But Freud rejected the label, arguing that the two genders undergo distinct experiences in this phase
that shouldn’t be conflated.

So what did Freud believe happened to girls in this stage?

He proposed that girls love their moms until they realize they don’t have a penis, and then become
more attached to their fathers.

Later, they begin to identify with their mothers out of fear of losing their love — a phenomenon he
coined the “feminine Oedipus attitude.”

He believed this stage was crucial for girls to understand their role as women in the world, as well as
their sexuality.

The latency stage

 Age range: 7 to 10 years old, or elementary school through preadolescence

 Erogenous zone: N/A, sexual feelings inactive

During the latency stage, the libido is in “do not disturb mode.”

Freud argued that this is when sexual energy was channeled into industrious, asexual activities like
learning, hobbies, and social relationships.

He felt that this stage is when people develop healthy social and communication skills.
He believed failure to move through this stage could result in lifelong immaturity, or the inability to have
and maintain happy, healthy, and fulfilling sexual and non-sexual relationships as an adult.

The genital stage

 Age range: 12 and up, or puberty until death

 Erogenous zone: genitals

The last stage in this theory begins at puberty and, like “Grey’s Anatomy,” never ends. It’s when the
libido reemerges.

According to Freud, this is when an individual begins to have strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.

And, if the stage is successful, this is when folks have heterosexual intercourse and develop loving,
lifelong relationships with someone of the opposite sex.

Are there any criticisms to consider?

If you were reading through the different stages and rolling your eyes at how hetero-centric, binaristic,
misogynistic, and monogamous-minded some of these concepts are, you aren’t alone!

Dr. Dorfman says Freud is frequently criticized for how male-focused, heteronormative, and cis-
centric these stages are.

“While revolutionary for its time, society has evolved significantly since the origins of these theories over
100 years ago,” she says. “A great deal of the theory is antiquated, irrelevant, and biased.”

But don’t get it twisted, though. Freud was still majorly important to the field of psychology.

“He pushed boundaries, asked questions, and developed theory that inspired and challenged several
generations to explore different aspects of the human psyche,” says Dr. Mayfield.

“We would not be where we are today within our theoretical frameworks if Freud hadn’t begun the
process.”

Hey, credit where credit is due!

So, how does this theory hold up in present day?

Today, few people strongly support Freud’s psychosexual stages of development as it was written.

However, as Dr. Dorfman explains, the crux of this theory stresses that the things we experience as
children have a major impact on our behavior and have lasting effects — a premise that many current
theories on human behavior are derived from.

Are there other theories to consider?

“Yes!” says Dr. Mayfield. “There are too many to count!”

Some of the more widely known theories include:

 Erik Erickson’s Stages of Development

  Jean Piaget’s Milestones of Development

 Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

That said, there isn’t a consensus on one “right” theory.

“The problem with developmental stage theories is that they often put people in a box and do not allow
room for variances or outliers,” says Dr. Mayfield.

Each has its own pros and cons to consider, so it’s important to look at each idea in the context of its
time and at each individual holistically.

“While stage theories can be helpful for understanding developmental markers along the journey of
development, it’s important to remember that there are thousands of different contributors to a
person’s development,” Mayfield said.

The bottom line

Now considered outdated, Freud’s psychosexual stages of development are no longer super relevant.

But because they’re the foundation for many modern day theories on development, they’re a must-
know for folks who have ever wondered, “How the heck does a person come to be?”

Gabrielle Kassel is a New York-based sex and wellness writer and CrossFit Level 1 Trainer. She’s become a
morning person, tested over 200 vibrators, and eaten, drunk, and brushed with charcoal — all in the
name of journalism. In her free time, she can be found reading self-help books and romance novels,
bench-pressing, or pole dancing. Follow her on  Instagram.

Last medically reviewed on February 20, 2020

 3 sourcescollapsed

FEEDBACK:

READ THIS NEXT

What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?

Medically reviewed by 

Are there any criticisms to consider?

If you were reading through the different stages and rolling your eyes at how hetero-centric, binaristic,
misogynistic, and monogamous-minded some of these concepts are, you aren’t alone!

Dr. Dorfman says Freud is frequently criticized for how male-focused, heteronormative, and cis-
centric these stages are.

“While revolutionary for its time, society has evolved significantly since the origins of these theories over
100 years ago,” she says. “A great deal of the theory is antiquated, irrelevant, and biased.”

But don’t get it twisted, though. Freud was still majorly important to the field of psychology.

“He pushed boundaries, asked questions, and developed theory that inspired and challenged several
generations to explore different aspects of the human psyche,” says Dr. Mayfield.

“We would not be where we are today within our theoretical frameworks if Freud hadn’t begun the
process.”

Hey, credit where credit is due!

So, how does this theory hold up in present day?

Today, few people strongly support Freud’s psychosexual stages of development as it was written.

However, as Dr. Dorfman explains, the crux of this theory stresses that the things we experience as
children have a major impact on our behavior and have lasting effects — a premise that many current
theories on human behavior are derived from.

Are there other theories to consider?

“Yes!” says Dr. Mayfield. “There are too many to count!”

Some of the more widely known theories include:

 Erik Erickson’s Stages of Development

 Jean Piaget’s Milestones of Development

 Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

That said, there isn’t a consensus on one “right” theory.

“The problem with developmental stage theories is that they often put people in a box and do not allow
room for variances or outliers,” says Dr. Mayfield.
Each has its own pros and cons to consider, so it’s important to look at each idea in the context of its
time and at each individual holistically.

“While stage theories can be helpful for understanding developmental markers along the journey of
development, it’s important to remember that there are thousands of different contributors to a
person’s development,” Mayfield said.

The bottom line

Now considered outdated, Freud’s psychosexual stages of development are no longer super relevant.

But because they’re the foundation for many modern day theories on development, they’re a must-
know for folks who have ever wondered, “How the heck does a person come to be?”

Gabrielle Kassel is a New York-based sex and wellness writer

The zone of proximal development (ZPD), also known as the zone of potential development, is a concept
often used in classrooms to help students with skill development.

The core idea of the ZPD is that a more knowledgeable person can enhance a student’s learning by
guiding them through a task slightly above their ability level.

As the student becomes more competent, the expert gradually stops helping until the student can
perform the skill by themselves.

The idea of the ZPD came from a Russian psychologist named Lev Vygotsky in the early 1900s. Vygotsky
believed that every person has two stages of skill development:

1. a level they can achieve by themselves

2. a level they can achieve with the help of an experienced mentor or teacher

He referred to the level an individual can achieve with help as their ZPD.

The idea of pairing instruction with a student is known as scaffolding, which is one of the core concepts
of Vygotsky’s idea of the ZPD. The person performing the scaffolding can be a teacher, a parent, or even
a peer.
Scaffolding and the ZPD are often used in preschool and elementary classrooms, but the same principles
can be applied outside of a school setting.

A parent teaching a child how to ride a bike or a coach walking an athlete through how to throw a ball
are also an example of these concepts.

In this article, we’ll break down the different stages of the ZPD and explain how the ZPD and scaffolding
can be practically applied to help an individual’s learning.

Zone of proximal development stages

Share on Pinterest

The ZPD can be broken into three stages. Think of them as a series of overlapping circles:

1. Tasks the learner can do without assistance. This category includes everything a person can do
without help from a more experienced individual.

2. Tasks the learner can do with assistance. This category includes tasks a person can’t work
through by themselves but can work through with help, also known as their ZPD.

3. Tasks the learner can’t do with assistance. The final category includes tasks that are too difficult
to perform even with an instructor’s help. For example, a young child might be able to spell out
their own name by themselves but might need help from someone else to write the complete
alphabet. The task is above their skill level and outside their ZPD.

Zone of proximal development ‘scaffolding’

Instructional scaffolding is a method of teaching that helps a student learn a new skill.

It involves a more knowledgeable person guiding a student through a task that’s in their ZPD. As a
learner’s ability to complete a skill improves, the instructor should lessen the amount of aid they
provide.

The concept can be applied in the classroom to a variety of subjects, including language, math, and
science.

Teachers can use scaffolding by using techniques like:

 modeling

 providing examples

 working one-on-one with students

 using visual aids

Scaffolding can also be used outside the classroom. Many coaches may use scaffolding in sports to teach
athletes new motor skills.

Scaffolding provides a student with a supportive learning environment where they can ask questions
and receive feedback. The following are some benefits of scaffolding a student:

 motivates the learner

 minimizes frustration for the learner

 allows the learner to learn quickly

 provides a personalized teaching experience

 allows for efficient learning

The following are examples of questions you could ask a learner while scaffolding them to help them
with their learning:
  What else could you do here?

 When you do this, what happens?

 What do you notice?

 What could we do next?

 Why do you think that happened?

Who can be a ‘more knowledgeable other’?

In Vygotsky’s framework, the “more knowledgeable other” is a term for someone who guides a learner
through a new skill.

This can be anybody with a mastery of the skill being taught. In a classroom setting, it’s often a teacher
or tutor.

However, even a peer with mastery of the subject could potentially scaffold another student.

Zone of proximal development examples and applications in the classroom

When performed properly, the concept of the ZPD and scaffolding can help students solve problems
that would otherwise be beyond their capability. Here are a couple examples of how it could be used in
the classroom.

Example 1

A kindergarten student is learning how to add two numbers together. They can successfully add
numbers together that are less than 10 but have trouble with bigger numbers.

Their teacher shows them an example of how to solve a problem using large numbers before getting
them to try a similar problem themselves. When the student gets stuck, the teacher provides hints.

Example 2

A child in preschool is trying to learn how to draw a rectangle. Their teacher breaks down the process for
them by first drawing two horizontal lines and then drawing two vertical lines. They ask the student to
do the same.

Challenges to scaffolding in education

Even though scaffolding has many benefits for learners, there may also be some challenges in a
classroom setting.

To properly scaffold, the teacher needs to have an understanding of a student’s ZPD to make sure the
student works at an appropriate level.

Scaffolding works best when a student is working within their skill level. If they’re working above their
ZPD, they won’t benefit from scaffolding.

The following are also potential problems in the classroom when it comes to scaffolding:

 It can be very time consuming.

  There may not be enough instructors for each student.

 Instructors need to be properly trained to get the full benefit.

 It’s easy to misjudge a student’s ZPD.

 Teachers need to take an individual student’s need into account.

Takeaway

The ZPD and scaffolding are two concepts that can efficiently help someone learn a skill.

Scaffolding involves an experienced instructor guiding a learner through a task that’s in their ZPD. An
individual’s ZPD includes any task that can only be completed with help.

When scaffolding a learner, the goal isn’t to feed the learner answers but to aid their learning with
certain techniques, like prompting, modeling, or giving clues.

As a learner starts to master a skill, the amount of support given should be reduced.

Last medically reviewed on March 24, 2020

 3 sourcescollapsed

FEEDBACK:

When to Consult a Psychologist

Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — Written by Brian Krans on March 30, 2020

 Loss

 Stress and anxiety

 Depression

 Phobias

 Family and relationships

  Habits and addictions

 Performance enhancement

 Mental clarity

 Mental disorders

 Finding help

Is it time to get some help?

Life is rarely without its challenges. There are some, however, that can be so overbearing that it seems
impossible to move on.

Whether it’s the death of a loved one or overwhelming feelings of anxiety, it’s important you know that
help is available for every problem life throws your way.

Learn about common reasons people see psychologists.

Loss

Death is an unavoidable part of life, but that doesn’t make it any easier to deal with. Everyone handles
the loss of a loved one — whether a parent or a pet — differently.

Grieving openly or privately are both common, but avoiding the realities of loss can lead to longer,
lingering problems.

A psychologist can help you find appropriate ways to cope with the death of someone close to you.

Stress and anxiety

Certain facets of life are stressful, and many situations — from a job interview to relationship problems
— can cause you to feel anxious.

Stress and anxiety, if left to fester, can lead to social isolation, depression, and a slew of other problems.

A psychologist can help you manage stress and anxiety by finding the source or cause of your problems,
as well as appropriate ways to overcome them.

Depression

Overwhelming feelings of helplessness or hopelessness are common signs of depression.

While some people believe that you can just “snap out” of depression, it rarely occurs.

Depression is a common mental health disorder where people lose interest in things, experience fatigue,
and often have trouble managing their emotions.

Psychologists can help you find the source of depression — often the first step to feeling better, along
with helping with negative thought processes.

Phobias
Being afraid of heights and spiders are common phobias, but some unusual and unfounded fears can
create substantial problems in your life. For example, sitophobia (fear of eating) may lead to serious
health problems.

An experienced psychologist can help you begin to overcome your fears so that you can live without
polyphobia (fear of many things) or phobophobia (fear of fear).

ADVERTISEMENT

Online therapy can help with depression

Improve your quality of life with the support of BetterHelp's licensed therapists. Get therapy when you
need it over phone, video, or chat.

TAKE YOUR QUIZ

Family and relationship issues

Relationships, whether family, personal, or work-related, have their ups and downs. While relationships
can be some of the best things in life, they can also be a source of stress and problems.

Working with a psychologist, either individually or in a group setting, can help iron out wrinkles that can
form in even the strongest relationships.

Unhealthy habits and addictions

Some unhealthy habits — such as smoking, drinking, and drug use — are often used to escape larger
underlying problems or to self-medicate.

While your psychologist will help you get to those problems, they can also help you tackle the problems
immediately facing your health, such as:

 addictions

 eating disorders

 stress management

 sleeping problems

Performance enhancement

Some of the most successful people achieve their goals by first visualizing them.

Athletes often mentally prepare for a competition with as much intensity as they physically train their
body. Others use this technique to proactively prepare for challenging life events.

Just as you would rehearse a speech before giving it, your psychologist can help you prepare for big
events so you can perform at your best, whether it’s the Olympics or a job interview.

Mental clarity

A psychologist can help you improve your mental clarity by acting as an unbiased set of ears. Often,
people find their own solutions just by hearing themselves talk out loud in therapy.
Simply getting their problems out in the open helps many people improve their mental clarity, be more
able to concentrate, and become more task-oriented. Psychologists are trained to be great listeners.