Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP - Vladislavlev

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VIBRATION- OF
HYDRO UNITS
IN
HYDROELECTRIC
POWER PLANTS
L.A.Vladislavlev
Second Edition
Revised and Supplemented
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298760-T
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, REPRODUCm BY - !
I NAnONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
u. s. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
I SPRIIiGfI ELD. VA. ZZl61
Published for the United States Department of the Interior,

and the National Science Foundation, Washington. D.C.• by .
~'-.
Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
.-'~,
This book generalizes the findings of
vibration research. It offers methods to
determine the causes of, excessive vibra-
tions and ways to prevent them. It in-
cludes a description of the equipment
used in vibration research, methods of
investigation and measurement techni·
ques and an analysis of the data
obtained during balancing and centering
of rotors of hvdraulic units. The author
. describes some suggested vibration
norms.
This book is meant for specialists work-
ing in the field of power plant operation.
manufacture of hydraulic turbines and
the design of power equipment for
hydroelectric power plants.
I,.
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,i' .
, .
PB 298760-T
IT 74-52045
Vibration of Hydro Units in

Hydroelectric Power Plants
[Vibratsiva Gidroagregatov Gidroelektricheskikh Stantsii]
L.A. Vladislavlev
Second Edition
(Revised and Supplemented)
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Energiya Publishers
Moscow. 1972
Translated from Russian

REPROOUCED BY
: NA TJONAl TECHNICAL
. INFORMATION SERVICE
. u.s. DEPARTMENT Of COMMERCE
SPRINGfiElD. VA. 22161
Published for the United States Department of the Interior,

and the National Science Foundation. Washington, D.C., by
Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.• New Delhi
1979
NTIS Is authorized 10 reprodUce and s;lllbls
reJlllr\. PermissIOn lor "'rtbur reproducllDD
must be obtained from the c!!"lghf OWJIer.
~ 1979 Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
.Translated and published/or the United States.

Department 0/ the Interlor, pursuant to an agreement with
the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., by
Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Delhi 110001
Translator: Prof. A. Jaganmohan

General Editor: Dr. V.S. Kothekar
Available from the U.S. Department of Commerce

National Technical Information Service
Springfield, Virginia 22161
Printed at Oxonian Press Pvt. LId., Foridabad, India

This book is dedicated to the
memory of my dear teacher,.
Professor Ivan Ivanovich Kukolevskii
Preceding page blank . I I I
I I I .
Vibration of Hydro Units in
Hydroelectric Power Plants
Preceding page blank 'Ii

This book generalizes the findings of vibration research. It offers methods
to determine the causes of excessive vibrations and ways to prevent them. It
includes a description of the equipment used in vibration research, methods
of investigation and measurement techniques, and an analysis of the data ob-
tained during balancing and c.entering of rotors of hydraulic units. The
author describes some suggested vibration norms.
This book is meant for specialists working in the field of power plant
operation, manufacture of hydraulic turbines and the design of power equip-
ment for hydroelectric power plants.
Preceding page blank

Foreword
The reliable operation of hydro units· in hydroelectric plants is governed

by many factors. One of these factors is the nature and magnitude of the
vibrations of the unit as a whole and of its individual components. The oper-
ating condition of the unit after commissioning is betrayed by its vibrations.
From the nature and magnitude of the vibrations it may be possible to trace
some of the defects in the unit and expose conditions that can lead to a
breakdown.
Often the vibration of the unit may be caused by the vibration of other
equipment located in the machine room of the power plant, the control panel
and its protective devices, etc. or the individual elements of the building
itself. There have been cases where the protective devices at power stations
were triggered by false alarms set off by the excessiye vibration of hydro
units.
Unlike most other machinery, completely assembled hydro units can only
be tested on site, so that all the dynamic properties of the unit are known only
after it is put into operation.
A knowledge of the effects of the dynamic forces acting on the individual
components of the units and structures (foundations, etc.) is helpful in de-
veloping and correcting engineering calculations with respect to the strength
and vibrational stability of hydro units.
The present work, which is based on the investigation of more than 200
hydro units of various types, is devoted to vibrations and methods of elimi-
nating them.
This second edition of the book is considerably enlarged. The book des-
cribes the characteristics of steady and unsteady random processes and
considers acoustic vibrations. The case of rise of water through the turbine
shaft is considered and analyzed. The effect of vibrations on the amount of
air contained in the thrust bearing lubricant is brought out. Description of
·The author has used this term in a broad sense to include hydraulic turbines, gener-
ators and other power units in a hydroelectric power plant.-General Editor.
--- -- ---
Preceding- pageblank
)
x Foreword
new instruments for investigation of vibrations is included. Pressure trans-

ducer errors have been evaluated. Various methods of utilizing electronic
computers for processing random process recordings are suggested. The study
of the causes of vibrations is rendered more systematic. The method of truing
the shaft has been worked out afresh. The method of centering the shaft of
horizontal units is further elucidated. Data regarding operating conditions
which increase the reliability of the rubber gUide bearings of turbines are
provided. A new method is proposed for coordination of the interdependence
of turbine blade angle, discharge and load for adjustable-blade turbines.
Techniques for increasing the reliability of thrust bearings are given. The prob-
lem of the effect of defective speed regulators on vibrations is dealt with. A
way to forecast the interval between repair and maintenance shutdowns from
the vibration conditions of the unit is described. Norms for noise levels in
working areas are provided.
The book is supplemented with -new data on full-scale investigation of
vibrations at several large hydro units and provides generalized graphs of
vibration levels.
This book should help the operating personnel of hydroelectric stations to
evaluate properly the vibrations of hydro units, initiate measures to eliminate
excessive vibrations and improve the reliability of operation of equipment. It
should also be of interest to specialists working in the field of turbine con-
struction and design ~f hydroelectric stations. .
The practical data given in this book are -mostly drawn from the author's
own experience. He has been working on the investigation and improvement
of hydroelectric plant equipment for over 30 years in the State Trust
ORGRES of the USSR Ministry of Energy. The linlited size of the book
does not permit a detailed treatment of all the problems related to the vibra-
tional reliability of hydro units..
The author will be very grateful to' any reader who sends his critical com-
ments and suggestions on the book to Energiya Publishers, io Shlyuzovaya
Naberezhnaya, Moscow 113114.
AUTHOR
Contents
FOREWORD •.••..•....•......•.......•••....•••••.••.•....••. ; . ix
CHAPTER 1. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF DAMAGE TO UNITS •.
1.1 Some principles of the theory of vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Examples of damage to units :. .. .. 28
CHAPTER 2. STEADY STATE OPERATING CoNDITIONS.................. 38

A. Mechanical Perturbation Forces ; " .. .. 38
2.1 Centrifugal forces due to imbalance of the rotating masses. . 38
2.2 Elastic forces appearing on shaft due to loss of centering of
unit or distortion of shaft center line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Friction forces '. . . . . . 51
B. Hydraulic Perturbation Forces '.. . . . . . . . . 55
2.4 Nonuniform flow fields and vortex formation in the flow
passages of a turbine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Flutter of runner blades " .. " .. " 81
2.6 Location of runner of vertical radial-axial turbine ',' . . . . . 85
2.7- Rotor lift of hydroturbines " ~... . 88
2.8 Film lubrication in journat and thrust bearings , '. 91
2.9 Variable component of moments in Pelton wheel turbines.. 95
2.10 Hydraulic imbalance of radial-axial turbine runner. ..... 95
2.11 Cavitation phenomenon in hydraulic turbines..... . .. . . 100
C. Electrical Perturbation Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
D. Maladjustment of Unit Due to Excessive Vibrations, " . . .. 107
2.12 Slackening of assembled components and bolted joints. . . . . . 107.
2.13 Increases in clearance in guide bearings of turbines and
generators '. . . . 107
2.14 Resonance between frequency of perturbation forces and
natural frequency of vibrations of assembled components. . . . 108
xii Contents·
CHAPTER 3. UNSTEADY OPERATING CONDITIONS :........ 122

3.1 Mechanical and hydraulic perturbation forces " . .. 126
3.2 Electrical perturbation forces during transient processes in
generator , :. . ....... ... ......... 132
CHAPTER 4. EQUIPMENT USED AND REsULTS OBTAINED IN CHECKING
UNITS............................ 138
4.1 Equipment for vibration checks. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . 138
4.2 Apparatus for checking deform,ation and pressure " .. .. 152
4.3 Vibrogram processing. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4 Analysis of strain gauge output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.5 Analysis of random processes ... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . 176
CHAPTER 5. CHECKING FOR VIBRATIONS: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES 188
5.1 Vibration checks according to standard test program No.1.. 189

5.2 Checking for vibrations according to standard program
No.2 ... '............................................. 200
CHAPTER 6. METHODS OF TRACING AND ELIMINATING VIBRATIONS..... 205
6.1 Elimination of breakdown caused by mechanical perturbation
forces '.... 205
a) Balancing hydroturbine runners. :'. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 205
b) Balancing generator rotor on its bearings .. " . .. .. . . ... 209
c) Truing the shafts of vertical hydro units .-.... .. 219
d) Centering horizontal units. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. 230
e) Preventing seizure of rotating parts " .. . . . .. 232
f) Improving the operational performance of rubber guide
bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.2 Preventing maladjustment caused by hydraulic perturbation
forces ~ ' '. . . . . . . . . . 234
a) Preventing rotor lift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 234
b) 'Preventing water hammer in the draft tube............ 235
c) Elimination of hydraulic imbalance ~. . . . .. 243
d) Adjustment of governor setting for adjustable-blade
turbines ' " 245
e) Improving the performance of thrust bearings....... .. 249
f) Changing peripheral edges of the runner blades of
adjustable- blade hydroturbines :. 250
g) Preventing vibrations in penstock piping.. . .. 251
6.3' Elimination of maladjustments in the electrical part of the
generator. . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 256
6.4 Elimination of resonance phenomena in hydro units. . . . . . . .. 256
Contents xiii
6.5 Observations for detecting vibrations of hydro unit during

operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 257
6.6 Norms of vibrations in hydro units....... 263
6.7 Determining the average time between major overhauls
according to vibration conditions of the unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.8 Health standards for vibration and noise level in working
areas :. ....... 271
7. RESULTS OF CHECKS ON BLADE VIBRATIONS OF HYDRO
CHAPTER
UNITS..................................................... 276
7.1 Vibration of hydro units.. . . .. .... . . . .. ..... . . .... . . ... .. 278
7.2 Pressure variation in flow passage of turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303
7.3 Vibration of structural elements.. .. .. .. . . . . .. 311
BIBUOGRAPHY .•.................. '.......... .............•••.••. 315
-------------- -------------- - --;--- -----1
Preceding page blank i
Explanatory List of
Russian Abbreviations in References
_ Abbreviation Full Name (Transliteration) Translation
AN SSSR Akademiya Nauk Soyuz So- Academy of Sciences of

vetskikh Sostialisticheskikh the USSR
Respublik
GEOFIAN Geofizicheskii Institut Aka- Geophysical Institute of
demii Nauk SSSR the Academy of Sciences,
USSR
GOST_ Gosudarstvennyi Obshches- All-Union State Standard
tvennyi Standart
LMZ Leningradskii Metallicheskii Leningrad Metal Plant
zavod
LPI Leningradskii Politekhni- M.I. Kalinin Leningrad
cheskii Institut im. M.l. Polytechnic Institute
Kalinina
MEl Moskovskii Energeticheskii Moscow Power Engineer-
Institut ing Institute
ORGRES -Gosudarstvennyi Trest po State Trust for the Organi-
Organizatsii i Ratsionali- zation and Rationaliza-
zatsii Raionnykh E'lektro- tion of Regional Electric
stantsii i Setei Power Plants and Net-
work
PTE Pravila Tekhnicheskoi E'ks- Technical Operation
plutatsii Rules
TNISGET Tbiliskii Nauchno-issledo- Tbilisi Scientific Research
vatel'skii Institut Sooruzhe- Institute of Structures and
nii i Gidroenergetiki Water Power Engineering
xvi Russian Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Name (Transliteration) Translation
TsAGI Tsentral'nyi Aerogidrodina- N.E. Zhukovskii Central

micheskii Institut im. N.E. Institute of Aerohydrody-
Zhukovskogo namics·
TsKTI Tsentral'nyi Nauchno-issle- 1.1. Polzunov Central
dovatel'skii i Proektno-Kon- Scientific Research, Plan-
struktorskii, Kotloturbinnyi ning and Design Institute
Institut im. 1.1. Polzunova of Boiler and Turbine
TsNIISK Tsentral'nyi Nauchno-issle- Central Scientific Re-
dovatel'skii Institut Stroitel'- search Institute of Struc-
nykh Konstruktsii tural Parts
TsNIEL Tsentral'naya Nauchno- Central Scientific Re-
tekhnicheskaya E'lektro- search Electrotechnical
t~khnicheskaya Laboratoriya Laboratory
VEl Vsesoyuznyi E'lektro-tekhni- V.I. Lenin All-Union
cheskii Institut' im. V.I. Electrotechnical Institute
Lenina
VIGM Vsesoyuznyii Nauchno-issle- All-Union Scientific Re-
dovatel'skii Institut Gidro- search Institute of Hy-
mashin~stroeniya , draulic Machinery
VNIIE Vsesoyuznyi Nauchno-issle- All-Union Scientific Re-
dovatel'sldi Institut E'lektro- search Institute of Electric
energetiki Power Engineering
VNIIG Vsesoyuznyi Nauchno-issle- B.E. Vedenev All-Union
dovatel'skii Institut Gidro- Scientific Research Insti-
energetiki im. B.E. Vedeneva tute of Hydraulic Engi-
neering
VNIIGidromash Vsesoyuznyi Nauchno-issle- AU-Union Scientific Re-
dovatel'skii Konstruktorskii search, Design and Tech-
i Tekhnologicheskii Institut nological Institute of
Gidromashinostroeniya Hydraulic Machinery
Chapter 1
Basic Definitions and Examples of

Damage to Units
1.1 Some Principles of the Theory of Vibrations
. The forces arising in hydro units and acting on the individual compo-
nents may be either steady forces or forces varying with time.' The action of
these forces may result in the deformation of individual components of the
hydro unit, in vibration of the component and in vibration of the unit as a
whole. The nature of these forces varies for different operating regimes. The
operating regimes of the unit may be subdivided into steady state and un-
steady state conditions (transient processes). .
A steady state operating regime is one where the hydroturbine operates
at a constant head, constant spee,d of rotation, constant opening of the wicket
gates and constant position of the runner. blades. When these quantities
change with time the operating condition is called an unsteady state regime.
In other words, the steady state operating regime corresponds to some parti-
cular point on the universal characteristics of the turbine.
The forces that appear in the hydro unit during steady operating regimes
may be either periodic or constant in magnitude and direction. However, non-
periodic forces of a random nature having different frequencies and ampli-
tudes often occur even under steady operating regimes. Such perturbation
forces exist, for instance, with an operating condition where the cavitation
phenomenon is observed in the turbine. Vibration of the entire unit as well
as its individual components due to the action of these forces is in the nature
of stationary random processes.
The unsteady state operating regime is characterized by the presence of
aperiodic forces. Both vibrations and deformations brought ,about by these
forces are also aperiodic in nature. The forces appear as impulses of different
1
2 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP
durations. The response of the system to these impulses, Le. vibration and
deformation of the individual elements under these operating regimes, is
unsteady and random in nature. .
Often the vibrations and deformations arising under unsteady state re-
gimes are superposed on the vibrations and deformations that occur under
steady state conditions in the form of isolated short-term impulses or damped
vibrations.
Let us consider some of the basic principles of the theory of vibrations:
~ Number of degrees of freedom of a system. Every mechanical system is
defined by a certain minimum number of coordinates for its· points from
which one can determine the location of all the points in the system. The
number of coordinates is .called the number of degrees of freedom. If the
system undergoes oscillatory or vibratory movements these coordinates
change with time.
The hydro unit is a mechanical system with an infinite number of degrees
of freedom. However, in order to apply the theory of vibrations to many of
the practical problems one may consider a simplified sCheme having a small,
finite number of degrees of freedom.
Every vibrating system is acted on by different forces which may operate
either in isolation or in unison.
Usually the forces are divided into three basic characteristic groups: :
. 1) restoring forces (elastic forces, inertial forces);
2) friction and resistance of medium (dissipative forces); and
3) perturbation forces.
z(t)
~~ .....----o
a b
z{t) y
~-="""'---l""""O
c x
c C:===d===f~.
Fig. 1.]. Vibrating systems with a single degree of freedom:

a-undamped system; b-damped system; c"'-forced vibrations due
to the action of the force P (t); d-vibrations of the point of fixture.
Basic Dejinitionsand Examples 3
Free vibrations in a system. Let us consider a system consisting of a spring

and a mass m (Fig. I.Ia). Let the mass vibrate only in the vertical direction
z. If the system is disturbed from its equilibrium condition and is then left to
itself the resulting motion will be governed by two forces: inertial force and
the spring force kz (neglectiIlg the effect of damping force).
The equation of motion in this case is:
d 2z .
m dI2+kz=O, (I.l)
where z is the displacement from the equilibrium position and k is the propor-
tionality coefficient (spring constant).
The general solution of equation (I.l) is as follows:
z~-C~ Si;;J~ t+ C2 c;~\f ~ I, (1.2)
where Cl and C2 are constants determined (rom initial conditions.

At 1=0, Z=Zo and dz/dl=O and hence we obtain:
Z=Zo cos~ I. (1.3)
The quantity J~ =Wn is known as the angular frequency of natural
. vibrations of the system. The periodic time T=2n J; and the frequency of
VI
.- f =-=-
'b' ratIons I I
T 2n
J7C_.
m'
The motion described by equation (1.3) is known as simple harmonic

motion. In general it may be represented by (Fig. 1.2a):
z = A sin (wi +9'0), . (1.4)
where A is the amplitude of vibrations, I is the time and 9'0 is the shift of
phase angle of the vibrations.
The velocity and acceleration of harmonic motion may be obtained by
differentiating equation (1.4):
Velocity V=:=AWCOS (Wi +9'0);' (1.5)

tf2z' . "
Acceleration J= d1 2 = -Aw 2 sin (wt+9'o). (1.6)
As can be seen from equation (1.5) the maximum velocity of simple har-
monic motion is equal to' the_ product of the angular frequency and the
amplitude, i . e . - ·
Vma..,= Aw. (1.7)
~
~~2 ~,I
I
..
.c
Z 3 I
Region of Region of
unstable stable
vibrations vibrations
d
Fig. 1.2. Types of vibrations:
a-harmonic oscillations; b-beats; c-free vibrations with different damping
coefficients and identical initial conditions, i.e. z (0)=0; IdZd~O) >0 I; d-com-
bination of forced and free damped vibrations of different periods; I-forced
vibrations; 2-free damped vibrations; 3-resultant vibrations.
Basic Definitions and Examples 5
The maximum acceleration of a harmonic motion is equal to the product

of the amplitude of vibrations and the square of the angular frequency, i.e.
jmax = Aw2 = WV max• (1.8)
The formula for determining the frequency of free oscillations may be re-
presented in a more suitable form for an approximate determination of the
natural frequl;lncy of vibrations of the structure.
Let the mass be:
G
m=-,
g
where G is the weight of the structure in tons;

g is the acceleration during free fall, equal to 981 cm/sec 2•
The proportionality coefficient k=!!... J where ZIt is the static deformation

. ZIt
in cm under the given load. Hence
f=-1 Jfnk
2n
-=-1
m 2n
J"i JT
-~S
ZIt Zu
300
-,hertz~-=J
" ZIt
(1.9)
vibrations per minute.

A combination of two harmonic vibrations of identical direction and
identical frequency results in a harmonic vibration of the same frequency.
If the frequencies of two harmonic vibrations slightly differ from each
other the vibration resulting from their superposition has a periodically vary-
ing amplitude (Fig. 1.2b). These vibrations are known as beats. Beats are
characterized by their amplitude and frequency.
The amplitude of beats ranges from the sum to the difference of the
amplitudes of the component vibrations:
The frequency of beats is equal to the difference between the frequencies

of the component vibrations:
where Tl and T2 are the periodic times of the two component vibrations.
In hydro units beats may often be observed during synchronization when
the frequency of the unit being synchronized slightly differs from that of an
adjacent operating unit. In this case beats may appear both on the floor of the
machine room and on the supporting structure of the unit itself. In many
instances beats are accompanied by a droning noise which periodically varies
in intensity. Beats l are characteristic of the vibrations of the penstocks of

hydroelectric power plants.
The displacement; velocity and acceleration of vibrations are vectorial
quantities. Knowing the magnitude of the components in the direction of the
x. y and z coordinates, one may determine the resulting vector as:
-ioo -ioo .. - ..
velocity
........
displacement R= X + Y +z;
V = v.>:+Vy+v z;
..... -+ .... ..
acceleration J = j.>: +jy +jz.
Damped vibrations in a system. In the presence of a force opposiyg the
motion free vibrations in th~ system damp out with time (Fig. l.lb).
Three types of resistances '. m-e usually considered in the theory of
vibrations: -., ' '
1) force due to viscous resistance, proportional to the velocity: R=c ~~ ,
where c is the coefficient of resistance;
2) forces p~oportional'to ihe~th power of the ~~IOCi~Y: R=c (~~r (for
most technical problems n may be assumed to be equal to 2); and
3) forces due to dry friction~ These are constant in magnitude but are in a
direction opposite to that of the velocity vector: R = ±K.
The laws governing the resisting forces are shown in Fig. 1.3 where the
dependence R=f(v)is ShdWD for the above cases.
R' R R
8 , b ~ , ,_,'_'
... , " ,,-
Fig. 1.3. Dependence of the resisting forces on the velocity~ a~.viscouS,resista,.!lce:
b-resistance proportional to the nth power of the velocity; 'c':':d~Y' (coulomb) fribtion~-
In the absence of any perturbation forces ~he -equation of motion is as.

, follows:
d2z dz "k' '0 0.10)
m dt2+cdt+ z= ,
where in, c and k are positive constants;
lHereinafter the term "beats" will also be used to describe the constant amplitude
tr",nsverse vi brations of shafts. '
. B.asic Definitions and Examples 7
This equation is known as the equation of damped free oscillations, where

the damping is proportional to the velocity.·c
Let us introduce some additional terms:
c ' w 2=_.
r= 2m'
- k ,-2 -
m' q='VW/I _-I ,•
2
/I
in which case equation (l.lO)becomes:

d 2z dz 2
dt2+ 2r dt +wllz=O. (1.11)
Equation (I.ll) has a general solution in the form of a linear combination

of two exponential functions when . 1.1 ;C..1.2:
z=AeA lt +B~, (1.12)
where A and B are constants and A.. and ..1.2 are roots of the characteristic
equation ..1.2+2r..1.+w~=O, from which ..1..,2= -r±iq where i=~ .
. The solution of equation (1.12) may be represented as a function of q.
Thus if q is real, then
z=e-,t (CI cos qt+C2 sin qt); (1.13)
when q=O the solution of equation (1.11) will be
z=e-,t (C.l+C2); (1.14)
and if q is an imaginary quantity, then
Z=C.eAlt+C~2t, (LlS)
where A.. and ..1.2 are real numbers and C. and C2 are constants governed by
the initial conditions.
Free oscillations With different degrees ofdamping are shown in Fig. I.2c.
The equality (1.14) is valid whenw~>"". In this case we have damped
oscillations. These oscillations recur after every half-period with decreasing
amplitude and cease only after a certain lapse of time. The frequency of these
oscillations would be
., . 1_ kr c2
(1.16) "
- f=2n\1 ;;- 4m 2 •
The smaller the damping coefficient c, the larger the number of oscillations
before they are damped out and the closer the frequency to that of the natural
vibrations of the system.
Hereinafter in our discussion we may sometimes use the frequency of
damped free vibrations as the natural frequency of vibrations of the system.
When the oscillations are damped the relation between two consecutive
amplitudes ofvibrations is equal to: _
8 Vibralion of Hydro Units in HPP
or
rT=ln~=o.
Al+l
The quantity 0 is known as the logarithmic decrement of damping. It

characterizes the rate of damping of the vibrations. The decrement of damp-
ing is a nondimensional quantity. The reciprocal of the decrement of damping
I/o gives the number of oscillations that occur while the amplitude decreases
bye times. .
Equation (1.14), for the case where q =0, corresponds to the boundary at
which a transition occurs from an oscillatory to a nonoscillatory motion
(aperiodic motion). In this case the damping coefficient is called the critical
damping coefficient: cc,=2 -Ikm.
Forced vibrations. If the system is acted on by some perturbation force
(Fig. l.lc) that varies with time according to some particular law, then the
resulting motion is described by the equation
d 2z dz
m d2+C
I
-dI +kz=P(/).
.
(Ll7)
Let us consider a case where the perturbation force varies according to a

periodic law, for instance according to the law ofa simple harmonic function:
P (I) =Po cos (WI + rp), (1.18)
where Po is the largest value of the force.
In this case equation (1.17) becomes
d 2z dz
m d 2 + C-d +kz =Po cos (wt + rp). (1.19)
I I .
The solution of equation (1.l9) consists of the sum of its complimentary
function and the particular integral. The complimentary function is the gene-
ral solution of(1.19) when its right hand side is set equal to zero (equation of
damped vibrations). The complete solution is then obtained as:· -
z=e-"(ClcosQI+C2smql)+
.
-IPo cos (wl+rp) . (1.20)
m (w~ - ( 2
)2 + 4r
2 w2
Thus the motion described by the differential equation (1.l9) is made up
of two parts: the damped vibrations described by the first term of the R.n.S.
of equation (1.20) and the forced vibrations caused by the action of the per-
turbation force P with a frequency equal to that of this force. After a ·sufficient
lapse of time the damped vibrations cease and the motion now continues only.
under the action of the perturbation force, i.e. it is governed by the second
term on the R.n.S. of the equality (1.20) (Fig. 1.2d).
Basic Definitions and Examples . 9
The amplitude of forced vibrations is equal to:
A- . -Po
- m{(W~_W2)2 +4rw 2
_ Polk
-J( :;r+
(1.21)
1- (2cw/cc, W n)2
The angle of phase shift is equal to:
2":"~
2rw cwcc, Wn
tan rp= Wn-W
-2--2=k -mw - 1- W 2= (2)2' ( 1.22)
w n2 -
where A is the amplitude of the forced vibrations m;

Po is the maximum value of the perturbation force.kg,;
C is the damping coefficient kgr' sec/m;
cc, is the critical damping coefficient = 2 ..fmk;
_k is the coefficient of elasticity kgrlm;
m is the mass kgr' sec 2/m;
W is the angular frequency of variation of the perturbation force,
sec-I;
W n is the angular frequency of free vibrations;
Polk is the static deflection caused by the force Po.
The variations in amplitude and phase angle of forced vibrations as func-
tions of the frequency of the disturbing force and the natural frequency of
vibrations of the structure are graphically represented in Fig. l.4a and l.4b.
The most important features of forced vibrations as seen from these
figures are:
1. When the frequency ratio W/Wn ~ 1 the amplitude of forced vibrations
is close to the static deformation. In this case the phase shift angle rp between
the disturbing force and the displacement is close to zero. These vibrations
are characteristic of generators and most hydro units with rigid shafts, since
the natural frequency of transverse vibrations of the shafts is two to five
times as much as the disturbing force (for instance, unbalance of the rotor
which appears with a frequency equal to that of the rpm).
2. When the ratio of the frequencies W/Wn is close to unity the amplitude
considerably increases and the angle of phase shift rp is close to 90° (the force
leads displacement by 90°). This regime of vibrations is typical for resonance,
i.e. when the natural frequency of vibrations coincides with the frequency of
the disturbing force.
3. When the ratio of the frequencies W/Wn'$> I the amplitude of vibrations
decreases as against those that occur during resonance and the phase angle
10 Vibration of Hydro Clnits in HPP
shift is close to 180 0 • This ratio of frequencies is characteristic of stem turbines

having flexible shafts where w/w" > 1.5 as well as of the torsional vibrations
of the shafts of many vertical hydraulic turbines.
4. When the damping coefficient is raised the amplitude of vibrations
decreases. However, the amplitude of vibrations sharply rises with reduction
in damping in the region of OJ/ca" 0.6 to 1.2.
5. If the damping coefficient is small the second term under the radical in
the denominator of equation (1.21) may be neglected. Then the dynamic
deflection due to the varying disturbing force of frequency fJ) would be
equal to:
z.t
. = - -w
.Zdy" 2 =pz.t (1.23)
1 - -2
w
"
where p-dynamic response coefficient of th~ system: .
I
p.= (W)2'
1- -
. w"
Thus when the perturbation force varies according to a harmonic law the
design calculations for the structure may be carried out for static loading of
the installation under a force equal to pPo. From here we see how important
it is to know the frequency of the disturbing force and the natural frequency
of vibrations of the structure in order to evaluate the dynamic interaction of
the former with the latter.
C/C cr =O.12
180 lfP, .J'
160
140 r
C/C cr =O.2 I
-2.5 1,20
Alzsll I 1 00
2.0
~ 1\ 80
1.5
-l..--r 60
11 I
r'
":;0.5 I b~'
<lie
40
20 I 1/
Lo ClJcr/CIJn ~~CIJ Iw;;- J.....t"""1 Ul/ClJn
0.5 1 1 5 2.0 o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
a -b
Fig. 1.4. Amplitude and phase angle relationship during vibrations:
a-variation of amplitude of vibrations with varying frequencies of the
disturbing force; b-phase shift between the disturbing force and dis-
. placement at different frequencies of the disturbing force.
The disturbing force P (t) in equation (1. I 7) may be any periodic function.
Such a function may be represented ~in the form of a Fourier series: _
2:
00 •
P (t)= ~o + (al cos iwt+b , sin iwt), (1.24)

- 1=1 .,
Basic Definitions and Examples II
where i = I, 2, 3, is the order of the harmonics constituting the vibrations:

ao, a), a2, .. .bl' b2 are the constants of the series; w = 2rr/T where T is the
period of the function.
The coefficients al and bl are determined from the formulas.
T
_ al=: JP (I) cos kal dl;

°T
bl=¥ I P (I) sin iwl dl.
°
The Fourier series may also be represented as follows:
p (/)=Po+ f
1=1
PI sin (iW/~tpl)' (1.25)
where
ao' r-'
Po=-·p_'Va2+b2.ml=tan-1 (ai")
- -. ..
2' 1- 1 1'1" bl
If we have a complex type of vibration for some particular component of

the unit, consisting of the sum of several harmonics, then the variation in
. the amplitude of vibrations can also be represented by a Fourier series:
00
A (/)=Ao+ LAI sin (iwl+tpl), . (1.26)

1=1
. . .
where Ao is the mean value of A (I) for the period T;
.r--Z-2. -t -I ~
AI= 'V al + b 1,11'1-:: an bl
.. , The harmonic AI sin (w/+Q1I) is known as the first or fundamental

harmonic. .
All the subsequent harmonics having a frequency iw are' known as' har-
monics of the ith order, Le. these harmonics will have a frequency equal to
2w, 3w, etc.
However, in most cases vibration ora unit is caused by the simultaneous·
action of several periodic disturbing forces. Not being a multiple of the fre-
quency of variation of the overall total perturbation force, ~ach of the dis-
turbing forces has. its own. frequency. In this case the resultiIlg forced
vibrations of frequency OJ may be considered to be made up of harmonics
with frequencies equal to WI, W2, ... , CO". The frequencies WI, W2,· .. , co" may
not be multiples 'of the overall frequency of vibrations.
Variations in the amplitude of the overall vibrations may be represented
as follows:
A (t)=Ao+AI sin (Wlt+/PI)

+ A2 sin (W2t + /P2) + ... + All sin (rollt + /PII)' (1.27)
The characteristics of such periodic processes when represented in terms
of the coordinates (All, roll) give a line (discrete) spectrum of the frequencies,
i.e. each harmonic frequency WII corresponds to a particular amplitude All
(Fig. 1.5).
a c
Fig. 1.5. Discrete (line) spectrum of periodic vibratioas:
a-periodic vibrations; b--barmonic components of vibrations;
c-discrete spectrum of vibrations.
Knowing the harmonic constituting the vibrations, it is possible to eva-

lUate the nature of the perturbation forces and hence determine the possible
cause of increase in the machine vibrations.
The root mean square values of the amplitude of each harmonic is
equal to:
A
X,ml'= 42 ..
The root mean square value of the amplitude of the resulting vibrations
(consisting of n harmonics) is equal to:
A,ml' =[~~~J/2
II
Forced vibrations with motion of point of fixture (kinematic disturbance).

Vibrations of individual components of a unit may result from vibration of
the point at which it is connected with other elements of the structure. Its
vibrations may differ from the structure to which it is attached. For instance,
we have the case of the vibration of the governor attached to exciter body.
The vibrations of the latter are transmitted to the governor, which in turn
transmits these vibrations to its oil piping system. The oil piping system
vibrations may not be similar in nature to those of the governor.
Let the point of support (Fig. Ud) (in this case the base) undergo dis-
placement according to the law z=z (I). The inertial force acting on the mass
is m ~:{ . The reaction of the spring ~ould be equal to k (y-z). If it is
assumed that the resisting force is equal to the relative velocity of the mass
c (~ - ~) , then one may write the equilibrium equation for these forces in
the absolute system of coordinates y with origin at 0 (this coordinate system
. is fixed in space):
tPy dy , dz
m dt'.+c dl+ky=c dl+ kz . (1.28)
If we have a coordinate system x with origin at 01 which is rigidly connect-

ed to the point of fixture (relative coordinate system), then y=x+z and
equation (1.28) becomes: '
d 2x dx tPz
m dl 2 +c dl +~x= -m dl 2 . (1.29)
When Z=Zo cos «(1)1+91)

d2z
dt 2 = -zo (1)2 cos «(1)1+91)·
Substituting the second derivative with respect to z in equation (1.29) and

writing mzo w=Po, we have:
tPx dx
m. d t 2 +C-t +kx=Pocos (1.30)
d . «(1)1+91)·
We see that equation (1.30) is similar to equation (1.19) and consequently
the solution of (1.19) is also similar. Thus the relative motion of a body for
a kinematic perturbation according to a particular assumed law would pro-
ceed in a manner analogous, to a process in which the action is due to an
inertial force P (I) =mzo (1)2 cos «(1)1+ 91).
Stationary random processes. As already stated, under certain operating
regimes of the hydro unit (for instance, the cavitation regime) vibrations,
pressure pulsations, deformations, etc. are in the nature of random stationary
processes. Fig. 1.6 shows the pressure pulsations occurring in the draft tube
of a hydraulic turbine during cavitation. It can be clearly seen that the process
is entirely random in nature.
The characteristic properties of stationary (steady-state) random pro-
cesses are:
1) aperiodicity of vibrations;
2) inconsistent amplitude of vibrations;
3) if the process is described by a function of time x (I) the mean value of
14 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP .
the function at any interval of time is a constant [the function x (t) may des-
cribe the time variations of amplitude of vibrations, deformation, perturba-
tion force, pressure in the flow passages of the turbine, etc.];
4) all the static properties of the function x (t) do not depend on the
choice of the instant from which time is measured.
St. wetef heed. m rest fun No.9

10
··n~~~e~·
-2 ~. 1 0 sec~, . •I
Fig. 1.6. Pressure pulsations in the draft tube placed after the
runner of a radial-axial turbine under cavitation conditions.
The distribution of random quantities may be subject to various laws. Of

these the normal distribution is of great practical sigTIificance. The probability
distribution in this case is obtained from the formula
1.
W(x)=q.[2n exp
[(X-m.
- 2u2
•)2] ' (1.31)
where x is the random quantity; m~ is the mathematically expected value of

the random quantity; q is the standard deviation (root mean square value of
deviation). . .
The graph W (x) for various values of q and mol: = 0 is shown in Fig. 1. 7.
If mol:#O the graphs are displaced along the abscissa by an amount equal
to mol:'
The following characteristics of the process are utilized to evalua,te the
influence of the stationary random quantities on the components of the unit
or the hydro unit as a whole. .
I. The group average of a random 'quantity
T
1
.X = lim 2
To+oo 1t
J. x (t) dt; (1.32)
-T
.since the amplitude of vibrations from the oscillograph is assumed to be "+"

r
or II - , " the average value of the function within the interval - Tto + is taken
to be zero. The dimension of X is the -same as that of the quantity to' be
determined.
2. The standard deviation ora random quantity q or the variance q 2.is:
T
X2 (t)=q2=;~:2~ J [x (t)]2 dt. . (r.33)

.'. -T '
3. Correlating function of the process

T
R"'(T)=~~2~
'-T
1 x(t+T)x(t)dt.
.
(1.34)
If two random processes x (t) and

W(x)
y (t) are present the mutual correlat-
ing function R..,y (T) is determined as
T
R"'Y(T)=~~002~ J x(t+T)y(t)dt.
-T
(1.35)
The .correlation function shows the
extent to which the random functions
__ -__ x
are interrelated at the times t and
4
(t+T).
Fig 1.7. Curves of normal distribution
Obviously R.., (O)=G;= X2 (I).
of a random quantity.
The dimension of the correlating
function corresponds to the square of the dimension of the quantity being
measured. The ratio between the correlating moment of two random quanti-
ties-x (t) and y (t) and their mean geometrical variance is kno~n- as the cor-
relation coefficient:
r..,y=
K..,y K..,y
..[D.., Dy G..,G y
=-_ . (1.36)
The correlation coefficient is a nondimensional quantity and its modulus

cannot be more than unity.
4. The spectral density of random functions is obtained, by the Fourier
transforniation~ It is the distribution of the strength of random functions in
terms of their frequencies
Jr R.., (T) e-Jan dT

R(n) 00
. 1
S.., (w)=i
-co
'-.s 00
=~
II:
JR..,(T)COSWTdT. (1.37)
r
o. .
_. .
o The spectral density is' a positive
quantity over the entire range of fre-
Fig. 1.8. Correlation function in the
absence of periodic components.
quencies. The value ofa spectral den-
sity having a frequency w quantitati-
vely defines the fraction of the perturbation force of this frequency in an
overall random process.
Applying the inverse Fourier transform to the spectral density, we obtain

the correlating function in the form:
R..,(1')=~ r
00
-00
S(w)eja>f dw=
00
JS(w)cosw1'dw.
0
(1.38)
Next we obtain:
00
0';= JS (w) dw. (1.39)

o
The mutual spectral density of two random processes x (t) and y (/) is
expressed by the relationship
00
SJty (w) =~ J R..,y (1') e-j=d1'. (1.40)

-00
Properties or correlating fnnctioD. The correlation function is illustrated

in Fig. 1.8. For large values of 1', RJt (1')-+0.
The correlation function is an even function ofT, i.e.
R (1')=R (-1') and R..,y (1')=R..,y (-1').
At any given value of l'
R (O)~R (1').
If a random function is superimposed on a periodic function the correla-
tion function will have a periodicity of the same frequency as that of the
curve shown in Fig. 1.9. R (1')-+0 at 1'-+00 shows the absence of strictly
periodic components.
R(n) Properties of spectral density. If for a
small interval of time LJR (1')-+0, then S (w)
is constant over the interval of frequen-
cies ± ~1C. Such a spectrum of Sew) is
known as a white spectrum.
T
The idealized case (white noise) corres-
ponds to S (w) =const for all frequencies
Fig. ].9. Correlation function of from 0 to 00. In this case the correlation
a random process with periodic coefficient R (1') =0, which corresponds to
'components. an absolutely random process. If the cor-
relation function with respect to l' is a con-
tinuously decaying function S (w) will also be a continuously decaying
function of w.
If the spectral density is maximum at the frequency W n the correlation
function will be a damped function with a frequency of Wn.
When a periodic component of frequency Wo is present in a random func-

tion x (t) the spectral density at the point w=wo will have a discontinuity. In
the absence of periodic components in a random process the spectral density
is a continuous function (continuous spectrum), as shown in Fig. 1.10.
~
"cij
c
CD
. - ...
'0
CD C
'0 c
~
CD
::1-
.2
"tl
~
U
CD
-.
~
::I-
a.c
E
.9
.S;
:.::.0
e. ._
E >
«{
e. «{
III
a
Fig. 1.10. Continuous spectrum of a random process:

a-random vibrations of the structure; b-random vibration
components; c-spectral density of the process.
If the stationary random function x (t) has a derivative dx (t)/dt= V (t)

then the spectral density of the derivative So (w) is determined from the
formula
(1.41)
Concepts of mecbanical compliance or systems. Let us consider the solution

of the differential equation (1.17).
Dividing all the terms of this equation by m, we have:
2
d z C dz 2 P (t)
-+ --+wn Z=--·
dt 2 m dt m
Assuming that P (t)=Po elaJt and z (t)=zo ela", we have:
Zo
- Polk
1-
(l:n +j2cwlwn
-H(jw), (1.42)
where H (jw) is known as the transfer function andj=~.

The absolute value of the transfer function H (jw) is
I H(jw) I = " I =Tf, (1.43)

[(w~_w2)2+4r2w 2]
c
where r=2m'
The quantity TI is sometiJP.es known as the transfer coefficient. Its magni- .
tude depends on the particular process parameter in question.
Thus the solution of equation (1.17) may be written in the form
z (t)= H(jw) Po elCD !. (1.44)
Consequently the reaction of the given linear system to the perturbation
force is equal to the product of this force and the mechanical compliance of
the system. H (jw) is known as the frequency function of the perturbation
force.
If the perturbation force is given in terms of a Fourier series then, in
general, we may write:
z (t) = 2:""
ft=--OCli
CnTin elnCD / , (1A5)
where Cn is the coefficient of the Fourier series.

If the transfer coefficient Tin of a system for a periodic vibration of ampli-
tude An is known, then the amplitude of the reaction at a fr~quencyn is
equal to:
Bn= Tin An. . (1.46)
The, total root mean square value of the. reaction of the structure for a
complex periodic vibration is equal to:
_(~B~.)IJ2_(~TlnA~)1/2
X,m.- ~ 2 - ~-2- (1.47)
n n
It may be shown that for a linear

system the spectrum of reaction is
equal to the spectrum of the perturba-
tion process multiplied by the square
of the coefficient of the transfer func-
tion:
Fig. 1.11. Time variation of vibrations
of a structure. S'~(JC. (w)=T}Spmu,b. (w).
AliI!. Allowable amplitude of vibrations.
Points I, 2, 3, ... , etc. refer to the time Sometimes it may be necessary to
when the amplitude of vibrations exceeds evaluate the performance of a struct-
. the allowable limit. ure (component, unit) at maximum
values of amplitudes which may exceed the permissible limit (Fig. 1.11). In
this case one determines a probability number No that exceeds the value o£:-
the function z (t);;,: Za/l. For a particular chosen interval of time this number
No will be equal to half the number of intersections of z (t) over the level Za[/'
According to Rice this number is determined from the formula:
(1.48)
where {7z is the standard deviation of the function Z (t) and {7; is the standard
deviation of the derivative of the function z(t).
Unsteady random processes have time-varying statistics. Unsteady random
processes associated with hydro units may be such operating regimes as start-
ing, synchronization in the grid, load shedding, acceleration and other oper-"
ating conditions.
Figure 1.12 shows the oscillogram of ;
vibrations of the load-bearing spider of a ~ x
III
generator during starting.
The mean value of the vibrations X (t)
. is a function of time. It should not be as-
sumed to be zero as in the case of station-
"ary random processes. Correspondingly,
the characteristics of the process will be: Fig. 1.12. Oscillogram of vibrations
of the generator spider during
1. Mathematical expectation, starting.
T
1
X (t)=¥~ 2T J x"(t) dt. (1.49)
-T
2. Variance or mean square of the function,

T
X2(t)=¥~2IT J[x(t)-X(t)]2dt. (1.50)

-T
3. CorrelatingJunction,
1
R"(T)=¥~oo2T
r
T
"
J [x (t+T)-X(t+T)] [x(t)-X(t)]dt. (1.51)
-T
4. Spectral density which is determined from equation (1.37).

The method of determining statistical characteristics from the results of
experiments is elaborated in ref. 92.
Acoustic \'ibratioDs. The noise produced by the operation of hydro units

may give rise to vibration of individual elements of the structure, control
panels and automatic control equipment and control units mounted on the
control panels. Noise has an adverse effect on the health of the operating
personnel, leading to fatigue and, often, ailments from continuous exposure
to vibrations. The sources of the noise are the generator (for instance, dron-
ing due to inadequate fastening of the stator), the turbine (audio frequency
pressure pulsations of the flow in the turbine flow passages), the metal cover
of the generator, the turbine casing; etc.
Noise level is estimated by the sonic pressure and the sound intensity.
The bar is taken as the standard unit for sonic pressure. The strength or the
intensity of sound is equal to the energy passing through a unit area per- ,
pendicular to the direction of sound in a unit time:
p2 .
1=- . 10- 7 Watts/cm 2 (1.52)
2pa' ,
where 1 is the intensity of sound, W/cm 2; p is the sonic pressure in bars; p is

the density of the medium in gm/cm 3; a is the sonic velocity in the medium,
em/sec.
The level of sonic pressure is estimated from the following formula:
· 1 -
L= 10 log T=20 log 1!..., db, (1.53)
.10 po
where p is the rms sonic pressure of all the components of the noise spectrum,
equal to:
p= [ TIfJp2 (I) dl JI 2;
1
(1.54)
o .
here T is the period of sonic oscillations of the lowest frequency and p (I) the
instantaneous value of the sonic pressure.
If the pressure variation is sinusoidal p= )2 pmlJ" where pmlJ" is the maxi-
mUIn amplitude of the sonic sinusoidal oscillations.
10= 10- 16 W/cm 2 = 10- 9 ergs/cm 2 ·sec-tbreshold level of the intensity of
sound.
po=2.10- 5 N/m2-threshold value of acoustic pressure.
Sonic os.cillations may be of the following types: a) periodic, b) stationary
random, and c) unsteady random.
Periodic sonic oscillations appear in a generator when its stator casting is
weak. In Pelton wheel turbines periodic oscillations are due to the periodic
action of the water jet on the buckets of the runner. Random (aperiodic)
sonic oscillations are observed during the cavitation regime of operation of

the unit. Unsteady random sonic osciIIations are also observed during tran-
sition from one operating regime to another.
. Sonic oscillations have frequencies varying from 16 to 16,000 Hz. Sonic
oscillations having frequencies exceeding 16,000 Hz faIl in the ultrasonic
region. Ultrasonic oscillations arise in the flow passages of hydroturbines
during cavitation.
. The vibration level may also be evaluated in terms of decibels on the basis
of the measured acceleration:
L = 20 log jeff = 20 log -L db (1.55)

jo .f2jo"
where jeff is the amplitude of the effective value of the acceleration of vib-
rations, m/sec 2; jo = 3. 1()4 m/sec2 , amplitude of acceleration corresponding to
the threshold of audibility.
During vibration tests of hydro units measurements are taken or a record
of vibrations kept in some particular direction. These directions are orient-
ed in conformity with the construction of the unit, the location of the hydro
plant building or the direction of flow of water through the hydroelectric
station.
"yO' 0 6 ~18~
Phase difference
'2:>~ 8 €: C
uS~gg2
2'3Q~~~o
34QS ~ ~ mg)
Fig. 1.13. Lissajou figures:
(I : 1)-(3: 4)-The relation between the frequency of the horizontal
component and the frequency of the vertical component.
To get a clear picture of the vibration conditions of the unit it is enough

to ascertain three components of vibrations: two in the horizontal plane .and
one in the vertical plane. At any given moment, knowing the magnitude of
these three components, one can construct the resultant vector of vibrations
as also the figure described by the vibrating point of the structure in space or
in any other coordinate plane during periodic motion.
This sometimes simplifies the analysis of the cause of vibrations and gives
a visual representation of the deformation and displacement of the structure
during operation.
However, it is not always necessary to determine the resultant in order
to compare the respective magnitudes of vibrations with each other. It is
enough if one compares the components of the vibrations in the directions of
the x, y and z axes, or determines the vibrations of the structure in one parti-
cular plane from two known components by constructing the Lissajou figures
in this plane (Fig. 1.13).
Often for hydro units the line joining the head and the tail waters (paral-
lel to the direction of flow) H II or the line joining the right and the left banks
(perpendicular to the direction of flow) H l. is taken as the direction of the
horizontal components. The vertical component is designated through z. In
checking the vibrations of the generator stator and turbine bearings it is
usual to select the radial and the tangential directions (H r and H,) as the
direction of the horizontal component.
In most cases vibrations further load the structure and give rise to ad-
ditional stresses. It has been observed that when the vibrations are appre-
ciable machine components fail without having any permanent deformation.
This shows that the stress to which the components were subjected did not
exceed the yield point and that they would not have failed under an identical
static load. Exhaustive tests of the behaviour of materials under varying
loads run by various researchers have established that failure occurs as a
result of gradual development of hair-line cracks in the material under the
action of fluctuating loads. This phenomenon is known as "fatigue of
materials. "
Failure of material due to fatigue
occurs abruptly. The fracture has two
characteristic zones: the zone of grad-
ual crack development and the zone of
fresh fracture.
The stress on the material varies
c with time from Uma:c to Umin, as shown
E in Fig. 1.14. The period of stress varia-
b
Fig. 1.14. Variation of stress with time: tion is known as a cycle. In a sym-
urn-average stress during the cycle; . metrical cycle the stresses vary from
ua-amplitude of the cycle. " +" to" "values. The maximum
value of the yield point corresponds to the static loading value and the mini-
mum under symmetrical cyclic loading. -
The average stress am (or 1'm) is equal to:
amaJ< +amln
am=-----::2~-
The amplitude of the stress (amplitude of the cycle) is equal to:

amQx-amln
a Q= amQJC - am= am- amln = (1.56)
2
a is always a positive quantity.
Q
Asymetrlcal cycles
,
11(0' T)
2 I 3 I
I
4 I
'1
10"""" 1'=0 I
!'V\. I
I
I
I t
,=-, '\1\: I
I
r.: zenl
'>1 '
Fig. 1.15. Stress cycles:
l-symmetrical; 2-variable-sign; 3-constant-sigo; 4-pulsating.
For a symmetrical cycle am=O and a Q=amaJ< = -amln. In the case of constant
static loading aQ=O.
The cycles of stress variation can be of many types, as shown in Fig. 1.15.
As can be seen from Fig. LIS, with asymmetrical cycles (2 to 4) the stresses
amQJ< and ami" are not equal in magnitude (their absolute values).
..
The.coefficient of asymmetry
.
of the stress cycle r is equal to:
r=amln/amQx. (1.57)
Fora symmetrical cycle r= -1. For a pulsating cycle r=O when the stress
values are all positive and r= ± co 11 max
~ when the stress values are. all neg-
ative.
The fatigue limit of materials for
different asymmetrical cyclic varia-
tions of stress may be represented by 11 m
a diagram as in Fig. 1.16. Here the
average cyclic .stress am is plotted
along the abscissa and the maximum
and minimum cyclic stresses are
plotted along the ordinate. Under
static loading (a = 0) the breaking
Q
Fig. 1.16. Stress variation diagram
stress is represented by the ordinate showing am"", asa function of the
of the point C and is equal to the average cycle stress.
yield point of the material.

From the stress diagram (Fig. 1.16) it can be seen that for a given rela-
tionship (between average and maximum stresses) failure does not occur if
the amplitude of the cycle is less than the intercepts HB and HM. As long
as the points Band M lie within the curves AC and CM fatigue cracks do not
. develop.
The diagram shows that the maximum value of the yield point of a
material corresponds to that of static loading (the point C on the diagram).
The yield point diminishes with a decrease in am and attains a minimum
value when am=O, i.e. for a symmetrical cycle.
The fatigue limit depends on the type of material (steel, cast iron, etc.),
type of deformation (bending, torsion) and the degree of asymmetry of the
cycle. . .
Table 1.1 provides reference data for the ultimate resistance of various
materials [54] under static loading and under symmetrical cyclic stress
variation.
Table 1.1
Ultimate resistance
kgr/fr}m l
Material Heat treatment
Under static load Under symmetrical
Cyclic load variation
----------------------------------------
Steel 10 Normalization 32-42 16
Steel 15 . 35-45 17
Steel 20 .w-:.50 18
Steel 25 43-55 19
Steel
Steel
30
35 .. 48-60
52.-65
20
·21.5
Steel 40 57-70 23
Steel 45 " 60-70 25
Steel 50 " 63-80 27
Steel 30 KhGSA Quenching at 890 0 C 115-117 52-43
tempering at 450 0 C
Gray Cast Iron· Casting, 12-22 6-9
It can be seen from Table 1.1 that when the loading is alternately posi-
tive and negative the ultimate resistance of material is considerably smaller
(one-half to one-third) than the ultimate resistance under static loading.
Under variable load conditions the material may be able to withstand a
certain definite number of cycles of load variation before it f3.ils. The ability
of a material to withstand the repeated action of a variable load is known as
the fatigue strength or the endurance of the material. .
The endurance characteristics of materials are obtained by laboratory
tests of specimens by subjecting them to a known varying load. The endur-
ance curves are plotted from the data obtained in these experiments (Fig.
1.17). These curves show that the number of cyclic load variations that a
material can withstand before failure occurs increases if it is placed under a
smaller stress to a smaller extent. For instance, the fatigue limit curves for
steels are asymptotic. The maximum stress under such conditions is Known
as the endurance limit or the fatigue limit.
Hence if a material is subjected to a stress that falls short of its fatigue
limit it will not fail irrespective ,of the number
of cycles of load variation. Since it is impos-
sible to have an infinite number of repeated
cycles during tests,loading is restricted to some J -------
particular limited number of cycles known as
the base number of cycles. If a material is able
Cvcles
to withstand the base number of cycles it may
be assumed that the stress to which it is being Fig. 1.17. Fatigue diagram
for materials:
subjected does not exceed the fatigue limit. O',.-ultimate resistance; 0'_1
For steels and cast iron the base number fatigue limit under symmetrical
of cycles is assumed to be 107 • For most of the cyclic loading..
non-ferrous metals and alloys the fatigue curve
does n9t have an asymptote: when subjected to a sufficiently large number of
cycles these metals fail even when the stress is quite small. The base number
of cycles for those metals is 108 .
The fatigue limit for steel under a symmetrical cyclic load is 43% of the
elastic limit. Under shear stress the fatigue limit of steel subjected to sym-
metrical cyclic torsion is approximately equal to 58% of the fatigue limit
under bending when the loading is symmetrical. The fatigue limit of normal
stresses for symmetrical cyclic tensile loading is about 0.7 to 0.9 of the fa-
tigue limit under bending when the loading is cyclic.
The number of cycles that have to be executed before failure occurs
depends on the frequency of load variation during testing (number of cycles
per minute). Fig. 1.18a shows the results of tests run on specimens of steel
25, subjected to bending at various frequencies of load variation [76]. The
ratio of the stress (due to the load) and the ultimate stress k=0.6I. It can be
seen from the Figure that the maximum number of cycles that the specimen
can withstand corresponds to that at 200 to 500 cycles per minute (failure
sets in when the total number of cycles is approximately 400.103). When the
frequency of the cycles is 15 and 2,800 per minute the specimen fails at one
and the same number of cycles, i.e. 150.103 • It has been observed that at this
point the specimen gets heated to a temperature corresponding to that of
oxidation (annealing).
In the case of stress concentration (for instance, at holes, slots, etc.) the
maximum number of cycles that would result in failure or rupture is as shown
in Fig. 1.18b.
It can be seen from the Figure that the number of cycles prior to failure
in this case increases with an increase in the frequency of load variation
under testing. Tests show that some materials that fail at low accelerations of
vibrations are able to withstand high accelerations. This fact must be taken
into account when standardizing the vibration norms of hydro turbines.
~x'03
a 400
2
.
g 360
~ 300
>
u 250
26
j
E 2001L,LOO-'""50~0"""--:1~0~00~-:1~5~0":'O--;2:-::0~0":'0~2:::!500
~
,Z Number of cycles per minute
b
Fig. 1.18. Relationship between the endurance and
the frequency. of load variation of steel 25:
a-specimens without stress concentration at k=O'ru'=O.61;
O'u
b-specimens with stress concentration at k=O.67.
N.!. Marin [76] also established that if a vibrating load is superposed on
a variable static load each percentage point of the amplitude of the vibrating
load reduces the static endurance, expressed in terms of the number of cycles
prior to failure, by 10%. For a given structure the superposition of a vibrat-
ing load on a recurring static load, which in magnitude is equal to the sum
of the static and the vibrating loads, is far more dangerous than the action of
a simple recurring static load.
The endurance limit is affected hy the following factors:
I) stress concentration, expressed in terms of the coefficients k a and k.;
2) the dimensions of the components (scale factor), expressed by the
coefficients kJlD and k ll.;
3) the quality of the surface, expressed by the coefficients k sa and k...
The general coefficient which c6mbines the effect of all three factors is
equal to the product of the three respective coefficients, i.e.
KaE=k a k lla k sa ; (1.58)

K TE =k TkilT k ST' (1.59)
Knowing the results of tests run on specimens, it is possible to detennine
the effect of each of these factors on the endurance of the material. For
instance, the endurance of a material under symmetrical cyclic loading is:
U
UE=-; . (1.60)
K aE
'E=- •
, (1.61 )
K rE
Let us consider the relationship between the stress in a structure and its
deformation for two of the simplest cases of the action of a force P: a) a
cantilever beam loaded at the free end; b) a simply supported peam with the
load at the center of the beam.
Let us determine the maximum deflection t5 (deformation), the maximum
stress in the beam UmtU and the relationship between these two parameters
(Table 1.2).
Table 1.2
Beam
Parameter
Cantilever Simply supported
Pia Pia
15
3£1 48£1
Plb Plb
u....... 2I 81
am.... 3Eb 6Eb
-15- 2l a II
P-Ioad; I-length of beam; b-depth of beam; I-moment of inertia of area of
cross section; £-modulus of elasticity of material.
From the above Table it can be seen that (last line)

UmtU = at5, (1.62)
where a is a coefficient, constant for the given beam and loading. The stress
is directly proportional to the deflection (deformation). Hence, in the first
approximation, we may assume that the relationship between the amplitude
of vibrations of the structure and time may also be expressed to some other
scale as a dependence between the amplitude of vibrations and both time and
stress, i.e. a change in the vibrations of the structure would lead to a change
in stress.
The supporting parts of the hydro units (spiders, bearings) experience a
28 Vibration 01 Hydro Units in HPP
varying stress. The upper spider, from which the generator is suspended,
deflects under the weight of the rotating generator and the components sup-
ported by it as well as the pressure of the water on the runner of the turbine.
The vibration of the spider in the vertical plane brings about a fluctuation in
its deflection (equal to the amplitude of vibrations) about its equilibrium
position (static deflection). Corresponding to this, the stress in the generator
spider varies in an asymmetrical cycle over the vertical plane. The guide
bearings of the vertical generator are subjected to a symmetrical cycle of stress
variations due to the load transmitted by the vibrating shaft.
Hence the problem of the vibration of hydro units must be treated with
all seriousness and the behavior of each individual element as well as the
entire unit must be assessed from the viewpoint that they could be subjected
to excessive stresses. One must also be guided by these considerations in lay-
ing down the norms for vibrations.
The reliable and lasting operation of a structure may be evaluated in terms
of the following criteria:
Strength considerations. The structure (components, assembly) will op-
erate without breakdown for a given period of operation if the stresses in it
are less than or equal to the allowable stresses for the given conditions of
operations:
(1.63)
Endurance considerations. The structure (components, assembly) will op-
erate without fatigue failure for the given period of time if the cyclic working
stresses in it due to the varying load are less or equal to the endurance limit
corresponding to the given cycle of stresses:
a/~ar. (1.64)
Rigidity considerations. The structure will operate without breakdown for
the period in question if its deformation does not exceed the allowable limit:
1M! ~/a/l. ; rpM! ~ rpall. (1.65)
where I and rp are the deflection and the angle of twist respectively.
Stability considerations. The structure will operate reliably for a given
period oftime if the stress at the vulnerable sections is less than critical:
a<ao,. (1.66)
Along with these criteria which are related to vibrations, the construction
of the unit must also satisfy other conditions such as wear-resistance, heat
resistance, corrosion resistance etc.
/
1.2 Examples of Damage to Units
Excessive vibrations have been the cause ofmariy breakdowns and damage
to components of hydro units. In many cases the rupture had all the charac-
teristics of fatigue failure, which shows that the components were subjected to
variable stresses. Some typical cases where the components of units were
damaged due to excessive vibrations and varying perturbation forces are
desCribed below:
1. In January, 1952, it was noticed that there was an excessive droning
- noise from the shaft of the No.2 unit of the Farkhadsk HEP, which had ad-
justable-blade hydro turbines, made by the firm Escher Wyss, having a dia-
meter equal to 4,000 mm, power output equal to 24,000 kWat a head, H nom •
equal to 30.5 m and a speed of 187.5 rpm.
Inspection of the turbines bearing showed that the bearing casing had be-
come loose and the unit had to be stopped. Two dowel pins (alignment pins)
were found to have been sheared. These were replaced by new ones and the
bolts which had become loose were tightened. Thereafter the set was restart-
ed and synchronized with the grid. However, while the unit was operating it
was observed that there was an unusual, loud noise coming from the runner
casing which diminished when the load was decreased and ceased completely
when the set was brought to no load conditions. The noise was found to be a
pulsating one with a frequency equal to the n'm of the unit. -
The unit was once again stopped. Inspection of the unit showed that the
-No.1 blade of the runner was damaged. About 40% of the inlet portion was
found to be broken (Fig. 1.19a).
The structure of the metal at the breaks was found to be fine grained.
Traces of metal rupture were found over only a small part of the breakage on
the rear of the blades at a distance of 1.1 m from the collar, their depth being
15 to 75 mm. At the section near the collar of blades Nos. 2 to 6 hairline
cracks were found on the lower surface running in the same direction as in the
case of blade No. 1. The length of the cracks for each of these blades was as
follows:
Blade No 2 3 4 5 6
Length of the crack mm 10 5 10 30 10
Discontinuous rub marks over a 20 to 25 mm wide band were noticed on
the walls of the turbine stator. Both the blades and the stator walls showed a
certain amount of cavitation damage.
The commission appointed for investigation came to the conclusion that
the cause of the damage was metal fatigue of the runner blades brought about
by adverse hydraulic operating conditions. -
Further investigation showed that one of the causes of the damage was
operation of the turbine with a defective turbine governing system, which led
to the action of sharply varying perturbation forces on the b~ades of the
runner.
2. Similar damage to the runner blades of the No.1 adjustable-blade tur-
bine occurred at another power plant.
The power output of the turbine was 55,000 kW, the runner diameter was
9,000 mm and its speed of rotation 62.5 rpm. It was manufactured by the
LMZ (the Leningrad Metal Works). The damage to the blades of the turbine
was heralded by a 36,000 kW load drop on the generator.
," " \
\
\
I
I
I
,,
I
Fig. 1.19. Damage to runner blades:

a-damage to blade No. 1 of runner of unit No.2, (hatched J)9rtion shows part of
the blade that broke off); b--damaged blade of unit No.4, having runner 9.0 m in
diameter (pieces broken off are represented by fulIlines and portion that could not
be traced is represented by hatched area); c-damaged blade of unit No.3, having
runner 9.0 m in diameter (broken line shows part of the blade that '
had broken off).
,Basically the fracture here was similar to the one described in the previous
case (Fig. 1.19b and c), i.e. it showed clear indications of fatigue failure.
3. At another power plant the runner of a radial-axial turbine broke. The
rated power output of the hydro turbine was 3,750 kW at a head of 20 meters
and a speed of rotation of 214 rpm. It was manufactured by the firm Fritz
Neumayer.
Similar damage to the runners of two turbines also occurred at the
Pol'eozersk power plant. The turbines, made by the Swedish firm Nohab, had
a nominal power output equal to 10,000 kW and had generated about 7,000
kWh. The operation of the unit at loads between 2 and 8 MW was barred in
view of the severe vibrations that occurred at these loads. It was noticed that
there was an increase in the shaft vibrations, which reached a value of 1 mm
as against 0.1 mm previously. Inspection of the turbine runner showed that
cracks had developed at the points where the blades were joined to the wheel '
rims. The length of these cracks was 60 mm at the upper rim and 120 mm at
.. the lower rim (Fig. 1.20).
At the upper rim the cracks ran from the trailing edge and at the lower
rim from the leading edge of the blades. The starting point of the cracks was
found to be within 10 to 20 mm of the point where the blades and the rim-
were welded together.
4. Damage to the runners of radial-axial turbines has also occurred abroad

[146].
Four hydro turbines of30,OOO kW at a head of 24 meters and a speed of
rotation of 94.7 rpm having a runner 4.2 m in diameter with 15 blades were
installed at the Parker power plant in 1942-43. During operation it was no-
ticed that the vibration of the units had increased, especially when the guide
apparatus opening was large. The sets were inspected in 1946. It was found
that there were cracks in the runner blades close to the upper rim. These were
welded. However, the cracks reappeared after a year not only at the welds but
in their vicinity.
Analogous phenomena and increased vibrations were noticed at the
Norris, Claytor (USA) and the Canyon Ferry (Canada) hydroelectric sta-
tions [144].
5. Cases of damage to the wheel and buckets (cracks in the wheel, break-
ing off of buckets) have occurred at a number of power plants equipped with
Pelton wheel turbines. These failures may be due to the difficult conditions
the buckets of the Pelton wheels had to operate under with varying loads as
well as to the shortcomings in the manufacturing technology.
The buckets broke off one of the vertical Pelton wheel turbines of the firm
KMW at the Khramsk No. I power plant. The damage occurred after the
tapered key between the buckets worked loose due to inadequate tightening
by the maintenance personnel. The buckets broke off while the unit was in
operation. The break occurred at the junction of the bucket and the collar.
From commissioning until the mishap occurred the unit operated for 135,000
hours. After major repairs it operated for a further 30,510 hours.
6. It is well known that in hydro turbines the cavitation phenomenon is
accompanied by the action of varying forces on the turbine components. If
local cavitation promotes the wear of individual metal parts (the stator, blad-
es, etc.) the cavitation regime accompanied by flow discontinuities immedi-
ately after the runner in the draft tube leads to the appearance of severe
water hammer in the turbine. These shocks, transmitted to the components of
the hydro turbine, cause them to vibrate severely, leading to the stripping of
the draft tube lining, breaking of the draft tube cone, rupture of the runner
fairing (in most turbil!es) and breaking away of the runner from the shaft, as
happened at one power plant in 1950 as a result of the shearing of the studs.
Besides the studs, the seal ring at the lower rim and the sector ring of the
draft tube were also damaged. The accident was caused by metal fatigue of
the studs.
The studs fastening the runner to the shaft had broken off on earlier occa-
sions both at this station (the last time was in 1947) and at others.
7. In the case of some radial-axial turbines a sharp increase in vibrations
over a narrow range of wicket gate openings is a characteristic feature. This
range lies within 40 to 60% of the full opening of the wicket gates. The ten-
dency, therefore, is to avoid this range of openings but this seriously hampers
operation of the unit and creates difficulties in employing automatic control
from a centralized control panel.
Another example of excessive vibrations of a hydro unit was observed on
the No. I unit of another power plant. In the load range of 0 to 3,000 kW
this unit operated normally. In the load range of 4,000 to 12,000 kW severe
pressure pulsations in the intake pipe and spiral chamber and vibration of
the individual components of the unit were noticed. At a head of 76 m and a
load of 9,000 to 12,000 kW it was noticed that the pressure fluctuations in
the intake pipe and the spiral chamber reached as much as 50 m of static
water head. These pressure fluctuations were accompanied by a muted water
hammer on the turbine cover which was clearly audible at the hatch of the
draft tube. It was acknowledged that the unit should not be run at these op-
erating regimes.
8. In most cases excessive vibration of the unit leads to loosening of bolts
at the guide bearing and generator spider mounting and rapid wear of the
guide. bearings. The performance of guide
bearings made of wood-plastic Oignofol) is
especially poor when the vibrations are exces-
sive. This greatly restricts the operational
reliability of the unit and at times it may
become impossible to use such wood-plastic
bearings. For instance, at one power plant,
during the cavitation regime accompanied by
Fig. 1.20. Location of cracks on enhanced vibrations, these bearings wore out
blades of runner of radial- so often that they had to be replaced every
axial turbine of 12, OOOkW
made by NOHAB. two months. At another plant increased vibra-
tions and suspended load in the flow reduced
the life of the bearings by 1 to 3.5 months. There have been cases where for
reasons mentioned above hydroelectric stations had to be taken off the grid
after operating for only Ii to 2 days.
Enhanced vibrations of the unit and the beats of the shaft cause an addi-
tional dynamic load on the guide bearings with a consequent increase in their
temperature and mechanical losses.
At one plant balancing of the generator rotor reduced the horizontal vi-
brations of the upper spider of the generator from 0.057 to 0.015 mm, which
led to a reduction in the temperature of the upper guide bearing from 45 to
41°C.
9. Excessive vibrations also adversely affect the working of the labyrinth
and stuffing box type seals of the turbine shaft. Numerous cases ofdamage to
labyrinth seals have involved leakage of water into the guide bearings of the
turbine (babbit lined) and rapid wear.
Conversely, the increased flutter of the shaft, caused by the wear of the
guide bearings, time and again leads to failure and breakage of the labyrinth
seal ring of radial-axial turbine runners.
10. The presence of varying perturbation forces on the generator stator
leads to rupture of the wedge binding the steel laminates to the stator. In 1951
in one hydro generator of 15,600 kW capacity the weld at the corners of the
wedge holding the steel laminates on the stator ruptured.
II. At another plant two units of 46,000 kW each operated at a head of
5 m in place of the designed head of 14 m with the combinator set to operate
for a head of II m. This led to rupture of the wedge holding the poles on the
rotor on both units due to the occurrence of excessive vertical vibrations. At
this same plant the increased play in the extension of the generator shaft led
to the seizure of the valve rod in the bronze bush of the oil header. This led to
failure of 16 bolts of 32 mm diameter used to attach the valve rod to the plun-
ger of the servomotor when the runner blades were rotated. As result of this
mishap nearly one ton of oil was dumped on the generator when oil under
pressure entered the discharge tank and ruptured its sealing.
12. The complete destruction of an adjustable-blade turbine of 52,000
kW capacity in 1956, caused by the sudden unloading of the generator, may
be attributed to the action of perturbation forces during the transition regime.
As a result of this mishap three of the four blades (runner diameter 8 m) on the
runner were torn off. The wicket gates, the turbine stator, the bearings, the
draft tube lining, runner housing, etc. were damaged. The cause of the acci-
dent was found to be the too abrupt closure of the wicket gates (4 seconds in-
stead of the recommended 8 seconds) during load adjustment.
. 13. We should also note those well known cases where the action of un-
steady perturbation forces resulted in the rupture of the penstock piping. One
such case occurred at a power plant having an installed capacity of 28,000
kW. It had four hydro units and the gross head at the station was 113 m.
The rupture of the piping occurred immediately after the entire load was shed
by the station. As a result of this the penstock between two anchors ruptured
along the generatrix below the horizontal axis with the line of failure through
the top of the pipe located on the opposite side. The ruptured section of the
pipe was bent into a vertical position by the force of the escaping water
(Fig. 1.21). The length and breadth of the ruptured portion were 4,300 and
2,500 mm respectively.
The penstock had been in service for more than 42 years when this acci-
dent occurrecl.
At another plant of 66,000 kW having three hydro units with a head of
260 m a similar accident occurred when load was rejected from two of its
units, Nos. 1 and 2, which were fed by the same penstock. According to the
test data provided by the equipment suppliers, when 100% load was shed from
units 1 and 2 the pressure in the spiral casing rose to 38 atm, a rise of
13/25· 100 = 52% as against the a:llowable rise of 20% (the static pressure was
25 atm). However, the units were put into operation under conditions falling
well outside the guarantee provided by the manufacturer in respect of
governing.
14. Cases of damage to components of hydro units and vibrations that are
clearly resonant in nature and
hence inadmissible have also
been encountered. During the
no load operation of an umbrel-
la type generator at 62.5 rpm
with an adjustable-blade tur-
bine 8 m in diameter and a head
of 10 m it was observed that
there was an increase in the
vibrations of the upper spider
which was made up of two I
beams mounted on'the stator.
The amplitude of vibration was
so high that there was a danger
of damage to the generat~r
stator and the spider. An in-
crease in the rigidity of the
spider by installing two addi-
tional lateral clamps on the
spider joists eliminated this in-:
crease in vibrations.
Such are the failures-the
Fig. 1.21. Rupture of penstock during load ,list is far from complete-that
rejection by power plant. are encountered in practice due
to the action of unsteady per-
turbation forces on hydro units. Almost all these breakdowns resulted in the
stoppage of the units, reduced power generation at the station and entailed
expenditure on renewal and repair of the damaged equipment. Hence, as
stated earlier, vibration testing of hydro units is a priority problem. This
testing requires higll-quality vibration measuring equipment satisfying a large
number of conditions specific to hydro units. .
.Vibration testing has been conducted on more than 200 units in the hydro-
electric stations of the USSR. These tests and analysis of the causes of mis-
haps have made it possible to classify the perturbation forces responsible for
the vibration of hydro units (Fig. 1.22). The vibration of units resulting from
the action of various types of perturbation forces is, in most cases, periodic in
nature under steady state regimes and aperiodic during transition (unsteady)
regimes of operation.
We will subdivide the perturbation forces for each of the regimes (steady
,
I Hvdro unit
Yibra1ion.
I
-
I S.udy .,ala'
opet'ltion
I T,an.l.nt
_ilion
~ ~
I Machani.a'
perturbation
forcel
/ HYdraullc./
perturbation
torees '
I Electrical
psrturbsllon
forcel
~~r:r:it~:~ I
'orces
I
I Hyclraulle
perturbation
lorc:es
Erectile.'
perturbation
'olces
I
I I "- ./
0'Slerlin~ I / ./
I
I
Centrifugal loreo Nonuniform MagnOlle Staning Synchronization [' ManUel
due to unballnced
m...
..Ioo"y fore.. . turbine 0' unit
distribution
1\ Automatic I
Vort..
I
formation Solf: .ynchRl-\
Olzallon
I I I
Forces due
EI•• '1c 10'••' F1utt.r 01 SlOPping Lo.cI ...SS
10 unequ.1 of turbine shedding
ol.h.h runner blad" lir glps
Height Ol
whichnlnneN
of 'adlal-eJlIII
turbines are
I FrlC1ion
'orces
located
lIo'o,lIh
torcel
I Forc.. uncler
Bsymmetrical
conditions
Unlo.cling I Loading Short
clrcurtlng
I -
Variable
component
moment In
0'
Pelton wheel.
Conllnuou. ~I
I I
lntelnal Hydraulic / Fore..
hiction imbalance of Ippea,ing Loading ....ynchronou./
during short chang. 01 loecl oper•• lan
forces at melal runner circuil
Cavitation
phenomenon
in lurbj~e
I I Trlnsllion 10
I
Dry frlclion Short elreui' synchronous
OirtUmin compensator
forcell in
bearingl 0' roror "'eeola,.,ion
besrings -winding regimes
/. Frielion lo'eo.
due to interference
of rolallng parll
I Re.onanee Iraquancy
ot perturbalion 'orces snd
natursl viblalions of
components
I Aceelerslion
S I Shan
eX1enllllon
~ IG.n.rolor
Sialo'
§ cove'
Hydro unill
shaft
P8n~loc;k
pIPS
I
~
I Acljull.ble
blaclo ~§
Iuial wheel .
Bending
vibrsliona
I, lIock ing
yibralionl
,I Torsiorial
yibrllionl,
I
Fig. 1.22. Perturbation forces that cause vibrations in a hydro plant.
and unsteady) into mechanical, hydraulic and electrical.

The basic perturbation forces falling under each of -these heads are listed
below.
Steady state operating regime

Mechanical perturbation forces are: 1) centrifugal force doe to the imbal-
ance of the rotating masses of the hydro unit;
2) elastic forces of the shaft which appear when centering is disturbed or
when the shaft is distorted;
3) frictional forces.
Hydraulic perturbation forces. Periodic components of hydraulic moment
appear due to the following causes:
I) presence of a vorte~ plait in the spiral casing, wicket gates, runner and
draft tube; .
2) nonuniform velocity distribution in the various flow passages of the
tur1:~ine;
3) pressure fluctuations in the penstock of the hydro unit;
4) possible appearance of "flutter"-type vibrations in the blades of ad-
justable-blade turbine runners;
5) hydraulic imbalance of the runner;
6) cavitation regimes of operation of the turbine;
7) unfavorable operating conditions of guide bearings.
Electrical perturbation forces are: 1) periodic component of the forces of
interaction between the generator stator and rotor (force of magnetic field);
2) forces due to nonuniform air gap between stator and rotor;
3) forces created by the short circuiting of the generator bus bars;
4) forces created by the partial or total short circuiting of the pole wind-
ings of the generator rotor;
5) forces created by aSy'mmetrical operating conditions of the generator;
6) forces created by asynchronous op~ration of the generator.
Unsteady state operating regime

Mechanical perturbation forces appear during starting and stopping
operations of the unit and also during drop of load from the generator.
Hydraulic perturbation forces appear during starting of the unit, load
shedding, breakdown of the governor control, variation in load, changeover
to self-regulating conditions and acceleration of the turbine.
Electrical perturbation forces appear under the following conditions:
Synchronization (manual, precise automatic and self-synchronizing); auto-
matic reclosing with self-timing; sudden three-phase fault at the terminals of
the stator winding and resynchronization.
The diagram in Fig. 1.22 embraces most of the basic perturbation forces
that appear in hydro units under different operating conditions.
All these forces act in various ways on the supports of the unit, depending
on its construction.
Vertical hydro units may be classified in three categories on the basis of
the location of the thrust bearing:
1) underslung-thrust bearing located at the upper spider;
2) umbrella type-thrust bearing located at the lower spider;
a) with upper guide bearing;
b) without upper guide bearing;
3) umbrella type-the thrust bearing located on the turbine cover.
When the power plant has turbines of the combined type these are some-
times provided with additional intermediate bearings.
Horizontal units are principally of two different types:
1) with the turbine located in the machine hall;
a) with the runner overhung on the shaft,
b) with the runner supported between two bearings.
2) capsule or bulb units.
The varying forces that appear in different types of units are distributed
over the various supporting structures. The nature of the vibrations in the
units depends on the type of supports.
Chapter 2 gives an analysis of the perturbation forces, indicating the rea-
sons for their appearance and the causes of excessive vibration of the unit,
and shows the frequency regions of the fluctuating forces that are peculiar to
hydro units.
·Chapter 2
Steady State Operating Conditions
A. MECHANICAL PERTURBATION FORCES
2.1 Centrifugal Forces due to Imbalance of the Rotating Masses
Fundamental principles. The hydro unit components that may be unbal-

anced are: the rotor of the hydro tu·rbine (the runner), the generator rotor
and the armature of the exciter.
Imbalance may result from defects in construction, manufacture, assembly
or operation of the unit.
The defects falling under the first head-, i.e. constructional defects, are: in-
sufficient rigidity of the hydro unit shafts, which may result in bending and
the appearance of centrifugal forces in the rotor masses; and the generator
poles not being firmly wedged, leading to nonuniform displacement in a radial
direction during operation of the unit as well as to the appearance of unbal-
anced centrifugal forces. Apart f;om this, imbalance may also result from
unequal wear of individual turbine blades due to cavitation, etc.
The manufacturing defects that bring about imbalance are: inaccuracies
in the manufacture of components; heterogeneity of the material of the run-
ner and blades; and other defects.
The defects falling in the last category, i.e. assembly or operation are,
first of all, those due to inaccurate assembly of components, misalignment of
the shaft couplings (most often misalignment of the shaft or slight inclination
of the exciter or the auxiliary generator shaft with respect to the shaft of the
main generator), skewed setting of the labyrinth seal ring on the runner, etc.
The defects that appear during service are mainly due to causes arising from
repair and overhaul of the units (nonuniformity of weld material on the
blades, unsatisfactory centering and balancing of the units after maintenance
and interchange of generator poles, etc.).
38
Steady State Operating Conditions 39
An unbalanced mass m located at a distance e from the axis of rotation

gives rise to a centrifugal force F as shown in Fig. 2.1:
G (nn)2
F=mj=mwe=-e .- =AGen 2,
g 30
where j is the acceleration, m/sec 2; w is the angular velocity, I/sec; G is the
weight of the unbalanced mass, kgr;' n is the speed,
rpm.
The centrifugal force lies in a plane perpendicular
to the axis of the shaft. _ _.....+-&1---, F
In the case of vertical hydro units the centrifugal
forces lie in the horizontal plane and hence their ac-
tion mostly influences the horizontal component of
vibrations of the hydro unit supports.
The components of the centrifugal force in the x
.and y directions are:
Fz =AGen 2 cos wt; Fy = AGen 2 sin wt.
. •When the rotor is Revolving a variable force exists
in both x and y directions.
The frequency of this perturbation force (in this
case a centrifugal force) corresponds to the speed of Fig. 2.1. Imbalance of
the rotor. rotor resulting in vibra-
Since the speed of rotation of vertical hydro tur- tion of supports.
bines lies between 50 and 750 rpm the primary
frequency of the perturbation force due to imbalance of rotating masses lies
between 0.8 and 12.5 Hz.
In the case of horizontal turbines this frequency lies between 1.2 and 25
Hz (the speed of these turbines ranges from 85.7 to 1,500 rpm). Since the 'cen-
trifugal force is proportional to the square of the speed it is easy to detect the -
presence of rotating unbalanced masses in the hydro unit.
The rotor imbalance may be static or dynamic. Static imbalance is often
observed in the generator rotors of high-speed turbines (n. > 200) and in the
. runners of low-speed turbines (n.< ISO). For static balancing it is sufficient
to place balance weights Q2 on the rotor (Fig. 2.2a). The sum of moments of
the forces here with respect to the axis of rotation must be equal to zero:
QI 'I-Q2'2=0 .or QI'I=Q2 r 2'
Thus static balance will be attained when the moment due to the unbal-
anced mass Qt 'I is equal to the moment Q2'2 of the balancing mass.
Dynamic imbalance appears when two unbalanced masses establish a
moment due to centrifugal forces in a plane passing through the axis rota- of
tion although the rotor is balanced under static conditions (Fig. 2.2b) .
...
Q2 r2= QI rl; F2=FI =F; FI=M,

where F is the centrifugal force of the unbalanced masses and I is the arm of
the couple.
Dynamic imbalance is often observed in the generator rotors of low-speed
turbines (ns < 150) and in the runners of high-speed radial-axial turbines
(n. >200). To obtain dynamic balance it is necessary to apply a pair of forces
whose moment is equal and opposite to the moments of the unbalanced mas-
ses, i.e.
Q Irlft = Ar/2.
where A are the balancing weights; I, and h are the arms of the couples being
balanced.
In general, rotor imbalance leads to a pair. of centrifugal forces and a
single centrifugal force.
The hydro turbine runners, both in the plant and in the hydroelectric
station, are balanced on special stands. The following types of stands are very
widely used: two parallel knife-edges on which the runner is placed with its
shaft; a ball bearing placed on a pedestal; a ball bearing slung from the hook
of the overhead crane. .
a Q, b
Fig. 2.2. Types of rotor imbalance: a-static imbalance; b-dynarnic imbalance.
The counterbalancing weights are ascertained during balancing. They are

firmly placed on the rims (collars) of tbe runner at the appropriate points in
specialty prepared recesses or drilled holes. The weights so placed must not
project beyond the finished surface of the runner in order to avoid hydraulic
imbalance during operation of the turbine.
In many cases eccentric turning of the runner rims has been employed to
remove metal from the heavier side of the runner. However, this has an un-
favorable effect on the hydraulics of the flow in the sealings of the runner.
We will say more about this later.
It may be noted that the sensitivity of the attachments used for balancing
is fairly high. R.F. Fiterman [123, 124] determined the sensitivity of a bal-
anced system in terms of the minimum weight that would overcome the fric-
tional force and bring the system out of balance (runner of mass 20,000 kg
and diameter 3,000 mm). The mass of this weight was 0.8 kg, which is ap-
proximately 0.005% of the total mass of the runner.
It is often assumed that the residual centrifugal force after balancing must
not exceed some definite value expressed as a fraction of tbe mass of the rotor
being balanced, i.e.
Fm=kG,.
Different authors give different values for the coefficie'nt k (from 0.01 to
0.5). Their experiments were based mainly on the balancing of high-speed
rotors, in particular the rotors of steam turbines. For hydro turbines, which
have heavy rotors and comparatively low speeds the coefficient k would be
smaller than what has been indicated earlier. On an average this coefficient
may be assumed to be k = 0.001 for hydro turbines.
Examples of balancing. Balancing of runners both on ball bearings and on
knife-edges has shown that most machined integral units have some small im-
balance. As far as assembled runners are concerned this imbalance may reach
fairly high values for large hydro units (several hundred kilograms). This is
mostly true of the runners of adjustable-blade turbines. As an illustration the
results of static balancing of the runner of an adjustable-blade turbine of 8 m
diameter, balanced on ball bearings, are shown in Table 2.] .
The data of Table 2.1 show that large counterbalance weights (727.76 kg r)"
are necessary to balance the built-up rotor of an adjustable-blade turbine.
The sensitivity of the ball bearing attachment is quite high for balancing pur-
poses. For a rotor weigbt of nearly 20 tons a control weight of 2 kg r is enough
to deflect the horizontal plane by 1.5 divisions of the spirit level. If it is as-
sumed that the readings of the spirit level may be taken to have an accuracy
ofO.5 division the load necessary t6 throw the system out of balance would
be: /5 . 0.5=0.66 kgr which ~s a percentage of the mass being balanced is
(0.66/194,000)·]00 = 0.0003%. The radial displacement of the center of gravity
would not be more than:
e=
0.66 x 1.5 x 1000
194,089
°
=. 005 mm~5microns.
'
Balancing with this small radius of location of the center of gravity of the
mass may be considered to be very good.
Static balancing of the runner is carried out at the plant during manufac-
ture or at the power plant during erection. Rebalancing of the runner may be
required only when overhaul and maintenance work is carried out (for in-
stance, after reconditioning of worn-out blades, etc.).
Imbalance may develop in adjustable-blade turbine runners due either to
a break or to a weakening of the connection between one or more blades and
the servomotor piston. This happened to one of the turbines of the Kakhovsk
power plant and to one of the hydro units of the Nizhnetulomsk plant. Fig.
2.3 shows the data sheet for the measurements of the center of gravity of the
turbine blades mounted on a runner 8 m in diameter. When the link between
Table :2.1
Reading of water
cO
level (scale divi- .....
.....cO sions 0.1 mm/m) -g-
•.r - - - - - - - - ..2
.c
co
.~
Name of part to
be balanced "CI
..]8
I:
:5
Runner housing
(preliminary
biLIancing) 50,322 95.2 95.2 1.640 105 0.0 3.5
Runner housing
with liner 51,121 28 1 28.1 1.610 21.2 1.0 2.5 2.0
End plate of runner
with housing 55,713 132.0 132.0 0.950 14.6 1.0 2.0 2.3
Runner cone with
housing 58,983 15.4 15.4 1.050 14.6 1.0 2.0 2.0
Runner housing
with blades
(preliminary
balancing) 193,362 750.75 750.76. 1.450 0.1
Runner housing
with blades
(final balancing) 194,089 727.76 727.76 1.510 2.09 0.5 2.0 2.0
Table 2.2
Blade setting angle accuracy (degrees) for unit No.
Blade
No.
2 3 4 I 2 3 4 I 2 3 4
At the designed blade turning angle (degrees)

-------------------------------------
o 25 21 25 19 -10
1 0.31 0.56 1.303 0.50 25.20 21.26 25.814 18.93 -9.10 -9.66 -9.41 -8.85
2 0,07 0.94 1.028 0.33 25.30 21.78 25.660 18.98 -9.03 -9.23 -9.21 -9.18 .
3 0.18 0.84 1.114 0.12 25.25 21.89 25.546 18.93 -9.48 -9.33 -9.26 -8.93
4 0.44 0.82 1.380 -0.18 25.8021.75 25.580 18.62 -9.08 -9.32 -10.0 -9.47
the servometer piston and one of the blades breaks the blade may start rot-
ating through a different angle. The deviation between the turning angles of
two blades may be 30 to 35°. Then the arm of the couple formed by two
blades opposite each other would be:
x=y sin rp=60 sin 30°=30 mm,
which for a blade mass of 21 tons gives the moment
F.= ~ R (~~y x= 21 x 10; x 2.34 ("t ~~2.5Y 3 x 102~6,300 kgr m.

This kind of unbalanced dynamic moment gives rise to appreciable vibra-
tions in the unit and an increase in shaft pulsations.
In the case described above a considerable part of the perturbation force
would also be due to the component of hydraulic force that would be set up
because of the difference in the rotation of the blades. This leads to inor-
dinately high vibration of the turbine bearings and excessive runout of the
shaft.
So a discrepancy in the blade setting angles, as can be seen from the above
account, would constitute a dynamic couple which would be superposed on
the component of hydraulic force during operation of the turbine, although the
runner might be balanced under static conditions. Hence blade setting must
be done with a fairly high degree of accuracy. The
manufacturers allow an error of ± 0.5° in the setting
angle and the permissible deviation between the set-
ting angles of two different blades is 10. According to
the example given earlier the unbalanced dynamic
moment due to this would be equal to:
cr
sin 1°
6,300 --:--300~2,OOOkgfm.
I,
N
X sm
Runner exls
Blade No.· y,mm R,mm
Fig. 2.3. Location of the
center of gravity of tur- 1 993 60 2,344
bine blades; diameter of 2 987 53 2,358
turbine runner 8 m. 3 965 57 2,336
Values of ·x, y and R 4 971 68 2,342
given in Table.
Table 2.2 shows the measured values of the actual blade setting angles of
four turbines having 8 m diameter runners. It may be seen from Table 2.2
that the error in setting angle allowed by the manufacturer, i.e. ± OS, is not
always strictly observed. Blade No.4 of turbine No.3 is actually set at an
' ..
angle of 1.38° whereas the designed blade setting angle is 0°. The difference
between the angles of two opposite blades does not exceed 0.5°.
A check of the setting angles of the runner of the No.1 unit at the Ivan-
kovsk power plant showed that for a small blade opening the setting angles
were as follows: blade No. 1-30°57', blade No. 2-30°31', blade No. 3-
31°00' and blade No. 4-32°33'.
In the present case the difference between the setting angles of the two
opposite blades, No.2 and No.4, was found to be 2°02' which undoubtedly
had an influence on the vibration of the unit. The vibrations in unit No.1
were four times greater than those in unit No.2. In the latter the difference
between the angles of blades opposite one another did not exceed 0.15°.
As delivered by the manufacturer turbines usually have fairly well balanc-
ed runners and the question of balancing them at the power plant arises only
during overhaul and maintenance of the runners.
The problem with generator rotors is entirely different. The rotors of
large generators (due to their large mass and size) are not balanced on any
special arrangement at the manufacturer's plant. When the rotor is assembl-
ed at the plant the poles are located in such a way that the imbalance is at a
minimum.
Some firms (for instance, Dominion Co. of Hamilton, Ontario) have ar-
rangements to balance spider-type rotors and very large generators (P=
40,000 kW). The allowable variation in the diameter at the periphery of the
spokes of the spider is kept down to ± 2 mm. The hydro generators of the
Farkhadsk power plant (rotor diameter 4.5 m) were manufactured with these
tolerances.
However, due to the large size of the rotors a certain amount of displace-
ment of the center of gravity of the poles in the radial and axial directions is
unavoidable. It is impossible to take care of these during assembly and be-
cause of the difficulties involved in matching the masses of poles opposite one
another the generator rotor has a certain amount of imbalance. It is usual to
eliminate this imbalance on site before the hydro unit is brought into normal
operation.
Thevector diagram for the unbalanced forces of a 52,000 kW generator of
stator diameter 12,920 mm (internal) is shown in Fig. 2.4.
The addition of the masses shows an unbalanced mass of 27 kg, for the
poles located on the side of the 42nd pole. At n = 62.5 rpm the centrifugal
force is about 710 kgr, which in relation to the mass of the rotor gives
k=0.5%.
. When the rotor is balanced on site the method adopted is one of the fol-
lowing:
1) marking the shaft;
2) attaching a test load at three successively different points;
3) using balancing devices or attachments; ·
·Steady State Operating Conditions 45
4) the nomogram method (proposed by the LMZ);

5) the method proposed by ORGRES.
In most hydro generators the elimination of imbalance is achieved by
affixing a weight on one side of the rotor, i.e. by the elimination of static
imbalance.
In the case of low-speed turbines (n. < 150) whose generator rotors have
relatively large dimensions in the axial direction, it is necessary to balance
from both sides: balance weights are fixed both at the upper and at the dia-
metrically opposite lower side of the rotor.
The five methods listed for the balancing of rotors of hydro units require
specific skills. Some of these methods involve complex calculations and hence
the accuracy of balancing is not very high (it is sometimes found that the
vibrations at the supports become greater after balancing). Balancing of
hydro unit rotors could probably be carried out far more successfully by using
the method of phase imbalance (heavy point of rotor), which is a much more
exact method. The method of phase imbalance has been developed in the
USSR to a point where it provides a fairly accurate determination of the posi-
tion of the heavy point of the rotor and permits vibrations due to imbalance
to be brought down to a minimum. This is described in Chapter 6.
The rotors of hydro turbines fall in the category of rigid rotors. Rigid
rotors are those for which the nOhmal operating speed is not more than 70%
of the first critical speed of the system. In practice the rated speed of rotation
of hydro turbine rotors never exceeds 30% of the first critical speed. In cer-
tain cases (runaway spee"ds, considerable wear of the intermediate guide bear-
ing, etc.) the shaft speed may approach the critical speed. -
46 'Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP
Rotors whose normal operating speed lies above the critical speed are
known as flexible rotors. Usually turbo-generators have flexible rotors.
2.2 Elastic Forces Appearing on Shaft due to Loss of

Centering of Unit or Distortion of Shaft Center Line
Let us consider the cases where distortion of the shaft center line and loss
of centering of the unit occur, e.g.
I) existence of an angle between the axes of shafts due to loss of perpen-
dicularity between the shaft axis and the plane of the flange coupling (either
generator or turbine); .
2) plane of the supporting boss of the vertical journal and .the shaft axis
not perpendicular to one another;
3) the two surfaces of the annular pivot ring not parallel to one another;
4) non-alignment of the turbine and the generator axes;
5) inclination of the shaft axis of the unit;
6) guide bearing bushes not coaxial with the shaft;
7) uneven surface of the rotating thrust disc;
8) loose fit of the pivot boss on the shaft;
9) ovality of the neck of the shafts.
Angularity between the axes of shafts due to the shaft axis and the plane
of the flange coupling not being perpendicular with respect to one another is
sometimes the result of inferior quality of the shafts. The tolerance for play
at the flange surfaces of turbine and generator shafts is specified as 0.02 mm
by manufacturers both in the USSR and abroad (see data log of turbine plant
shown in Fig. 2.5a). Some foreign firms (Tampella and KMW) allow for play at
the flange surface not exceeding 0.03 mm during the manufacture of the shafts.
There are instances in practice where lateral play reached a few tenths of
a millimeter. At the Treblyansk power plant, for example, during assembly
of one of the units it was found that the misalignment of the shafts at the
flanged coupling was 0.25 mm. This was eliminated by scraping the flange
surfaces while in position. At the Kakhovsk power plant misalignment of the
shaft axis at the flange coupling gave rise to play of 0.14 mm on the turbine
shaft at the point where the bearings were located (5,800 mm from the flange
coupling).
Production techniques developed in the Soviet Union show that it is quite
possible to manufacture shafts with less than 0.02 mm play at the flange sur-
faces (Fig. 2.5b).
Loss of perpendicularity between the plane of the flanges and the shaft
axis occurs during assembly of the unit. During ~ssembly the centering of the
turbine and the generator shafts are verified separately before they are coupl-
ed together and the center line of the coupled shafts is once again separately
verified. The Soviet practice of aligning vertical hydro generators has shown
that the play in the turbine shaft (total over a complete revolution) after
maintenance or assembly should not exceed 0.3 to 0.35 mm (the play in the
shaft later increases due to the running in of the guide bearings).
~ 4
3
6I I"-------1=-i-~·N"""F"""""""""I~
00
5
o ld
~H---- - - _ .
~
-eo;
~
-
"9-
Sleeve on shaft
a
Roller support Roller support

Fig. 2.5. Verification of hydro unit shafts:
a-1l20 mm diameter turbine shaft with actual values of play
in shaft at surfaces as shown below:
Play, mm
No. of measuring
location
Allowable Actual
1 0.02 0.01
2 0.05 0.03
3 0.04 0.015
4 0.05 0.02
5 0.02 0.015
b-Data log for varifying alignment of coupled turbine and generator shafts:
(Results obtained from verification of shaft play after bolting)
Measuring locations·
No. of rotations
2 3 4 5
I 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

II 0~01 -0.02 -0.01 -0.03 0.00
III -0.03 -0.03 +0.01 -0.04 -0.01
IV -0.02 -0.01 0.01 -0.01 0.01
If the side surfaces of the flanges and the shaft axis are not mutually per-
pendicular to one another this is usually corrected by scraping the flange faces
or by introducing a spacer between the flanges. The use of a spacer may be
recommended only as a temporary measure: it quickly breaks down during
operation, resulting in greater play in the shaft.
We must next turn our attention to the centering of the exciter and the
pilot exciter. If the axis of the exciter does not coincide with the generator
axis but is slightly inclined with respect to it as shown in Fig. 2.6, then the
center of gravity of the exciter rotor (even in the case of a well balanced rotor)
will not lie on the axis of rotation of the unit. This will result in the setting
up of perturbation forces which are transmitted to the thrust bearing. In this
case increased vibrations at the upper spider is characteristic of underslung
generators. The angularity of the shaft axis at the flanged joints leads to
vibration of the unit with a fundamental frequency of n/60 Hz.
In practice the plane in which the spider supports lie is more often out of
true with the axis of the shaft than vice versa. The misalignment at the spider
"leads to the appearance of a sort of conical rotation of the shaft which in-
creases the play along the entire height of the shaft from the spider to the
runner. Inspection during assembly of one unit showed that the play at the
coupling of the generator shaft was equal to 0.18 mm (permissible radial play
at the generator flange at the manufacturing plant is not more than 0.1 mm)
and the play in the shaft at the turbine bearing was 0.61 mm.
In spite of the rigid tolerances observed at the plant during manufacture
of the component parts of the vertic~l journal, many a time, during assembly,
it is found that the spider supports are off the perpendicular relative to the
shaft, which may cause deformation of the spider due
to residual stresses in the metal. The use of.shims to
remove misalignments in such cases must be con-
sidered only a temporary measure. Hard, brittle
gaskets are especially short-lived (for example, gas-
kets of laminated material). The fundamental fre-
quency of vibrations for the case in question was
n/60Hz.
Misalignment between the planes of the collar and
the grooves in the spider journal leads to eccentric
loading of the grooves from the hub collar. This in
turn leads" to distortion of the hub on the shaft if the
hub is independently mounted. For long generator
shafts distortion of the hubby as little as 0.05 mm
Fig. 2.6. Misalignment leads to increased play in the turbine shaft which may"
of axis of exciter:-] ~axis
of rotation; 2-axis of reach 0.5 mm or more. One may mention the case of
exciter rotor; 3-upper an adjustable-blade turbine with a 7 m runner where
flange of generator shaft. this distortion was found to be as much as 0.15 mm.
\
Sometimes it is found that the shaft of the unit develops an inclination

from the vertical (or horizontal) after it has been in operation for some time
due to nonuniform settlement of the building and structures.
The assembly of the units is carried out in such a way that the tolerance
for inclination along the vertical axis does not exceed 0.02 mm per meter.
However, after a certain period of operation the shaft axis may develop some
inclination due to this nonuniform settlement of the power plant building.
For instance, at Kakhovsk plant it was found that the inclination' of the shaft
of the No.2 unit from the vertical was 1.96 mm on the downstream side (for
a shaft length of 9'.3 m) and 0.6 mm toward the left bank after it had been in
operation for 4,411 hours. This gives a shaft inclination of 0.2 mm per meter.
After repairs this inclination was eliminated by adjusting the position of the
thrust pads and the residual inclination was brought down to 0.014 mm/m.
At this same plant unit No. I has shaft inclinations (toward the downstream
side and the left bank) of the same order, where no, abnormalities have been
observed."
At the N:zhnesvirsk power plant the expected settlement of the plant
building was estimated in advance and the hydro units were installed with the
corresponding inclination. Later checks showed that these calculations were
correct and the axes of the hydro units took up a vertical position after five
years of operation. .
Due to the settling of the building the inclination from the vertical of
the axes of the hydro units at the Verkhnesvirsk power plant (toward the
headwaters), as measured on October 16, 1951, was found to be 0.33 mm/m
for one unit and 0.27 mm/m for the other. The axes of the units were brought
back to the vertical by adjusting the height of the segments. The runner was
centered with respect to the casing by adjusting the gap between the blades
and the walls of the casing. Inclination of the foundations from the horizon-
tal made it necessary to install the turbine bearing slightly out of alignment
with respect to the vertical shaft.
The tilt of the foundation was 0.33 mm/m for the first hydro unit and
0.27 mm/m for the second. I
Due to settling of a section of the building at the V.1. Lenin Volga

power plant in 1959 the shaft of unit No.6 developed a relative inclination of
0.44 mm/m. However, this had no appreciable effect on the operation of the
unit.
These examples of inclination of hydro unit shafts from the vertical due
to uneven settlement of the plant building after construction show that shaft
inclinations upto 0.5 mm/m do not give rise to any noticeable change in the
vibrations of the hydro units. It was possible to correct these inclinations of
the axis from the vertical at a later date by adjusting the segments of the
thrust bearings.
Misalignment of the turbine and generator shafts may be occasioned by
SO Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP
errors in drilling the centering holes during their manufacture. In actual prac-
tice one such case occurred in 1951 at the Yaniskosk plant where the misalign-
ment between the shafts reached 0.08 mm. This defect was overlooked by the
KMW plant during manufacture of the turbine shaft. During assembly the
misalignment between the shafts was brought down to 0.03 mm, which was
deemed acceptable.
Misalignment between the shaft and the liners of the guide bearings also
gives rise to inclination of the shaft from the vertical during rotation, leading
to the appearance of periodic forces, thrust on the supports and overloading
of the bearings. In most cases of operation it was observed that misalignment
occurred at the lower generator bearing (in the case of the underslung type of
generators). This resulted in an additional load on the bearing and loosening
of the bolts at the bottom spider of the generator. The fundamental fre-
quency of vibrations of the hydro unit in such cases was found to be n/60 and
hence 2Jz/60 Hz.
In most cases unevenness ofthe thrust disc surface results from temperature
deformation of the disc when the thrust bearing gets heated up. In the case
of a single radial convexity on the surface of the thrust disc the fundamental
frequency of vibrations would correspond to kn/60 Hz where k is the number
of thrust pads or the number of radial grooves in the stationary disc. We
may mention here the increase in the vibrations (vertical component) that
occurred at one of the generators of the Kadyr'insk power plant in 1950 due
to the formation of a radial crack on the rotating disc of the thrust bearing.
In many cases independent mounting of the spider journal on the shaft
resulted in increased vibration of the hydro unit. During checking of one of
the units at the Dubossarsk plant it was noticed that the vibration of the
upper spider of the generator increased as the unit warmed up after starting.
In particular, there was an increase in the play at the shaft extension which
was caused by an increase in the gap between the journal and the shaft due
to heating. In about two hours' time both the amplitude of vibrations and
the play in the shaft extension became constant for the given load. It may
be assumed that independent mounting' of the journal on the shaft allows
unrestricted relative displacement of the rotor shaft and the bushing when
the rotor is subjected to perturbation forces. This relative displacement in-
creases due to an increase in the size of the gap between the bearing bush
and the shaft as the former heats up after the hydro unit is started.
Ovality of the neck of the shaft below the bearing gives rise to periodic
forces on the bearings. During manufacture the neck of the" shafts is machin-
edto obtain a residual play not exceeding 0.02 mm. When a sleeve is provided
below the turbine bearing (in the case of water-lubricated bearings) this play
in the shafts after machining may be allowed to reach 0.04 mm. In actual
practice it is found to be smaller, as can be seen 'from the machining tolerances
for the turbine shaft of the Kakhovsk power plant (Fig. 2.5). During opera-
tion it may become necessary to grind the shaft and the renewable sleeve
below the bearing when on site repair of the unit is carried out using appro-
priate devices for the purpose (for instance, the attachments and gears devised
by the Uzbekenergo plant). In this case the oval form is aggravated reaching
as much as 0.2 mm. However, the vibration of the bearing supports is not
greatly influenced by this factor, though it may accelerate the wear out of the
bearings. When the ovality of the sleeve is considerable it gives rise to
unstable conditions of bearing lubrication which may be con,.ducive to over-
heating of the bearings and the sleeve. Overheating had led to cracks
appearing in the sleeve (Fig. 2.7), damaging the bearings.
t=:[ffif '3j
~A b
Fig. 2.8. Misalignment of shafts of a
horizontal hydro unit:
a-angularity between centerlines of
Fig. 2.7. Crack developed in sleeve shafts, Ql; b-dispJacement between
of a turbine shaft. , centerlines of shafts 11.
The principal alignment defects of horizontal turbines are angularity
between shafts and lateral displacement between the shaft centerlines (Fig.
2.8). These defects give rise to vibration of the hydro unit supports (bearings)
with a frequency equal to the turning speed. In the case of rigid couplings
the misalignment should not exceed 0.02 mm.
In such cases one must see to it during maintenance that the coupling is
mounted tight on the shaft and that the coupling is keyed on the shaft with
no clearance whatever.
In all these cases of incorrect centering and angularity between the turbine
and generator shafts which impede the free rotation of the shaft perturbation .
forces appear due to the elasticity of the shaft and these are transmitted to the
supports of the hydro unit. The fundamental frequency of vibrations may be
n/60 or 2n/60 Hz, Le. for vertical hydroturbines the fundamental frequency of
vibrations would be 0.8 to 25 Hz and for horizontal units 1.2 to 30 Hz.
2.3 Friction Forces
Se1f-exclted vibrations of a rotating shaft due to internal friction within the

shaft material. In the case of variable loads the stresses in a metal do not
follow Hooke's law Oinear relationship between stress and deformation). In

this case the relationship between stress and strain is described by an ellipse
(Fig. 2.9). This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
If we consider the deformation of a vertical shaft rotating on two bearings
with a disc halfway up the stresses in the shaft
with and without internal hysteresis are as
shown in Fig. 2.1Oa and b. Let us assume that
the shaft turns on its own axis 0-0. When there
is no internal hysteresis all the layers to the
L -. right of. the vertical a·a will be under tension
--+'*"';C---:,...----- and those on the left will be under compression.

The stresses. along a-a will be equal to zero.
Thus each point on the shaft experiences a
stress varying with a frequency corresponding to
that of the turning speed of the shaft. The
Fig. 2.9. Hysteresis of me·
chanical stresses in metal of elastic force which tries to restore the shaft to
shaft during application of its original condition will be directed toward
variable loads.. the point B located on the axis passing through
the centers of the bearings.
In the presence of internal friction the stresses in the shaft may be
represented by the following expres-
sion [8IJ:
a=Ee+p.e',
where E is the modulus of elasticity;
e is the unital strain;
e = eo cos nt; eo is the maxi.
mum value of strain;
n is the frequency of variation b
of strain; t is the time;
p. is the coefficient of internal (1
friction;
e' is the first derivative of e;
e' = -eon sin nt.
The stress will then be equal to: b"a
a=Eeocos nt-peo n sin nt
=eo (E cos nt,;,.. p. n sin "t.)
"'\
~
c
Figure. 2.10c shows the variation Fig. 2.10. Effect of hysteresis of mechani-
cal stresses on vibrations of a shaft:
in stresses with time at a point in the a-deflected shaft; b -forces in a turning
shaft. We observe that in the presence shaft under deflection; c-variatioD of
of internal friction the stresses mechanical stresses in a turning shaft.
become equal to zero somewhat earlier. i.e. at the point b. and therefore the
neutral axis becomes slightly inclined and occupies the position bob as shown
in Fig. 2.IOb. In this case the elastic force P will be directed along the normal
to the neutral axis. Its component along the axis OB will try to straighten the
shaft and the component OA will bring about rotation of the deflected shaft
around point' B. This component OA is directed counter to the damping force
and sustains the rotational motion of the shaft axis around point B in the di-
rection of rotation of the shaft. S.P. Strelkov and L.V.Novikov [81] have
shown that:
1) self-excited vibration can appear in a shaft only when the rotational
speeds of the shaft exceed the critical;
2) the greater the internal coefficient of friction of the shaft material the
earlier the appearance of self-excited vibrations;
3) the vibrations occur at the natural frequency of the system.
In many vertical-axis hydroturbines self-excited vibrations caused by in-
ternal friction of the shaft material can appear only at runaway speeds since
the critical frequency is usually 2.5 to 5 times higher than the normal turning
speed of the shaft.
Self-excited vibrations of a shaft due to dry friction and presence of clearanc-
es in guide bearings. Self-excited vibrations may also appear when there is dry
friction in the guide bearings (when lubrication is inadequate and there are
large clearances between the shaft and the bearing liner) and there is interfer-
ence between the rotating and stationary parts.
Figure 2.11 shows the cross-section through the liner of a bearing. During
rotation shaft B is in contact with the bearing liner A. Frictional force K'
acting on the liner and the force-K acting on the shaft appear at the point of
contact. The force K' may be replaced by a parallel force applied at the center
of the shaft along with a couple of moment K'r. where r is the radius of the
shaft. The moment K'r. gives rise to torque on the shaft and-the force appli-
ed at the center deflects the shaft. causing it to execute a rotary motion oppo-
site to the directiop. of rotation and leading to severe vibrations.
Analysis of this type of vibration and the ex-
periments run by S.P. Strelkov and L.V. Novi-
kov [81, 106] have shown that self-excited vibra-
tions can occur at any speed of a shaft and that
the frequency of these vibrations equals. the
natural frequency of the system.
. Self-excited vibrations appeared in a vertical
hydroturbine of 25.000 kW [12] due to interfer-
ence between the rotating and the stationary
parts. When this hydroturbine was run on no
load there was no perceptible increase in the Fig. 2.11. Frictional forces
vibrations. When the speed was raised by 10% on a rotating shaft.
54 VibrCztion of Hydro Units in HPP
above the nominal value severe vibrations appeared at the upper spider with
the amplitude reaching 0.5 to 0.6 mm in the course of a few seconds. The
shaft began to oscillate with increasing amplitude. Oscillation of the shaft
and increased vibrations were also obtained when the speed was reduced by
30%. The hydro unit was· under load for the same wicket gate opening at
which oscillation of the shaft had begun when the unit was run under no load
conditions. In this case the frequency of vibrations had remained constant
(by double the frequency corresponding to the normal speed of rotation,
nnormal, or more) and was independent of the turning speed of the turbine
shaft. Due to these increased vibrations it was not possible to load the tur-
bine and the wicket gates had to be quickly shut.
When the turbine was dismantled it was found that the lower labyrinth of
the runner was worn out, forming a step of 0.2 to 0.3mm. The surface itself
showed the characteristics of cold working. The oscillations of the shaft dis-
appeared and the unit began to operate normally under all operating regimes
only when the clearance at this point of contact was increased through 1 mm
by scraping metal off the stationary rings of the labyrinth seal.
D. Parmakyan has described [l57] a case of excessive vibrations caused
by friction in the bearings. The radial-axial turbine of 9,750 h.p. with vertical
shaft and underslung generator had turbine bearings with water lUbrication.
The sleeve on the turbine shaft was of stainless steel. When the unit was ope-
rated in a wicket gate opening range of 20 to 60%, increased vibrations ap-
peared with a frequency of 12 Hz (nearly treble the rotational frequency).
Various measures like balancing the runner, centering the shaft, etc. did not
help to reduce the vibrations. When the bearings were lubricated with oil the
amplitude of vibrations considerably diminished. When an oscillogram was
used to ascertain the displacement of the shaft it showed that in the range of
heightened vibrations the center of the shaft revolved in a direction opposite
to that of the direction of rotation of the shaft. Obviously we have here a
case of the self-excited vibrations described above..The frictional force ap-
pearing in the bearing was found to be the main cause of the vibrations. When
the lubrication system of the unit was switched over to oil these vibrations
disappeared from the turbine shaft.
Conclusions. Mechanical perturbation forces appear in hydro units as a
result of:
1) rotor imbalance of the unit;
2) defective centering;
3) internal friction within the material of the shaft;
4) dry friction in the bearings or interference between the rotating and
stationary parts.
The frequency of variation of the first harmonics of mechanical perturba-
tion forces are:
0.8 to 15.0 Hz (nj60) for imbalance of the rotating parts;
Steady State Operating Conditions SS
0.8 to 30 Hz (n/60) and (2n/60) for defective centering of the shaft;

S to 60 Hz (2 to S) nno'ma/ for dry friction.
B. HYDRAULIC PERTURBATION FORCES
Perturbations appearing in the fluid flowing through the turbine may be

directly transmitted to the walls bounding'the flow, causing them to vibrate.
Or they may set up variable components of hydraulic moment and aXial force
on the turbine. The action of these variable components on the working parts
of the turbine gives rise to vibrations of the individual parts as well as of the
turbine as a whole.
The variable components of the hydraulic moment are at their maximum
when:
there are perturbations of the flow due to poor profiling of the different
parts of the structure at the entrance to the spiral chamber of the turbine
(piers, stay vanes, etc.); : . ,_
poor operation of the spiral casing c.ausing asymmetrical delivery of the
flow to the runner;
perturbation of the flow due to the presence of the columns supporting the
stator;
nonuniform flow upstream of the runner due to nonuniform velocities in
the space between the vanes of the wicket gate and the vorte~ wake from each
of these vanes;
misalignment of the runner of the radial-axial turbine in the vertical
direction with respect to the guide vanes;
separation of flow from the runner blades;
periodic delivery of the water jet to the buckets of a Pelton wheel turbine;
formation of a central vortex core originating from the hub cone of the
runner in the presence of a curved draft tube;
turbine operating under cavitation conditions;
hydraulic imbalance of the turbine runner;
pressure pulsations occurring in the pipe delivering water to the turbine.
2.4 Nonuniform Flow Fields and Vortex Formation

in the Flow Passages of a Turbine
For convenience we will consider the different perturbations that may

occur in the flow passage of turbine one by one along the direction of flow,
beginning with the spiral casing of the turbine and so on to the draft tube.
Spiral casing. Poor construction of the inlet portion of the spiral casing
(presence of dividing piers close to the stator ring, stay vanes, etc.) is condu-
cive to the formation of vortices under certain operating conditions. The
individual vortices combine together to form intertwining vortex filaments.
On reaching the runner blades they are broken up and create perturbation
forces. The intensity of the repetitive forces, which depends on the size of the
vortex filament, can be quite large. In such a case the first harmonic frequency
of the perturbation force corresponds to f =nz/60, where z is the number of
blades on the runner and n is the speed of the hydro unit shaft. Basically this
type of action of the flow on the runner is met within low-head power plants
having adjustable-blade hydraulic turbines. Here the range of variation of the
frequency of the perturbation forces lies between 4 and 25 Hz. The forma-
tion of vortices gives rise to uneven distribution of the flow passing through
the different Qompartments of the spiral casing of the turbine.
Tests run by the ORGRES have shown the following distribution offlow
through each of the flow passages of a single unit for all operating conditions
with clean trash-retaining racks (Table 2.3):
Table 2.3
Quantity of water through each passage as percentage

of total flow
Hydro power plant ---"------------------------
Right Central Left
compartment coml'artment compartment
Kegum 48.7 51.3

V.I. Lenin, Volga 48 52
Verkbnesvirsk: 26 33.5 40.5
Nizbnesvirsk . 27.1 33.3 39.6
Zemo-AvchaJ'sk II 43.5 56.5
Kakhovsk 27.1 34.0 38.9
Rybinsk: 28.5 35.0 36.5
Different flow rates through the compartments give rise to different losses
in the entrance sections, which include the trash-retaining racks. These losses
result in different pressure drops on the two sides of the dividing piers, pro-
moting the formation of vortices from their trailing edges. -
S. Weiss [161] describes a case where flow perturbations were caused by
vortex formation which was the result of poor profiling of the dividing piers
of the spiral casing. As a result the flow perturbations (vortex filament) reach-
ed the runner, giving rise to periodic impulses. Because the frequency of this
flow action (product of the speed and the number of blades on the runner)
was close to the natural frequency of vibrations Of the exciter casing and the
upper spider the resulting vibrations had a large amplitude. The estimated
cost of redesigning the inlet portions of the spiral casing was found to be
too high and it was decided to increase the rigidity of the upper spider of the
generator. The upper spider carrying the generator consisted of two I beams
resting on the generator stator. The spider beams were strengthened by weld-
ing cross ribs in the middle and it was then possible to increase the natural
frequency of vibrations of the generator stator. This completely eliminated

the increased vibrations of the exciter housing.
Perturbation forces acting on the turbine runner due to unsatisfactory
working of the spiral casing have occurred in a number of hydroturbines. The
spiral casing is primarily meant for establishing an axysymmetrical velocity
field at the periphery of the wicket gates with minimum loss of energy of the
water being delivered to the runner. However, the spiral chambers that have
been constructed often have a velocity field somewhat differing from the desir-
ed axysymmetrical field. As a result the velocity vector of the water delivered
to the wicket gates varies both along the periphery and in height. In some
hydro units this nonuniform velocity distribution reaches considerable pro-
portions. In the case of low-head power plants nonuniform velocity distribu-
tion along the periphery at the entrance to the wicket gates also depends on
velocity distribution at the entry to the spiral casing.
K.l Bauman [6] investigated spiral casings of different shapes designed
according to the law Cur=const and C,,";'const. He found that under actual
conditions the radial velocity components along the periphery at the exit of
the spiral do not remain constant and also that the velocity distribution along
the height at the exit of the spiral casing is not liDiform. '.
The results ofK.I. Bauman's research shows that the presence of an effus-
or section after the spiral casing is helpful in evening the flow field after the
guide vanes. Nonuniformity offlow before the runner has little influence on
the power characteristics of the turbine, as has been shown by Bauman's ex-
periments.But it may be the cause of the appearance of variable components
of moments.
Figure 2.12 shows the different tangential and radial velocities Cu and Cr
obtained along the periphery at the exit of various spiral casings in Bauman's
experiments. As can be seen from Fig. 2.12, the radial components of the
velocities, which govern the mass flow through the guide vanes, change sharp-
ly. For instance, the nonuniformity of flow·
mtsec
for number 1 spiral exceeds 20% of the
mean radial velocity. From the curve de- 3.0~~
picting the radial velocity it can be seen 2.51 . ~
that C, twice attains minimum values, once
at the section situated at 240° and once at
360° (0°) measured in the anticlockwise
direction. At these points each of the
t=
:'.:~=~
o 60 120 180 240 300360
runner blades of the turbine experiences Fig. 2.12. Nonuniform velocity dis-
minimum energy twic€; in one revolution. tribution along periphery at exit
On the spiral arc from 60 to 180° the of spiral casing:
C.. -taogential component of velo-
radial component C, for spiral casing city; C~-radial component of
number 1 is highly uniform. velocitY;i1I-aog!e of measuring
Some interesting findings from investi- section.
gation of spiral casings with air flow are given in I.L. Povkii's book [88]. The
test data of the spiral casing, runner and wicket gates of the hydroturbines of
the Lenin power plant at Dneproges show that the mass flow across the sec-
tion after the guide vanes is nonuniform. This nonuniformity, calculated
according to the equations (qmaJ<-. qmln)!qmean, reaches 43%.
Investigation of velocity distribution carried out on a model of one of the
variants with spiral casings of the V.I. Lenin Volga power plant (spiral angle
135°) also showed that the flow field was nonuniform (Fig. 2.13a). From this
figure, it can be seen that the directions of tangential components of the velo-
city change abruptly along the periphery of the spiral. Whereas the tangential
velocity components are in one direction and close to each other at points I to
8 they are equal to 0 at point 13 and from point 14 to 18 they are in the op-
posite direction. All this undoubtedly gives rise to an asymmetrical flow be-
fore the turbine runner. As a result varying force is exerted on each blade of
the runner during one revolution of the turbine shaft. Thorough checking of
vibrations of the turbine unit of V.I. Lenin Volga power plant showed that
the fundamental frequency of vibration of
the turbine cover corresponded to the-
blade frequency of the runner.
I.E. Mikhailov [77] (MISI named after
Kuibyshev) examined spiral casings of
IV various cross-sectional configurations. His
+--=#ft-
findings show nonuniform velocity distti- .
bution along the height at the throat· of
the spiral casing for various cross-sec-
tional profiles.
Fig. 2.13b shows the variation in radial
a velocities along the height at the exit sec-
tion for different types of spiral casings. It
~ can be seen that the widest divergence in
2 3.2 m/sec
•Ii or:---n~--.n=---=T-~ vr the radial component of velocities along
~ 20 the height occurs when the symmetrical
.: spiral casing has its greatest depth below
-i 40 the wicket gates and the narrowest when
~ so it has its greatest depth above the wicket
t gates. For spirals of the former type as
;z: well as symmetrical ones the greatest'velo-
Fig. 2.13. Nonuniform velocity distri· cities are obtained lower down (at the
bution in spiral casing_ of a turbine: lower ring of the wicket gates). This ob-
a-in spiral casing of a model tur- viously expl~ins the rapid wear of the
bine; b-along height before guide lower ring of the wicket gates of hydraulic
vanes; l-spiral casing developed
upstream; 2-spiral casing develop- turbines compared with the upper ring.
ed downstream. For symmetrical spiral casings K.I.
Bauman [6] found that the change in V 2 at the throat section was represented
by a concave curve with the minimum veloci~y occurring at the mid-section
of the flow passage. Thus the spiral casing of the hydroturbine establishes a
nonuniform flow field along the periphery at the wicket gate entrance. This
nonuniformity persists even after the flow leaves the guide vanes although the
guide vanes do moderate it.
During one revolution of the shaft the blades of the runner are subjected
to varying forces from the incoming flow. It may be assumed that this force
on the runner varies with the frequency (first harmonic)j=k ~~1 Hz, wherek
is a coefficient equal to the number of minima and maxima occurring 'in the
curve of the variation of specific flow (mass flow per unit of the arc) along the
periphery of the runner (usually k = I or 2).
For adjustable-blade (Kaplan) hydroturbines this frequency of variation
of the perturbation forces due to nonuniformity in the spiral casing varies
from 4 to 20 Hz.
For radial-axial hydroturbines (Francis turbines) this frequency lies with-
in the limits of 12 to 50 Hz.
Stator ring and wicket gates. The stator ring of the turbine transmits
forces to the foundations. The stator forms a cage consisting of columns over
which the flow from the spiral casing passes. The presence of columns within
the flow and the nonuniformity of the flow itself give rise to conditions con-
ducive to the separation of the boundary layer from the trailing edge of the
columns and the formation of a hydrodynamic wake behind. The separation
of the boundary layer from these bodies also gives rise to the formation of
individual vortices and vortex filaments beyond them. Gurevich [32] showed
that for a plain cascade the flow is heterogeneous. He calculated the nonuni-
formity of flow by the coefficient.
A. _ V2mQ% - V2mlll
- 2 V200 '
where V2mQ% and V2m11l are the corresponding maximum and minimum values
of the projection of the velocities in the wake onto an axis perpendicular to
the axis of the cascade. V200 is the velocity calculated from the formula
"0+ 1
V200=+ J. v2dx,
"0
where t is the pitch of the cascade; V2 is the projection of the velocity onto
an axis perpendicular to that of the cascade at any point in the flow.
This nonuniformity of the flow sharply decreases with increasing distance
from the cascade.
Figure 2.14a shows the rela-

tionship between the nonuniforrni-
. ty of the flow A. and the ratio S/b
(the ratio between the distance
o from the cascade and its chord).
-=::.
.c - When S/b = 0.05 the heterogeneity
of the flow field is greater than 0.5
.1
and at S/b=0.2A.=0.15. When the
I~ distance from the cascade is equal
l ....... ".,.,. r'N
. --
> to the chord the heterogeneity of
~ the flow is negligible, not exceed-
N 0
o ing 5%. As the distances at which
the velocities are measured are
increased the nonuniformity of
the flow continuously decreases.
At S/b"=0.8 the boundary layers
separating from each of the profiles
merge and the heterogeneity of the
flow field does not exceed 7 to
8%. These data are applicable in
the design of stator and wicket
gates of a hydroturbine with cir-
cular cascades. V.E. Ryabinin [98]
conducted theoretical and experi-
mental research on the nonunifor-
mity of the flow after a guide
-
J:l
,
·iii
~
~
po
blade cascade in an axial hydro-
turbine. He also showed that the
uniform flow at the entrance of a
~ II,S o blade cascade (Fig. 2.14b) under-
po
".. d ell
o
goes a deformation in velocity
distribution during passage thro-
q
I CIlia
o
ugh the guide vanes. The flow
remains nonuniform after its exit
I
., from the guide vanes and evens out
o
) N
only gradually after the cascade as
.-.' ..... o it moves away. The values obtained
ro(
from calculations and experiments
o
It)
0
.~
0
M 0
N 0_ o are shown in Fig. 2.l4c. It can be
o 0 000
seen that at a distance S, equal to
the pitch, the flow becomes almost
entirely uniform and the nonuni-
forIDity -1v/v does not exceed 0.5%.
Experiments also confirm that the period of velocity variations along the
periphery at the exit of the wicket gates corresponds to the pitch, i.e. each
blade of the runner is subjected to a varying component of the force with a
frequency equal to the number of vanes in the wicket gates or the number of
stator columns, if the nonuniform flow originating from them reaches the
runner.
Apart from this alI the experiments show a rapid equalization of flow
velocities after exit from the cascade guide vanes. Therefore this nonuniform-
ity of flow would have a greater effect in the case of low-speed radial axial
hydro turbines where the distance between the tips of the guide vanes and the
trailing edges of the runner blades is small and the wake formed by the
boundary layer separating from the guide vanes reaches the runner blades.
Wicket gate arrangements consisting of closely spaced guide vanes with diffi-
ser passages are helpful in making the flow uniform even if only partially.
The nonuniformity of flow after the cascade rapidly decreases with dis-
tance and the velocity field in the space between the guide vanes and the
runner blades in most cases evens out before the flow reaches the runner.
The separation of the boundary layer fro.m the stator columns and especially
from the guide vanes is very dangerous from the point of view of vibration
of the unit when it tends to create vortex filaments after the guide vanes. The
vortex filaments originating from the guide vanes reach the .runner blades
and give rise to sharp pressure changes on them. The fundamental frequency
of pressure changes for each blade would be nzo/60, where Zo is the number
of guide vanes in the wicket gate arrangement. It was shown by V.S. Kvyat-
kovskii [50] that vortices may appear in the flow as it leaves the guide vanes
of the wicket gates.
Analyzing the flow after the guide vanes, he remarks that the nonuniform-
ity of circulation along their height must lead to the formation of vortices
in the outgoing flow (development of a so-called vortex trail).
Formation of vortex filaments after the guide vanes also occurs in adjust-
able-blade turbines. The vortices take off from the lower edges of the guide
vanes (Fig. 2.15). According to Thomson's theorem, if these vortex filaments
are to be highly stable they must have a surface for attachment at both ends.
In this case the second end of the vortex filament passes through into the
draft tube, where it is periodically broken up by the rotating runner blades or
is attached to the surface of the turbine housing. This often leads to the form-
ation of a cavitation damage zone. The number of such zones is equal to the
number of guide vanes. On one turbine of the Kegum power plant cavitation
damage zones were observed on the metallic lining at the level of the runner
blade axis. The size of these zones was on the average 120 x 40 x 5 mm (for
9,000 hours of operation). These zones took the form of an irregular oval
with the major axis horizontal. The depth of these zones varied at different
.
points along the liner. Evidently this is related to the nonuniformity of the
flow established by the spiral casing and may be due to the influence of the
draft tube. The greatest cavitation damage of all the zones is shown in Fig.
2.16a, where the coordinates of the points on the turbine housing are given
with respect to the spiral casing. From this figure it can be seen that the great-
est pressure pulsations occur at the end of the spiral (where the number of
separations is maximum), and the greatest velocities and vortices shed are
in the central portion of the spiral casing (maximum depth of cavitation
damage).
Figure 2.16b shows the condition at the surface of the liner of one of the
turbines at the Kegum power plant, which was damaged during the Second
World War. The shaded zones represent dents on the
casing liner caused by the impact of blade fragments
when the runner.. had disintegrated. The isolated
zones located at uniform distances on the surface of
the lining slightly below the axis of the runner are
marks left by cavitation caused by the vortex filaments
originating from the ends of the guide vanes. Similar
damage at the surface of the lining of the stator was
observed on units of other, hydroelectric plants
(Ivan'kovsk, Rybinsk, Zemo-Avchalsk, etc.).
Runner hydraulic turbine. Infiuence of vortices in
flow on lift force. The presence' of a wake after the
Fig. 2.IS. Separation of guide vanes and the formation of vortex tubes extend-
vortex filament from
guide vanes:
ing to the runner blades causes a change in the angle
I-guide vane; 2-run- of attack of the incoming flow. As a result the pres-
nec blade; 3-vortex sure acting on the runner blades pulsates. Therefore
tube filament. . the lift force also varies. A detailed study of the opera-
tion of the runner blades under conditions of asym-
metrical flow from the guide vanes was reported by E.V. Gutovskii [33]. The
principal conclusions drawn from the theoretical and experimental research
that he conducted are as follows:' ,
1. The flow field is not uniform before the runner. Over a given pitch of
the guide vanes the velocities change both in magnitude and in direction.
Hence the force exerted on the runner blades of an adjustable-blade turbine
also varies.
2. Nonuniformity of flow is caused by the presence of the guide vanes of
the wicket gates. If r5 represents the nonuniformity of static pressure acting
on the wall of the turbine housing upstream of the runner within the limits
of a given pitch of the guide vanes it may be expressed as follows:
r5 = 2 (PmQJI - pml,,) ,
pmtu+Pml"
where pmQ:J< and pml" are the maximum and minimum static pressures.
This nonuniformity changes sharply with a change in the wicket gate

opening (or mass flow rate of water). Fig. 2.17a shows the relationship bet-
ween t5 and the flow rate, t5 = I( Q~ ), for an adjustable-blade PL 90 turbine. It
can be seen that maximum flow nonuniformity occurs at small mass flow
rates and for a given mass flow· rate it occurs at high specific speeds of the
turbine and consequently at low heads acting on a prototype turbine.
3. The maximum nonuniformity of flow along the radius occurs at the
peripheral profiles of the runner blades. At the central portion of the runner
blades this nonuniformity does not exceed 2 to 5% whereas at the periphery
~
~~- b
Fig. 2.16.· Cavitation damage of hydro turbine casing:
o-avitation wear at surface of turbine housing and rupture of stays
reinforcing liner:--number of stays ruptured in 1945; - •• number
ruptured in 1946; depth of cavitation pits in 1945; •.•.•. depth of
cavitation pits in 1946; b--cavitation damage in runner housing of an
adjustable-blade turbine of 16,000 kW capacity at a head of 15.9 m (elong·
ated hatched zones represent damage to liner after it broke up in 1943).
it exceeds 30%. Fig. 2.17b shows the change in flow nonuniformity along the
length of the blades of a model turbine for a paJticular operating regime.
From this figure it can be seen that the flow nonuniformity that arises at the
center of the blades becomes practically zero at the hub radius.
4. Pressures measured at various points on the surface of the blade pro-
files showed that within the limits of a given pitch the nature of pressure.
Redius No.
I II III IV V
40 I""T"~-"'T""'-M
Fig. 2.17. Nonuniform velocity field:

a---<lownstream of guide vanes for various operating regimes of
turbine; b-downstream of guide vanes along radius of runner.
variation at all points on the profile is identical, it has a single minimum and
a single maximum. The greatest change in pressure pulsations is observed
over the initial one-third of the chord of the profile.
Figure 2.18 shows the variation in pressure over the profile of the runner
blades for various positions with respect to the pitch of the guide vanes. When
the runner blades traverse the pitch of the guide vanes the peak values of
pressure are displaced from the leading edge to the trailin~ edge.
01
c
-
...I.' '/ "t! ~
9 'tl
:
-: 0.1
0 9
;!
f
-_ ....
MN'-0CCO,...Cl:lItl"C"IN.-O·
g~ ~ f-
'tl '6~
~" I/~ ~~'\ ; 0.2e
I
....
~'"
~
'"
. '0
r c r-. ..... ~ \ 3= 0.3 d
r-. e
f ;<
.,.,
~ 0.6 9 h' ~ 'E 0.4 c
;; 0.5 f 1\ I" ~0.5 b
I 1\ d 1\
,
3= 0.4 e
.0.6· e '\
r-. c
.g 0.3 d .I ,.. \o!~ liD: I)K i'
"! 0.2 c Q:
')"
E 0.1 b 1V.~r--. . . ~~ ,,'rf '1.1
..:
Ii
0 a .. C"IN'-OCllCO,...Cl:lltl",MN . - 0
... -_...... ~a
" "iloo' b
Fig. 2.18. Pressure distribution in the flow:

a-displacement of pressure peaks from the pressure side of runner blades;
b-displacement of pressure peaks from the suction side of the runner blades.
The individual vortices that separate from the surface of the guide vanes
travel past the runner blades; changing the velocity distribution (both in
magnitude and in direction) of the flow passing over them. This leads to a
change in the lift force exerted on the profile.
Let us consider how the lift force changes in a system consisting of
vortices and profiles for various positions of the vortices with respect to the
profile. '
4 a
3
o~---~~~
- b
Fig. 2.19. Effect of a vortex on the lift force.
~ffect of location'of vortex crose to the blade profile on the lift force;
b-<:hange of lift force on a profile when a vortex passes along its side.
Figure 2.l9a shows the profile of a runner blade with a vortex shed by the
guide vanes passing alongside. In considering the influence of a' single vortex
on the lift force of the system w~ will make the following assumptions:
1. The single isolated vortex with an intensity Fe moves by the side of
the profile along a steamline.
2. The circulation around the blade profile is F p . " " , ' ,
, 3. At any given point in time the vortices are stationary with' respect to
each other and the velocity of flow at infinity is equal to VOl>' '
We will consider only a single profile and not the entire cascade of blades
since in the case of adjustable.blade liydroturbines with four runner blades
the ratio lit is, in most cases, less 'than unity.
e
Let us map the plane' = + i1'/ on the plane z = x + iy such that the plane
of the profile' becomes a unit circle on the plane z and the vortex Fe located
ea
at the point on the plane' becomes a vortex whose axis lies at the point Ze
on plane z. Thus the region external to the profile becomes the region exter-
nal to the circle (z) = I while the trailing edge of the profile A, becomeS the
point z= 1. For the flow to pass over the circle it is necessary to locate the
vortex of circulation r. at the point of intersection S = .!..r (direction of the

inverse vortex r.).
The derivative of the characteristic function of the flow over a cylinder is
given by:
. dW _ ( . e28i )
-=vooe 81 1 - -
r p l ' I - r.
+-~+-------
I r.
dz Z2 21ti Z 21ti z-r 21ti z-p'
where voo is the velocity of flow around the cylinder at infinity; 0 is the angle
between v"" and the x axis; r p is the circulation around the profile; r. is the
circulation of the vortex; r is the coordinate of the vortex; p is the coordinate
of the conjugate vortex.
According to the Zhukovskii theorem the point (A) at the sharp trailing
edge of the profile is the point from which the flow takes off. Therefore
(dWjdz)zal:=O.
From these conditions the circulation around the profile is obtained as:
v""e- 81 (1 -e2(1) r I r •. (-----

- +~._+_
Z2
I Ii) =0.
2m z 2m z-r z-p
Then at z= I
r p = -21tivoo (e-91 -e8I )-r. (_1 1_)
I-r I-p
or
.
r p = -41tvoo sin O+F. (-II
-p
--II ).
-r
It is well known that in the absence of a vortex circulation
r=
-41tvoo sin O.
The circulation difference would be given by
.'
. (I
-dF=rp-F=F. -----I) .
I-p I-r
Consequently the lift force of the system in question would differ from the
lift force of a profile in the absence of a vortex by an amount equal to the
circuiation difference -dr.
. We can write the ratio:
~ =.-d{=i (l~p-I~r)' _
where
I
r = - ellkl ; R ~ 1;
p= Re aki ;
R
a is the angle between the x axis and the line on which the centers of the
vortices r. are located.
The quantity within the brackets on the RHS may be rearranged as
follows:
I _ ~ ea.kl
I - ( R + ~) eold + e
I- Rea.kl 2ak1
R
R2_1
Then
tJP rv R2_1
p= r 2R cos a-(R2+ I)
The factor multiplying the ratio r vi r is positive and hence when the
direction of the vortices and the profile coincide the lift force increases.
Otherwise the lift force decreases.
Let us consider how the ratio tJP/P varies when the position of the vor~
tex r o changes with respect to the profile (in the plane z this corresponds to
a change in the coordinates R and a).
The results of calculation are shown in Fig. 2.19b for various positions of
the vortex p= I/R moving away from the profile. From this figure it can be
seen that the maximum change in the lift force of a system occurs when the
vortex leaves the profile. A sharp change in the lift force occurs when the
vortex is located opposite the trailing edge of the profile. This law of change
in lift force gives rise to a phenomenon similar to that of buffeting of the
trailing edge of an airplane wing. In this case, as shown by the above analysis,
the maximum influence of the vortex on the system occurs not during its pas-
sage over the profile but as it leaves the trailing edge of the profile.
The magnitude of r o is impossible to estimate. Compared to the circula-
tion r, the value of r o may be small. However, if the vortices shed by the
guide vanes developed into a Karmen's vortex trail with standard arrange-
ment of vortices and a shedding period close to the natural frequency of
vibration of the runner blades one might expect considerable vibration of the
blades. If it is assumed that vortices are shed from each of the guide vanes
the fundamental frequency of <>scillations of the perturbation forces on the
blades will be:
_kzon
/ - 60 '
where z is the number of guide vanes in the wicket gates; n is the rpm; k is
the number of vortices passing the runner blades when the runner blades
traverse one pitch of the guide vanes.
The frequency of vortices leaving the profile if there is a vortex trail is re-
lated to the nondimensional number
Sh= Vb,
v
where Sh is the Strouhal number; v is the frequency with which vortices leave,
Hz; b is the linear dimension of.the profile (for example, thickness of the trail-
ing edge of the guide vanes); v is the velocity of flow. .
Assuming Sh=0.18 (see also page 69). The frequency with which vortices
leave the guide vanes is obtained as follows:
for v= 5 and 10 m/sec and b=0.02 m:
_ Sh v _ 0.18 x 5 _ 45 H
v- b - 0.020 - z,
and for v= 10 m/sec, v= 10 Hz.
a
The frequency with which the runner blades traverse pitch of the guide
vanes for a turbine running at 62.5 rpm corresponds to nearly 35 Hz (for Zo
= 32). Hence we may assume that k = I to 3 and therefore the frequency of
'variation of the perturbation force on the blades during the passage of indi-
vidual vortices shed from the trailing edge of the guide vanes lies within the
Jimits ,Of 30 to 90 Hz. '
.,. If this frequency is in resonance with the natural frequency of vibration of
the biades the blade material will be su~ject to fatigue (crack formation). ,
It may be noted that the situation most conducive to the shedding of vor-
tices by the guide vanes of adju~table-blade turbines is one where the wicket
gates are, open .to the maximum, when the downstream ends of the guide:
vanes overhang the turbine casing. The pressure pulsations of the frequency
described above act on the blades and vibrations may be expected to occur
with wicket gates openings in the larger ranges (more than 70'per cent);
Research on blade vibrations carried out by G.E. Rudashevskii [94, 95]
on the turbines 'of theV.I. Lenin Volga power plant showed that when the
power output rose from 14,000 to 30,000 kW the frequency of blade vibration
changed from 1 to 10 Hz; Atlarge power outputs, especially at 75,000 kW,
the vibrations .observed were 2.0 to 25, 50, 70 and 100 Hz. '
.Separation' of vortices from runner blades. Research on flows around
various types of bodies (cylinders, ellipses, flat plates and aerofoils) has shown
that vortex trails of the Karmen-Benar type develop when the vortices are
staggered (Fig. 2.20a). The vortex trail develops due to the influence of vis-
cous forces. The vortices originating in the boundary layer continue to grow
and are shed from the body due to the influence of the flow. The shedding
of the vortices occurs alternately from the top and the bottom surfaces ofthe
!;lody. In such cases one obse:rves vibration of the body in a directioJlperpen~
dicular to the direction of the flow. A relationship has been established b!lt-
we.e~: the frequency ,of vortex shedding and the velocity of flow. over the body;
nd '. . ~i':
Sh =- = constant,
v'
where n is the frequency of vortex shedding, no./sec;
d is the dimension of the body in the flow, m;

v is the velocity of flow, m/sec; Sh-Strouhal number.
Depending on the shape of the body in the flow, different researchers give
different values of the Strouhal number (Table 2.4):
nI' . . ..
Sh= - ; I =/SlD a,
v
where I is the chord of the aerofoil; a is the angle of attack; a> 30°. Kar-
men showed that a stable vortex trail is possible only when the vortices are
staggered. In this case h{I=0.281 and the Strouhal number depends on the
Reynolds number.
Table 2.4
Strouhal Number
Researcher
Flat plate Aerofoil
Fage, Johannsen, Tylor 0.148

Blenk, Fuchs 0.158 0.150
Liebers . 0.180 0.210
Experiments run by Blyumina and Zakharov [~]. on a cylinder in an air

flow showed that when the cylinder was vibrated vortices were shed with a
frequency equal to the frequency of vibration of the cylinder. Apart from
this, irrespective of the vibrations of the cylinder a Karmen vortex trail with
staggered vortices. develops in the flow downstream of the cylinder. The
Strouhal number was found to be equal to 0.2. When the natural frequency
of vibrations of the cylinder coincided with the frequency of the vortices shed
in the Karmen vortex trail the amplitude of vibrations of the cylinder across
the flow i~cr~~-sed' sharply. In this case the vibration of the cylinder ha's a
frequency equal toits own natural frequency. ,
,Let us cons~d~rthe vibration of a 'hyproturbine due to the shedding of
vortices from the trailing edge of the" runner blades. This phenomenon is
known as rotary shedding.
, Radial-axial runner.Parmakyan[157] describes several cases of severe
vibrations in radial-axial turbines caused by the formation of a Karmen vor-
tex trail downstream of the trailing edges.of the runner blades..
. In· one ,power plant with a turbine of 30,000 kW output at 97.4 rpm, a
head of 25m and a rlinner having 15 blades and a diameter of 4.3 mcracks
were disco.vered·in the runner blades near the upper ring. Study of the vibra-
tion of the turbine showed that at loads corresponding to 0.8 of the nominal
the unit. was subjected to severe vibrations and the pressure in the flow pas-
sage of the hydr.oturbine near the trailing edges of the runner blades pulsated
severely. The frequency of these vibrations was 55 to 57 Hz (Fig. 2.20b). On .
70 Vibration ofHydro Units in HPP
the assumption that the cause of the vibrations was the vortex trail develop-
ing after the runner the trailing edges of the blades were chamfered (Fig.
2.20c), after which the vi!>rations sharply descreased (Fig. 2.20d).
(
r
v
--..+-......:::il'--l-----::~+----"---
-r
a
2.8
, m. of
-"
std. water
,
p
:r
7.0
b
~·2.4 6.0
ell
E-
Iii
- 2.0
-\ 5.0
'0
",2.0
E
.5 -
\
Iii \\
,§'" 1.6 .~ '.6
0;
.a , 59-57r" ~
4.0
'"c
.
.; '.2 3.0 60 .~1.2

'0 2" .a 55-57r14
.§0.8 2.0 40E~0.8
;;
Iii ~ 1;;
57f
1 uO
-c ,)
]0. 4 '.0 20~,gO.4
-= ~2
~"
","""""'::; ~:.\.\ ~:,~

• IV
blii
:i ao Qj ~~ a}-..
0 o 0 ~ 0
20 40 60 80 % c( 20 40 60 80 %
c 'd
Fig. 2.20. Vibrations of runner blades:
a-vortices behind cylinder ,of diameter d in flow at velocity v; b-variations in
pressure, vibration acceleration and stresses on blades at various operating regimes
of turbine: I-pressure at trailing edge of blades; 2-vibration acceleration on
blades; J-stresses in blade material; c-modified shapes of trailing edge (hatched
area shows metal removed from blade): I-suction side of blade profile; 2-pressure
side of blade profile; d-transverse acceleration of vibrations of blades before (1)
and after (2) modification of trailing edge.
Similar studies were conducted at other power plants having radial-axial
turbines. Many researchers have described cases of reduction of the,vibra-
tions of a unit as a result of welding braces between the turbine blades.
, Donaldson (144] investigated the vibration of an aerofoil ina hydrodynamic
tube. The aerofoil was held on an elastic mounting and was tested at various
flow'velocities with different shapes of trailing edge of the profiles. The tests
were run at velocities from v = 2 to 10 m/sec. The results are shown in Fig.
2.21, where one can see resonance velocities at which large-amplitude vibra-
tions make their appearance. Trailing edge shapes Nos. 1,5 and 6 were found
to be inferior. The best shapes of trailing edge were those chamfered on one
side at an angle of 45° (shape 3) and with internal symmetrical chamfers

(shape 4). When building turbines manufacturers have to fit blades in accord-
ance with these findings.
Cracks formed in the guides of structures delivering water may also be
explained by the shedding of vortices and the unsatisfactory shape of trailing
edges.
Shapes of trailing edges
o 1 2A=100%/SII!44 2A=22% Shapes of trailing edgeS
~ 2 2A=48% D52A=260% riI 8 2A=143%
R=b/2~-
•
3 2A=20% ~ 6 2A=230% 9 2A=43% a"
:!! R=b/2
I 5 r--7-- o
0 ;;120
I "E
0 .;100
I c:
g 80
{
1"-
6117 \-6 It'" ",.
, r,
0;
5- \ ~ 60
'0 1 '~7 ,/ -"'1'8
Gl 40 2A=360% '0 40
~\\+ j -I / ~.
~
"'
'tl Gl
J 0 1
.~ 20 ~ 20 r
~ .'{j 4b...3 '2 v Q.
f"'-9
v
« o2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
1
4.5
E
c(
0
7 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 m/see.
m/sec b
a
Fig. 2.21. Dependence of amplitude of vibrations of blade profile on
velocity of flow v for various shapes of trailing edge: .
a-results of tests run at velocities ranging from 2 to 5
m/sec; b-same at v=7 to 9 m/sec.
Adjustable blade TUDDer•. When the wicket gate opening is changed with
the runner blades set at a constant angle the vibrations of the unit change
abruptly. The minimum vibrations in most cases correspond to the most
advantageous governing regime for this blade setting. Vladislavlev [16] pro-
posed that governing could be improved by measuring the vibrations at the
supports of the hydro unit. This method, which in the Soviet Union is known
as the method of minimum vibrations, is fairly simple and does not require
full-scale tests of hydroturbines, which are complex and costly.
When the governor operating conditions are violated it leads to nonuni-
form flow immediately after the runner and vibration of the runner. The
greater the vibrations, the larger the fraction of flow energy used up in sus-
taining them. On the other hand all propeller regimes, apart from the
optimal, have a large tangential component of exit velocity. The energy
corresponding to this component is not 'recovered in the draft tube and is
almost entirely lost. Hence the efficiency of the turbine falls when the operat-
ing regime departs from the optimal for a given blade setting.
Let us consider a blade profile having an angle of attack equal to ex
(Fig. 2.22a). A Karmen vortex trail develops downstream of the blades. The
width of the vortex trail is equal to the projection between the trailing edge
of the profile and the point of flow separation in a direction p~rpendicular to
that of the flow. The flow separation point is displaced toward the trailing
edge when the angle ofattack is increased and it is observed that the displace-
ment of the separation point occurs far more rapidly in the case of thin pro-
files. The circulation of the vortices shed from the profiles is proportional to
the width of the vortex trail or the angle of attack of the profile, a: and the
change in the coordinate of the position of the vortices. From dimensional
analysis one may express the circulation of the vortex trail as follows:
where a: is the angle of attack of

the flow,
his the width of the vor-
tex trail;
a 1is the linear dimension
. of the profile (chord);
Ii is the vis!=osity of the
6 . fluid;
p is the density.
~
Since the vortices shed from
~5
G the profile with circulations of
~ 2
.+ro and -ro are periodic in
84
u nature the circulation around
.!! 100X1Q-2 the profile also change periodi-
"0
'g 3 . cally. This leads to a change in
(J
the lift force of the profile and
2 . consequently to periodic vibra-
tion .of the blades. The change
in the lift force alters the tor-
que on the shaft of the hydro
unit. This· is noticed from the
fluctuations in the power output
Fig. 2.22. Separation of vortices from blade . of the unit when it goes out of
profile and nonuniform velocities in draft tube: the governing range.
a-sepa~ation of vortices for flow around an
aerofoiJ: J-aerofoil profile; 2-vortices; b-
The frequency of the vibra-
variation in coriolis coefficient for runner of tions on the. blades corresponds
adjustable-blade turbine PL201 during propeller to the frequency with which
regime: J-entrance section of draft tube; 2-exit vortices are shed. and usually
cL.
sectioQ'Of draft .tube; 3-variation in lies in the range of 10. to 60Hz.
The circulation around the profile may be expressed as follows:

r p =r-kt1r,
where r is the circulation around the profile in the absence of vortices;
LJr is the circulation of the vortices;
k is the coefficient which depends on the coordinates of the vortices.
When the operation of the unit goes beyond the governing range the
efficiency of the turbine falls due to energy losses in the draft tube corres-
ponding to the tangential component of the exit velocity. It may be assumed
that the entire velocity head is lost in the draft tube due to the tangential
component, Le.
2
hd ,= 2g
c2u •
The results of tests on models of adjustable-blade turbines show the

nature of the variation in ci" during propeller regimes. Fig. 2.220 shows the
change in ci" according to the data given by Kvyatkovskii [SO]. Kolton and
Etinberg [60] found a similar variation and observed that the fall in the
efficiency of propeller turbines compared to the optimal is mainly due to the
loss of energy in the draft tube from the tangential component of the velocity
of the flow leaving the runner blades.
On the other hand, when the operating regime departs from the bptimal
the flow separates from the blade profile, there is a change in circulation
around the blades and an increase in the nonuniformity of flow in the exit
section of the draft tube.
This nonuniformity increases in proportion to the extent to which the
operating conditions of a propeller turbine diverge from the optimal. Utiliz-
ing Kvyatkovskii's [SO] experimental data for an axial turbine we will analyze
the coefficient of nonuniformity of flow at two sections of the draft tube
depending on the operating conditions of the model of runner type PL 201
(Fig. 2.22b). The nonuniformity coefficient downstream of the runner varies
exactly as the vibrations. The nonuniformity coefficient at the entrance and
exit sections of the draft tube largely depends on the type of draft tube. For
curved draft tubes nonuniformity coefficients in propeller regimes (and also
when the operating conditions are out of the governing range) increase
sharply when the operating conditions depart from the governing range,
attaining a value of 5 or more as against 1.1 when the operation of the unit
is within the governing range.
Draft tube. Nonuniformity of flow atthe entrance section of a draft tube
is conducive to the formation of vortex filaments, which result from the com-
bination of the various vortices shed from a runner blade profile. They can
also take the form of a spiral originating from the runner (Fig. 2.23) or of a
central vortex-filament lying along the central line of the draft tube. These
vortex filaments give rise to change in the velocity distribution and pressure
in the draft tube and increase the nonuniformity of velocity distribution at

different sections. A break in the continuity of the vortex filament is accom-.
panied by noise, shocks and fluctuations of pressure in the draft tube. Under
certain conditions the latter propagate over the entire flow passage of the tur-
bine including the spiral casing and the intake pipe. In many hydroturbines
the formation of the vortex filament in
the draft tube is due to the incorrect shape
and dimensions of the various compo-
nents of the turbine runner.
Nonuniformity of flow and the cause
of pressure pulsations downstream of the
runner were investigated by LN. Filatov
(MJ. Kalinin LPI). He examined the in-
fluence of a linear vortex filament located
along the axis of a draft tube on the
velocity distribution at its exit section. The
vortex filament consists of two parts:
vertical and horizontal (Fig. 2.24a). We
Fig. 2.23. Vortex filament below
runner of radial-axial hydroturbine
will assume that the flow consists of two
photographed in the hydraulic components: .a symmetrical flow estab-
laboratory of Escher-Wyss. lished by the runner and a flow induced by
the vortex filaments. The components of
velocity at the entrance section of the draft tube are designated as follows:
v",-the meriodional component;
V r -the radial component;
V, -tangential component.
At some point z the vertical portion of the vortex filament induces a velo-
city symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis. The horizontal portion of
the vortex filament induces a velocity asymmetrical with respect to the vertical
axis at any section located at a distance h from the center of the vortex [70]:
r2
I V I = 4 nh (cos a + cos Pt·
On examining Fig. 2.24 we can see that the velocity induced at radius is oa
greater than that at radius ob. .
. A graph showing the variation of these velocities is shown in Fig. 2.24b.
From this we can see that at any radius in the entrance section the velocity
and consequently the pressure change. As a result of this, the flow becomes
nonuniform downstream of the runner. During rotation the blades of the
runner are subjected to continuous pressure differences. Variation in pressure
along the circumference of a circle of radius r has one minimum and one
*For nomenclature, see Fig. 2.24b.

b
c
V:l
~
l' ~
2Jr V:l
i:l
~
a
~
Fig. 2.24. Position of vortices:
a-vOrtex filament in draft tube; b-velocity vectors at point (A) located in plane ab; vu-horizontal velOCity
~
induced by vortex; vm-meridional velocity of flow; c and d-illustrated diagram of distribution of induced ~.
velocities in plane ab periphery at radii R and r. g
:lI
~
o'
~
-...J
va
-....I
0'\
~
a
...
l!! c'
• i
3 ... ::=
'Q O>E
a l!! c:~.E:>
0 ~
'EoEli;2~2 0 0 .. :J
"t::-- ~ ~
.__
e!u:. ON
",~.g~ ~:J: ~
~_.a.
II ! ~ ~ E}
:S~~~1.gE·1 C)
::::anti'" ftI~
0_::1....
00;;:0
::J U
g~o
~
..
0
;;: '1:J 10 20 i:"
'1:J
a. -c:
Q ~
S·
'Eo Eli; 1 ~
EEga; ~
co ::1.- ~ 2 ::I
1
~
'i:l
.::Ia;. D' 2
:a~a~ ! c
~ > u... u..
co~o
Fig. 2.25. Influence of shape of body in flow on vibrations of turbine:
(aand b) C9nvex linear profiles of runner hub: l-runner; 2-runner hub; 3-zone of flow separation and vortex formation;
4-vortex filaments; c-frequency and amplitude of variations in pressure in drafUube of turbine of 34,000 kW operating at
head of 32.5 m (rotationalfrequency t.78 Hz): l-frequency of' pressure variations at periphery of tube; 2-frequency of pressure
variations at center of draft tube; 3---double amplitude of pressure variations,at periphery of tube; 4---double ampli.
tude of pressure variatiops at center of tube..
Nole: The discrete values of the frequency have been arbitrarily connected by the broken line.
maximum, which gives the frequency of variation in the forces on the runner
equal to the frequency of variation in the turning speed., .
As the nonuniformityof flow increases the amplitude of pressure varia-
tion along the circumference at radius r in the entrance section of the tube in-
creases and hence the variation in perturbation forces on the runner increases.
The nonuniformity of Bow would be greater in the ca~epf short draft tubes.
As has been pointed out earlier, the shape of the body in the flow
influences the formation of yortex filaments., A convex or a straight surface
in a flow is more conducive,to the separation of flow than a concave profile,
(Fig. 2.25a and b).
A truncated cone also promotes flow separation. It causes individual
vortices shed by the runner blades to develop individual vortex filaments
downstream of the runner. Merging together, these form a spiral or axial
vortex plait. A break in this vortex plait leads to severe shock in the cavity
below the runner and pressure pulsations in the draft tube. .
Research on turbines under normal operating conditions shows that the
spiral-vortex filaments that form after the runner themselves rotate. The
direction of rotation depends both on the velocity of the flow and on the
angular velocity of the vortex.
The spiral vortex filaments have different rotational speeds u with respect
to the vertical aXis. This rotational speed depends on the operating regime
of the turbine and usually differs from the speed of the runner, being some-
what lower. Fig. 2.25c, which shows the results of tests on a turbine with a
4 m diameter runner under actual operating conditions, shows that the rota-
tional speed of the spiral vortex filament is lower than that of the ruDnerJ
The rotating spiral vortex filaments downstream of the runner alter the
velocity and pressure distribution. This gives rise to pressure pulsations in
the flow passage of the turbine, subjecting the runner blades to varying pres-
sure forces. ' ,
- Tests show that these vortex filaments appear when the load on" the tur-
bine is within 25 to 45% of the nominal. Under these operating regimes the
vibration of the turbine increases somewhat. The variable components of
pressure on the runner blades likewise increase. In order to eliminate the
vibrations brought aboufby the formatiC?-n of vortex filaments in the draft
tube various modifications are tried out to impede the formation of these vor-
tices (injection of air, provision of special types of streamlined bodies, etc.)
aoout wblch more will be said later. Acco'rding to Donaldson's findings [144],
for'draft tubes of normal depth the frequency of pressure pulsations,down-
stream' of the runner due to the break-up of the vortex filament may be
approximately estimated .a~ording to the formula '
',f~ 6; k ~ 60:3.6' Hz,

where n is the speed of rotation, rpm.

Research carried out by Pazi [87] produced a far more accurate analytical
formula for the frequency and amplitudes of pressure pulsations. in the draft
tube:
n~o Q~) n, Hz;

f =(0:56 to 0.60) ( l--'--Q'
n 10 1
Jp ( n;o Q~) (n~)2 -

-=(0.65to 0.85) l--'--Q' - H, m,
y n1 10 g
where n is the speed of the turbine, rpm; H is the head, m; n~, Q~ is the spe-
cific speed and flow rate at a designated point; n;o, Q~o is the specific speed and
flow rate of the optimal regime for a given wicket gate opening.
Pazi shows that the formula he obtained tally with the empirical data.
Tests on hydraulic turbines have enabled us to ascertain several interesting,
facts:
1. The frequency of pressure variations in the draft tube depends not only
on the speed of the turbine shaft but also on the load on the turbine. The
lowest frequency of variation for a number of hydro units is shown in
Table 2.5.
For a radial-axial turbine it may be assumed for preliminary calculations
that the coefficient k in Don'aldson's formula equals 3.6 and that for adjust-
able-blade turbines k=4.2 to 4.6.
Table 2.5
Rotational Lowest frequency

Power plant frequency of pressure varia- n
n tionsf,.Hz. k=60/
60 rps.
Rionsk 3.57 1.0 3.57

Kanakersk 8.33 2.08 4.0
Dubossarsk 2.5 0.6 4.18 .
Farkhadsk 1.78 0.4-0.5 3.57-4.45
Belorechensk 3.125 0.83 3.77
Aktepinsk . 3.125 0.9 3.47
TereblyariIcSk 10.0 2.6 3.84
Ivan'kovsk 1.7 0.4 4.2
2. Intensity of pressure variation in the draft tube depends on the level of

water in the tailrace. In a number of cases it was possible to eliminate vibra-
tion of the hydro unit by increasing the draft height. At the Keswick power
plant the vibrations completely disappeared as soon as the level in the tail-
waters was lowered by 1.5 m [153]. A similar phenomenon was observed at
the Chirchiksk chain of power plants where the turbine began to operate with
reduced vibrations and hydraulic shocks in the draft tube diminished appre-
ciably when the level of the tail waters was lowered by I m. It may therefore
be assumed that the increase in the draft height led to a change in the flow
downstream of the runner and eliminated the conditions conducive to vortex
formation. On the other hand, in other cases it was necessary to raise the.
level of the tailwaters to get rid of vibrations. This is characteristic of cases
where the cause of vibration is a cavitation regime.
.A.S. Lashkov and I.P. Ivanchenko [68] studied the conditions under
which cavitation erosion occurs in adjustable-blade hydroturbines. They dis-
covered that the intensity of cavitation erosion changes as a function of the
draft height (Fig. 2.26). Severe cavitation wear of the runner blades and the
turbine housing is found to occur when the draft height is between - H. z and
- H;3' The greatest intensity of cavitation erosion is observed at a draft
height of H;3. The authors observed that at these regimes' of operation the
cavitation bubbles coalesced on the run- -- .
ner blades, giving rise to very intense .g g
erosion. .=> ·s~
The reduction in the intensity of B ll>
cavitation erosion resulting from an
increase in draft height (from - H.z to
H sI ) is explained by the authors as due
to coalescence of bubbles beyond the o Draft
height
runner blades (super-cavitation regime).
Erosion likewise does not occur at draft Fig. 2.26. Intensity of cavitation
erosion as a function of draft
heights of - H. 4 because the submer- height (TsKTI).
gence of the turbine eliminates the con-
ditions conducive to cavitation.
Unfortunately the authors did
not compare the operating re-
gimes of the hydro units when
blade erosion occurs. along with
vibration at different draft
heights. There is no basis for
assuming identical variation of
these parameters. However, the
fact that the vibrations of hydro
Flow of water
units as well as blade erosion
Air column of
dimiIiish with increasing draft
diameter d heights shows that these pheno-
(pressure below
atmospheric)
mena may be interrelated.
Fig. 2.27. Diversion of water from upper
At the Plyavin'sk power
rim of runner to internal cavity of cone: plant, under conditions of low
I-shaft; 2-runners; 3-hub. tailwater levels and 40 to 60%
opening of the wicket gates, the operation of one or two hydroturbines gave
pressure pulsations in the draft tube reaching 30% of the head at the turbine.
In these hydroturbines the water passing along the upper rim of the run~
ner is diverted to the draft tube through the cone (Fig. 2.27). Enteringthe
upper portion of the cone at tangential velocity Vlo the flow behaves like
the flow in a hydrocycJone. The motion of particles within the cone occurs
along complex trajectories. Part of the flow, revolving at high speed, de-
scends spirally along the walls of the cone toward the lower anulus, forming
an outer descending flow. The bulk of the fluid mass turns upward, forming
an inner rising flow entering the hollow shaft of the turbine. Apart from
these two flows (The inner and the outer), an air column develops at the
center of the cone and the shaft within which vacuum formation is observed.
The magnitude of the vacuum depends on the velocity and pressure of the
fluid entering the cone. However, if a diaphragm is installed between the
cone and the shaft the average diameter of the air column (from empirical
data) is 50 to 60% of the diameter of the orifice in the diaphragm (d=0.5
to 0.6 Do). On the inner side, the air column limits the rising fluid. The for-
mation of the air column within the cone may be explained by the reduction
in pressure when the water emerges from the hub forming the lower portion
of the cone.
It has been established hy many researchers that the tangential (peri-
pheral) velocjty of flow in a hydrocyclone follows the law v,· rP =constant,
where /3 may vary from 1 to O.
The water in the rising flow establishes a head equal to [141]:
"
[(D )2 -IJ 2gt? ,
J1p = a;2
P Do
e
P
where 1%=0.45 and /3=0.8 according to empirical data.

. Example: Let us assume that the turbine" has ~: = 2; Dc =-1.5 m;
;'=214 rpm.
Then
1Z De n 1Z X 1.5 X 214 16 8 /
v,=~= 60 =. m sec;
J1 p = 0.2025 [2 2)(0.8 _ I] 16.82, 21.6 = 3 03'
" 0.8 . 2g , .,
J1p 0.2025
7= o:s 2.03 X 14.38=7.35 m.
Calculations show that the greater the ratio Dc/Do the greater the height
to which the water may be raised. Installing a diaphragm at the lower flange
of the shaft aggravates the condition. ,
The flow rises to a height of more than 7 m from the lower flange of the
turbine shaft, Le. the water rises upto the hub of the generator rotor through
the hollow turbine shaft. Since the hub of the generator rotor has windows
with weak covers the water leaks through the joint into the generator wind-
ings. The water rising into the rotor hub also causes pressure pulsations down-
stream of the runner (especially during transition regimes). To prevent water
rising through the hollow shaft the following measures may be adopted:
(a) removal of water from the cavity above the upper rim, not from with-
in the cone but alongside it;
(b) installation of a central tube extending upto the lower face of the corte
(Fig. 2.28) (if it is intended to remove air from under the runner through the
hollow shaft);
(c) installation of a damper in the central hollow of the turbine shaft (if
removal of air through the hollow shaft is not planned).
Fig. 2.28. Installation of tube inside cone of runner to

eliminate rise of water througb hollow turbine shaft:
l::-bub; 2-hub flange; 3-tube; 4-rim.
2.5 Flutter of Runner Blades
Flutter means the combined flexural and torsional vibrations of a blade

which arise at a certain velocity of flow over the blade profile.
The aerodynamic forces exerted on blades change whenever they are sub-
jected to additional deformations. One of these forces acts in a direction .
opposite to that of deformation and the other fn the direction of deformation.
The former damps blade deformations and the latter tends to increase them.
Research by a number of scientists (Keldysh, Grossman and others) on the
behavior of wing profiles during flutter showed that the damping forces
increase in proportion to the square of the velocity (Fig. 2.29a). At critical
velocity Vcr a balance is achieved between the damping and the perturbation
forces. At velocity v> Vcr the smallest departure of the blade from equili-
brium conditions leads to an increase in the amplitude of vibrations and the
appearance of flutter. Let us consider first flexural and then torsional vibra-
tions of blades having the shape of an aerofoil. The profile has three char-
acteristic points (Fig. 2.29b): the focus, the center of rigidity and the center of
gravity. The point on the profile relative to which the aerodynamic forces do
not change with a change in the angle of attack called the focus. In most pro-
files this point lies at a distance approximately equal to 0.25 I from the leading
edge, where I is the chord of the profile. The center of rigidity is the point at
which the elastic forces appearing during deformation of-the blade are equal.
Usually the center of rigidity lies at a distance of approximately 0.35 I from
the leading edge of the profile.
The center of gravity 'of the profile is usually located at a distance of 0.4
to 0.45 I from the leading edge. In thin profiles the center of rigidity lies closer
to the center of gravity than in thick profiles. If the center of rigidity of a
profile coincides with its center of gravity the blade may execute flexural and
torsional vibrations independently.
lib 1
a
Fig. 2.29. Blade flutter and positions of vibrating profile:
a-dependence of force P acting on profile on velocity of flow v: J-forces
damping vibrations; 2-perturbation forces; b-singular points of wing profile:
J-profilevibrating with velocity z'; 2-resultant velocity; .doc-increase of
angle of attack during relative motion.
The blade of a turbine may be regarded as a beam fixed at one end. Let us
consider the behavior of a blade under pure flexural vibrations. Let the blade
be subjected to a flexural vibration under the action of some particular force.
If the blade is tilted, for instance, downward within the flow (increase of bend-
ing, Fig. 2.29c) with a relative velocity z', the angle of attack will decrease by
an amount Lla = z'lv and consequently the lift force will al~o be reduced.
When the profile is tilted upward the angle of attack in the relative flow
will increase and the lift force will also increase. In this case the change in the
lift force is in a direction opposite to that of the velocity of flow acting on the
profile and hence the resulting vibrations of the profile will be damped.
Similar phenomena are also observed during torsional deformation. If for
some reason the turbine blade receives an impulse and begins to execute
torsional vibration, then with any increase in the angle of attack the moment
opposing further turning of the blade profile increases. When the blade pro-
files are turned in the reverse direction the angle of attack decreases, reducing
the aerodynamic moment, the direction of which is opposite to that of the an-
gular velocity of vibrations of the blade profiles. Thus torsional and flexural
vibrations of the blades appearing for whatever reason will always be damped.
When the center of rigidity does not coincide with the center of gravity
one type of vibration may induce another, i.e. during, torsional vibrations
flexural vibrations may also appear and vice versa. If, for example, torsional
vibrations have appeared (near the center of rigidity) then, due to angular
acceleration, inertial forces appear at the center of gravity of the profile.
These inertial forces bring about flexural vibrations of the profile.
Similarly flexural vibrations of the profile having an acceleration z" give
rise to inertial forces mz", whose moment about the center of flexure produces
. torsional vibrations of the bla,de profile.
Even if the two types of vibrations (flexural and torsional) are each sup-
posed to have been damped in combination the vibrations may not be damp-
ed due to the phase difference between them. Grossman's [3]] research on
blade Butter showed the following:
1. Flutter is possible only when there is a phase-lag between the torsional
and flexural vibrations.
2. The frequency of flutter is close to the natural frequency of the tor-
sional vibrations:
f~=f~or (l +C);
xo-O.5
C= ,,2+(o+xo-O.5)2 {[(PPft)2 -] ] }
(xo-O.5)-2o,
lor
where Xois the distance of the center of flexure from the leading edge of the
profile expressed as a function of the chord; .
" is the radius of gyration of the profile with respect to the center of
gravity expressed as a fraction of the chord;
o is the distance between the center of gravity of the profile from the
center of flexure ~pressed as a fraction of the chord.
3. The type of vibrations occlirring in flutter is closer to combined torsion-
al and flexural vibrations since flutter develops out of torsional vibrations.
4. The flutter of the blades is sustained by the energy of the flow around
them. In such cases there occurs a critical velocity of flow Vcr at which the
perturbation energy exceeds that of the damping and hence blade vibrations
are not damped.
So we see that ,flutter-type vibrations appear only when the velocity offlow
reaches a particular value V > v~,. At low velocities of flow around blades
Butter does not occur. The method of determining Vcr, as in the case of But-
ter calculations for airplane wing profiles, being highly complex, will not be
described here.
The critical velocity may be approximately determined from Kussner's*

formula [149] given the frequency of torsional vibrations:
ffll
Vu = 2 OJ '
where 1 is the chord of the blade profile at the mean radius, m; ifI is the fre-
quency of flutter, close to the frequency of torsional vibrations of the blade,
Hz. [(for the profile used in hydroturbine blades it is found from calculations
thatifl = (1.02 to 1.15)fcr)]; OJ the coefficient proposed by Kussner equals 0.7
to 1.14.
According to the latest research carried out by Schlippe [160] OJ is found
to be 0.89 to 1.1 5. For approximate calculations OJ _may be assumed to be
equal to unity and the frequency of flutter equal to that of torsional vibrations
of the blade.
If the frequency of torsional vibrations is determined on a model blade
profile we can determine Vcr, bearing in mind that:
1. simultaneous variation of the rigidity of the blade in torsion and flex-
ure by a times changes the critical velocity by -fa times;
2. enlarging or reducing the size of the blade several times would not alter
the value of the critical velocity (for blades of the same material);
3: the frequency of flutter decreases by a times if we increase the dimen-
sions of the blades by -fa times;
4. the natural frequency of vibrations of the blade in air is greater than
that in water;
5. in water the frequency may fall by 50%.
At low frequencies of vibrations this may be due to the extra inertia of the
mass of water vibrating together with the blades and at high frequencies it
may be caused by the retarding action of the water.
Conversion of the natural frequency of vibrations of the model to that of
the prototype is effected with the following expression if the model and proto-
type turbines are geometric3.IIy identical:
f mod D pra r Emad "/p,a
!p,a = Dma/\j Ep,a "/ma/
where D is the dil:!-meter of the rumier, m; E is the modulus of elasticity of
the blade material, kg/cm 2; "/ is the specific weight of the blade material,
.. kg/m 3• For the runner of the adjustable-blade PL90 turbine at the Rybinsk
power plant the calculated value of vc, was found to be 52 m/sec, whereas the
free stream velocity under design operating conditions did not exceed v"" =
30 m/sec.
*Kussner's formula is an approximate one. It is valid for the usual type of airplane
wing profiles and does not take into account the location of the focus and the axis of
rigidity of the profile in relation to the center of gravity.
The variation in the free stream velocity Voo with the blades at a constant
angle of attack for different wicket gate openings would take the form of a
continuous increase, as shown in Fig. 2.30. It is obvious that velocities close
to the critical can occur in hydroturbines only under runaway conditions
(acceleration of the turbine, isolated cases of sudden unloading of th~ gene-
rator). Tests on a number of turbines for runaway conditions (e.g. at the
Gor'kovsk power plant) showed that the rotors were subjected to severe vib-
rations,· which could have been due to runner blade vibrations of the flutter
type. The approximate frequencies of vibrations of the flutter type obtained
from tests on models are shown in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Frequency
Frequency of Frequency of
of vibration~
Diameter of Material of torsional vibrations
Type of runner of prototype
runner, mm runner blades vibrations in in water,
(D pr =9 m),
air, Hz Hz
Hz
------------------~---------------------
PL495 460 ' Stainless 928 589 30
steel
20Kh 14NL
PL495 460 Gun Metal 629 434
PL495 1,000 Stainless 458 . 36
steel
20Kh 14NL
Note: According to tests on the blades of runner type PL495 of 460 mm diameter
the frequency of vibrations in water is approximately 30% less than that in air.
Detailed calculations of blade flutter show that to increase the critical

velocity it is necessary to locate the center of flexure away from the leading
edge and closer to the center ofgravity of the profile. Flutter would not occur
if the center of gravity lay ahead of the focus irrespective of the location of
the center of flexure. The point at the axis around which the blades rotate has
no influence on flutter. m/see
7 . r=175. 1';=165
v
2.6 Location of Runner of Vertical
,,2 1"=130
Radial-Axial Turbine 5 • 1= . '~130
~
","'42.n •
4 . --~
The height at which the runner of 3 ~ 1=175.1';=96
a radial-axial turbine Qow-speed)
2 80
should be located requires consider- 18 20 25 30 35mm
able attention during assembly for
Fig. 2.30. Variation in mean relative velocity
the following two reasons: of flow II around blade profiles of runner
1. Asymmetrical positiorung of K·201 under propeller regimes as a
the runner passages in relation to the function of wicket gate opening 0 0 ,
height of the wicket gates is conducive to separation of flow from the inner
surface of the rim of the runner. This leads to pressure pulsations in the run-
ner and vibration of the turbine. The separation of flow is considerably faci-
litated by large curvature of the surface at the lower rim and positioning the
runner slightly lower'in relation to the wicket gates (Fig. 2.3Ia). Separation
begins"at a certain load and with increasing wicket gate openings (increased
loads) the zon~..Qf separated flow becomes larger and turbine vibrations in-
crease.
2. Asymmetrical positioning of the runner with respect to the wicket gates
in the vertical direction leads to redistribution of pressure ahead of the seal
gaps. The pressure before the gaps increases where the gland seal ring pro-
trudes into the flow (Fig. 2.3Ib). This increases the leakage through the gland
seals and they wear out more ~apidly than when the sealing is located below
the edge of the wicket gate opening. Due to separation of flow before the seal
the pressure decreases and the leakage through the seal is reduced. The non-
. uniform wear of the gland seal gap leads to changes' in the axial hydraulic
force exerted on the runner. Unequal wear of the seals may lead to a situation
where due to rapid wear (of the lower seal, fOf instance) the axial component
of hydraulic force is directed upward. Under certain load conditions this may
lift the rotor of the hydro unit. This phenomenon was observed in the turbines
of two high-head power plants. _-
The values of gland seal wear observed on turbine runners of 1,460mm
(9,500 kW, 200 m head) af~er 2,000 hr operation were:
0.9 mm at the upper ring and 2.2 to 2.-6 mm at thelbwer ring as against a
designed gap of 0.75 mm.
Under these conditions it was observed that the rotor was lifted in the load
range from 0 to 6,000 kW. The rotor lift led to fusing of the lower portion of
the turbine bearing as a result of friction at the rim of the oil. scraper ring.
Table 2.7
Deflection of spider, mm
Type of
Power plant Unit No. ~;t~ :-e~~ ~f-T~t~l~e~~~o: generator
. rotating parts
----------------------------------------
at nominal load
.'
- I. Kadyr'insk 1 0.23 0.43 pendant

2. Kadyr'iDsk 2 0.22 0.43 pendant
3. Komsomol'sk . 3 0.14 0.35 umbrella-type
4. Tavaksaisk 2 0.16 0.28 umbrella-type
5. Aktepinsk 1 0.58 1.08 pendant
6. Burdzharsk 1 0.05 0.22 umbrella.type
7. Adzharistskal'sk 1 0.28 0.57 pendant
8. ~ionsk 1 0.32 0.60 pendant
9. Zemo-Avchals'k-I 1 0.22 0.36 pendant
10. Tereblyariksk 3 0.22 0.82 pendant
.-------------------------~-------~------
The rotor lifted smoothly and was initially accompanied by some increase in
the vertical vibrations.
The frequency of vertical vibrations in this case was nearly 2.5 Hz.
Fig. 2.31. Diagram of flow with improper vertical location ofrunner:

o"":"'separation of flow from inner surface of lower rim when runner is below norlT!al
position: I-runner; 2-guide vanes of wicket gate; 3-zone of flow separation;
b-formation of high-pressure zone before gap of lower gland seal of runner:
I-runner; 2-guide vanes of wicket gate; 3-lower seal gap;
. 4-upper seal gap.
The deflection of the load-bearing spider and the thermal expansion of the
generator shaft must be taken into account when the height at which the run-
ner is to be located is decided in the course of assembly.
The findings obtained from experimental research carried out at the
ORGRES for the deflection of load-bearing spiders of radial-axial turbines
are shown in Table 2.7.
The expansion of the generator shaft has to be allowed for because during
operation the generator may heat upto temperatures above 35°e, whereas a
unit is usually assembled at temperatures close to or below ooe. The ther-
mal expansion of the shaft, from the thrust bearing to the turbine flange, is:
,,11=a.1 ,,1t,
where ,,1t is the temperature difference;
a. is the coefficient of linear expansion.
For steel the coefficient a. may be assumed i6 be equal to i2·1O- 6 •
Assuming that the temperature difference between assembly and nominal
load equals ,,1t=20oe and the coefficient a. equals 12.10-6 , the expansion of
the shaft is obtained as ,,1/=0.00024 I. .
If the mean length of the generator shaft from-the thrust bearing to the
turbine flange Js 5 m we have ,,11 = 1.2 mm. -
Thus the sag of the runner under nominal loading would on the average be
given by ,,1ldef+,,1/lemp~0.8+ I.2~2 mm (the elongation of the shaft due to
hydraulic force is not taken into consideration because it is negligible). .
For the above conditions the turbine must be assembled with the turbine
runner raised by 2 mm above its mean position.
The elimination of turbine vibrations by introducing shims under the load-
bearing spider and thus altering the height at which the runner was· located
was first effected at a Swedish power plant on Prof. Thoma's (Munich) sug-
gestion. It was observed that the vibrations increased when the load on the
turbine reached 50% of the nominal. After the runner was raised by 1.8 mm
the turbine vibrations did not exceed permissible limits. Excessive vibrations
were eliminated in the same way in the three hydraulic turbines of the Klam-
instein power plant (Austria). The turbine of this power plant would not ope-
rate at the nominal load due to excessive vibrations. -When the turbine runners
were raised by the right amount the vibrations were reduced to the permis-
sible norms.
2.7 Rotor Lift of Hydroturbines
In an adjustable-blade hydroturbine rotor lift. was observed under pump-

ing regimes and with closure of the gates in the draft tube when the turbine
was still connected to the grid (at constant turning sp~ed).
From the power characteristics of the hydroturbines (Fig. 2.32) it can be
seen that if the turning speed for a given opening of the wicket gates exceeds
that corresponding to the zero axial thrust value the turbine begins to operate
in the pumping regime. The pressure downstream of the runner becomes
greater than that above it and the hydraulic axial force is in the upward direc-
tion. The magnitude of this force depends on the speed of the turbine (the
greater the value of n, the greater the force P,,), the opening of the wicket gates
and the angle through which the blades on the runner are turned (Fig. 2.32).
When in the pumping regime axial thrust exceeds the weight of the hydro unit
rotor (weight of the rotating parts) the rotor lifts. It should be noted that an
increase in rotor vibrations appears at the moment when it. lifts as well as
when the rotating parts of the rotor rub against the stator which restricts ro-
tor displacement. These vibrations are quickly damped. As a rule the fre-
quency of vibrations is low, not exceeding 5 Hz (it depends on the weight of
the rotor and how quickly the turbine switches to the pumping regime).
The axial hydraulic force in an adjustable-blade runner during normal
operating conditions is directed downward. It is obtained from the formula
xD2
P,,=K 4 H ItIJU ,
where K is a coefficient which is equat to 0.80 for a four-bladed runner;

, 0.85 for a five-bladed runner;
0.89 for a six-bladed runner; and
0.93 for a seven-bladed runner;
D is the diameter of the runner, m;

H maz is the maximum head at the turbine, m.
The force P a is obtained in tons.
The axial force in adjustable-blade hydroturbines depends both on the
opening of the wicket gates and on the angle through which the runner blades
are turned.
In the case of radial-axial hydroturbines the total axial force may be
expressed as [59]:
pa=p. +P2+ P 3+ P 4- P S,
where PI is the weight of the rotating parts of the hydro unit rotor;
P2 is the dynamic component of the flow acting on the runner;
P3 is the static component of the pressure at the upper rim of the
runner;
P4 is the static component of the pressure at the lower rim of the
runner;
Ps is the runner's Archimedian loss of weight in wat~r.
The various components of the axial force acting on the runner of a radial-
axial vertical hydroturbine are determined as follows (Fig. 2.33):
J Qy
P2= p/- p~ -IX g V3,
where PI is the axial component of the total force acting on the lateral surface
at tJ:l'e exit section of the runner; for low-speed turbines it may be assumed to
be equal to zero (P/=PJ/I);
PI is the pressure iii. the exit section of the runner;
ji is the projection of the lateral surface of the exit section of the runner
on the horizontal plane;
P~ is the force due to the pressure of the flow on the plane at the exit sec-
tion of the runner (P~=P2b); "
IX is a coefficient dependent on the type of runner (in the first approxima-
tion it may be assumed that cc = I);
Q is the rate of flow of water through the turbine;
y is the specific weight of water;
g is the gravitational acceleration;
V3 is the average axial velocity in the exit section of the runner.
The'force P3 is obtained from the pressure distribution at the rim on the
'2
basis of the formula P3 = 121trdrhy, where h is the head of water in meters,
" ~. .
at radius r. The change in the value of h d"epends on the construction of the
runner (seal rings); etc. If one knows the head ho at some radius r the head
at any point will be:
where (}) is the angular velocity of the fluid between the runner and the cover;
usually (}) is assumed to be equal to 0.7 times the speed of the runner.
Fig. 2.32. Variation of axial force on

the runner: .
al-a.-different openings of wicket gates;
i-variation of axial force during unloading
of the generator; 2':"zone of negative axial
force (for vertical unit force is directed Fig. 2.33. Pressure distribution at upper
. upward). (1) andlower (2) rims of runner.
The pressure loss in the seal gaps is determined by the mass flow leakage
and the size of the gap.
The leakage q=Jlf .[2g (hl-h~)=lJofo.[2g(hg -hJ.

where Jl = 0.42 to 0.50 is the coefficient of discharge for the gap;
Jlo = 0.52 is the coefficient of discharge through the pressure-equalizing
holes;
f is the area of flow in the gap;
fo is the total area of the pressure-equalizing holes.
The force P4 is determined in a similar way. The direction of the force P 4
depends on the design of the sealing at the lower rim. .
The force Ps may be assumed to be equal to: _
PS=Gr '!w/'!m.
where Gr is the weight of the runner in air;
Yw is the specific weight of water;
Ym is the specific weight of the material of the runner.
The variation in axial force in the case of radial-axial hydroturbines most-
ly depends on the size of the seal gaps and the unloading effectiveness of the
upper rim (provision of unloading holes at the upper rims, special spider
arrangement, etc.). When the pressure at the lower rim exceeds the weight of
the rotor and the pressure at the upper rim the rotor lifts. Vibration of the
turbine is observed at the beginning of rotor lift as with adjustable-blade tur-,
bines. The frequency of vibrations depends on the weight (mass) of the rotor
and the nature of the variation in axial force during rotor lift. Usually the fre-
quency of vibrations does not exceed 5 Hz and rapidly damps out. How far
the rotor rises is governed by the constructional features of the turbine.
2.8 Film Lubrication in Journal and Thrust Bearings
When there are no lateral forces acting on the rotating shaft the oil film
between the shaft and the bearing occupies a central position. The appear-
ance oflateral forces due, for example, to imbalance, give rise to displacement
of the shaft and at some point the shaft takes p
up an accentric'position (see Fig. 2.34, where P
is the force on the shaft due to oil pressure; F is
the centrifugal force due to rotor imbalance).
The resultant forces P and F try to shift the
shaft within the b~aring in an anticlockwise di-
rection, giving rise to play in the shaft.
The difference between this self-excited vi'"
bration with an oil film and vibration with dry ,
friction is this: in the first case the displacement
of the shaft is opposite to the direction of rota-' Fig 2.34. Oil film in bearing
tion of the shaft and in the second they rotate acting as vibration exciter:
the same way. Increasing the oil injected into P-force on shaft due to oil
the guide bearings usually reduces the play and pressure, F--centrifugal force
of rotor imbalance (lateral
vibration of the shaft. Tests on thrust bearing at force).
many power plants have shown that these
bearings are lubricated not just with oil but with a mixture of oil and air. The
air is present in the oil in the form of a mechanical mix (suspension), forming
practically speaking a stable air-oil mix.
The size of the air bubbles is such that they are clearly visible to the naked
_ eye and are comparable in diameter to the thickness of the oil film. Some-
times the diameter exceeds the thickness of the oil film. Other times the air
bubbles are too small to detect with the naked eye.
The following factors give rise to saturation of the oil with air in thrust
bearings: '
1. discharge of oil from the bearing through the gap between the friction
disc and the thrust pads close to the surface in the oil tank;
2. turbulence at the surface in the tank;
3~ presence of foam at the surface due to agitation of the oil caused by
obstructions in its path (oil coolers, baffies, etc.).
Foaming of mineral oils also promotes saponification due to chemical
interaction with certain metals, in particular tin, which is present in the babbit
metal of the thrust pads. Foaming sharply increases in the presence of even
a small amount of moisture. Moisture could be present in oil due to conden-
sation of water vapor from the air in the oil tank, leakage of water in the oil
cooler tubes, etc.
As a result the oil in the thrust bearing is saturated with air bubbles,
forming an air-oil mix which circulates along with the oil through the gaps
between the friction' discs and the thrust pads.
Checks on the transparency of oil in the thrust bearing tanks at several
power plants have shown that during the operation of the units the whole of
the oil is mixed with air bubbles.
As a result the level of oil during operation is higher than when the hydro
units are stationary.
The mixing of oil with air begins from the moment the hydro, units are set
in motion and within 3 to 5 minutes the whole of the oil is saturated with air.
The visible air bubbles and foam disappear 5 to 10 minutes after the unit
stops. Measurement of the amount of air in the oil at several power plants
showe~ that the quantity of air by volume was as follows (neglecting foam):
Kakhoysk power plant (6 units) 12 to 18%

Ucb-Kurgansk .. (4 " ) 8 to 12%
Gumatsk I .. (4 .. ) 8 to 10%
Gumatsk II .. (3 .. ).......... 5 to 10%
Shaorsk II .. (4 " ) 8 to 12%
Tkibul'sk II .. (3.. ) 12 to 16%
At all these units the level of foam was 40 to 70 mm above the level of the
air-oil mix.
It may be assumed that the quantity of air in the oil (disregarding foam)
reaches as much as 20% by volume.
The presence of air bubbles in the air-oil mix in the oil delivered to the
thrust bearings of hydro units may be one of the causes of direct contact bet-
ween the bearing surfaces, giving rise to vibration of the units.
Let us consider the behavior of thrust bearings in the presence of vertical
vibrations. The elastic system of the "disc-segment" may be represented by
the schematic arrangement shown in Fig. 2.35.
Between the friction disc and the segments there lies an elastic medium
with an equivalent elasticity coefficient C2. The thrust pads are mounted on an
elastic foundation having an elasticity coefficient CI. .
It may be arbitrarily assumed that all thrust pads behave alike and sque-
eze-out of oil toward the sides is the same both in incompressible and in com-
pressible fluid lubrication. Damping of vibrations may be neglected. We
will assume that a variable perturbation force equal to P sin wt acts on the
disc where P is the amplitude of the force with respect to one segment; w is
the angular frequency; t is time.
The differential equation of the forced vibrations in the vertical direction
for the two-mass system in question may then be written as:
m(ZI +C. ZI-C2 (Z2-ZI)=O; }

(2.1)
z
m2 2+ c2(z2- zl)=Psinwt, .
where ZI and Z2 are the vertical displacements of the centers of mass of the
friction disc and the segment from the stable equilibrium posi-
- tion:
~l and Z2 are the second derivatives of the coordinates with respect to
time;
ml is the mass of the rotor and the disc referred to one segment;
m2 is the reduced mass of the segment and the supports.
Since we are considering forced vibrations the solution of the differential
equation takes the following form:
ZI =A I sin wt; zz=Az sinwt, (2.2)
where A I and A2 are the amplitudes of the forced vibration of the disc and
segment.
Substituting (2.2) in (2.1) and eliminating sin wt we obtain a system of two
algebraic equations with respect to AI and A2: .
(-mlw+cl+C2)AI- C2 A 2=O; }
(2.3)
-C2 A2+( -m2 W+C2) A2=P.
'Solving the system of equations (2.3), we have:
. . ~P'
AI= ;
m2 (ml +m2) [(_C_I_ -W)(~-w2)_~Q)4J
ml +m2 m2 ml +m2
A2= (-ml W+CI +C2)P . (2.4)
.m2 (m l +m 2)[( Cl _Q)2)(C2_Q)2)~~Q)4J
ml +m2 m2 ml +m2
The ratio A2/AI is obtained as:
A2= -mw+cl+cz (2.5)
Al C2
We will now introduce the ratios:
C2 . ml 1
-=c; -="2'
ci Cj kl
where kl is the natural frequency of vibrations of the segment supports.
Finally, we have:
(2.6)
c
After substituting A2/AI.=f(I) for identical values of c (Fig. 2.36) ~e

. find that: .
a) when c=infinity, Le. when the medium between the disc and the seg-
ments is incompressible, the ratio A2/AI = 1 (absence of air in oil). This shows
that vertical vibrations of the disc are transmitted to the segments and the en-
tire system vibrates as a single unit (Fig. 2.36) irrespective of the frequency
and the amplitude of vibrations. Obviously in
this case there is no danger from irregularities at
Z2 the surface of the friction disc.
3~Di]i.Il(~Zt b) when the ratio OJ/k l > 1 (the ratio of the
2 frequency of perturbation forces to the natural
frequency of the thrust being supports), then
A 2/ A 1= - 1. When the amplitudes of vibrations
Fig. 2.35. Schematic arrange-
ment of "disc aDd segment" are 1800 out of phase with respect to one an-
. to determine iDftuence of verti- other the metal disc and the segments may
cal vibrations of disc on come into contact with each other at certain .
operation of thrust bearing amplitudes of vibrations, i.e. the oil film will be
supports:
ruptured and dry friction or at least semi-dry
J-friticon disc of reduced
mass mz; 2-segment of reduc- friction will occur, leading to rapid heating of the
ed mass m\; 3-air-oil mix of rubbing surfaces of the segments and the disc.
elasticity coefficient equivaleDt Thus the nature of the vertical vibrations of a
to c.; 4-support of segrneDt hydro unit is entirely fortuitous and it is im-
with elasticity coefficientci' . possible to predict when they may occur..
The arrangement considered above is a sim-
plified version of operation of the thrust bearing during vibration. In fact, the
way the vibrations are transmitted from 5
II
the disc to the thrust pad segments is far A2/A 1
more complex. However, even this simpli- 4
I
-C=O.1
fiedaccount enables us to assess the 3
working of the thrust bearing qualitatively
2
when a compressible medium is present
between the friction disc and the thrust ~ ,
c=oo
pads. Turbines with thrust bearings locat- o ~- ~ .....C=10· w/k t
1 \~ 3~5
ed within their covers operate -under far 6
I I
r
I
rigid conditions because the vibration of -1
the turbine cover caused by the flow ,of -2
C =1
l'
water through it may be entirely inde- Fig. 2.36. Az/A I as function of
pendent of the vibration of the friction. (w/k) for "disc aDd segment" system.
disc. In this case, when the vertical vibrations of the hydro unit rotor, which
are transmitted to the friction disc, or the play in the friction disc itself, are in
phase opposition with the vibrations of the turbine cover (the thrust pads),
then the oil film may rupture irrespective of the ratio of the frequencies of
these operating forces. For these types of units, vertical vibrations are far
more dangerous. The covers of the turbine have to be designed in such a way
as to minimize the vibrations due to the perturbation forces acting on it.
2.9 Variable Component or Moments in Pelton Wheel Turbines
In a Pelton wheel the jet of water from one nozzle strikes the buckets
periodically with a frequency nz/60 where z is the number of buckets on the
wheel; n is the turning speed of the shaft, rpm. .
Each bucket is acted on by a force due to the jet of water With a frequency
na/60, where a is the number of nozzles.
For instance, the Pelton wheel turbine at the Khramsk power plant has a
frequency ofjet action on the buckets equal to 375 x 4/60 = 25 Hz; the frequ-
ency of jet action on the Pelton wheel at the Gizel'donsk power plant is
500 x 2/60= 16.66 Hz.
The runner of the Pelton wheel at the Khramsk plant has 18 buckets.
Water issues from one. pair of nozzles located diametrically opposite one
another and strikes the buckets with a frequency of 375 x 18/60= 112.5 Hz.
The other pair of nozzles delivers water to the buckets at the same frequency
but with a phase shift of 10°. So the periodic component of the moment of
a
the force acting on the runner at the Khramsk plant has frequency of
225 Hz.
2.10 Hydraulic Imbalance of Radial-Axial Turbine RUDDer
Violation of symmetrical pressure distribution at the lateral surface of a

radial-axial turbine runner, which gives rise to a variable perturbation force
on it, is known as hydraulic imbalance. Hydraulic imbalance of a runner
occurs when:
1) the gland seal rings on the runner wear out eccentrically;
2) the rim of the runner is machined in order to remove metal from one
side during balancing (this procedure is adopted by many manufacturers);
3) the shape of the balancing mass attached to the outer surface of the
.rim of the runner is wrong, so it disturbs the symmetry of pressure distribu-
tion on the lateral surface of the runner.
Let us consider the physical nature of the variable forces that give rise to
increased vibration of the shaft.
. We will assume that the rotating gland seal ring is located eccentrically.
Then the rotating seal ring will also be eccentric in relation to the stationary
seal ring (Fig. 2.37a, b).
The pressure PI upstream of the seal and'the pressure P2 downstream are
assumed to be constant along the periphery. We will also assume that the seal
gap is straight, as in the Figure. Then the pressure loss from leakage of water
through the gap will be:
(
PI-P2=Y (en+(ez+2o 2g'
AI) v~
where y is the specific weight of the water;
(," is the loss coefficient at the entrance, which on the average is 0.3;
(OJ, is the loss coefficient at the exit = 1.0;
A is the loss coefficient due to friction in the gap, which is a function
of the Reynolds number, Re.
For cylindrical gaps. E.!. Kozhe~ikova [58] gives the following value
for A: .
1 2.0
11.= Reo.45 ' .
v:z·20.
where R e=--;
. v
-v:z is the velocity ofleakage flow through the gap, m/sec;
ois the radial gap, m;
v is the dynamic viscosity of water.
The variation in pressure loss through the gap is shown in Fig. 2.37c, from
which it can be seen that the pressure at the entrance on the side of the larger
gap will be smaller than that at the smaller gap. .. .
Let us determine the lateral force acting on the runner. We will assume
that the variation in pressure along the periphery at the entrance varies ac-
cording to the sine law (Fig. 2.37d).
It is obvious that the force acting on the elemental area rdrp located at an
angle rp with respect to the abscissa will be:
dF =P ~p:z rdrpl,
where r is the radius of the gland seal;

1is the length of the gap.
According to the law selected for variation in press~e at the entrance of
• • • . rp
t he gap P=PI-( PI-PI) SIO 2'
at rp=O (point where the gap is minimum), p=p;.
at rp = 1t (point where the gap is maximum), P = p;.
Then
The projection of the force in the x and y directions will be:

2n ,
p; +P2-(P~-p~) sin ~
P::t:= -
J
o
2 Ir cos rpdrp;
(1 +~ent) V~/2g
P,
p d
b
Fig. 2.37. Eccentric position of the gland seal riog and
pressure loss 00 both sides of the seal gap.
In view of the symmetrical location of the gaps with respect to the x axis
Py = O. The total force P::t: acting on the rim of the runner when there are un-
equal gaps in the gland seal would be:
2"
P; +P2-(P; -p~) sin 1

P,,= -
Jo 2 Ir cos rpdrp
2ft 2ft
p~ +P2 P; - P; . rp J
= -
o
J "-2- Ir cos rp drp + -2- Ir Sin 2 cos rpdrp.
0
Since we are considering the sealing arrangement under steady state flow
conditions the pressures P;, P2 and P; as <well as I and r will be constant. They
may be taken outside the integral sign so that we have:
2ft 2ft
P,,= - P~+P2
-2- /r Jcos rpdrp+ P;-P;
-2- /r J' SIn 2"rp cos rpdrp.
o 0
The first integral is zero and hence:
• • 2ft
P -PI Ir
P"=-2- J' rp
SIn '2 cos rp drp
o
•
= PI-PI/
-2- r
•
J'
2ft
rp(l -
SIn'2. SID 2rp)d
2' 2" rp
o
2ft 2ft
= +P; ;p~ /r [ Jsin ~ drp-2 Jsi~3; drpJ.

o 0
2ft 2ft
The integral Jsin ~ drp= -2 cos ~ I=2.
o 0
Substituting in the second integral

2ft "
~ =;; drp=2dx; -2 Jsin3rdrp=-4 Jsin3xdx
o 0
2ft " 2ft

= -4[ _.!.3 sin !2 cos!2 oI+~3 Jsin XdxJ= -4[-~3 cos!2 IJ=-~3"
2
Thus:
_ 2 (p; - p;) Ir
P".-- 3 .
The minus sign shows that P" is in the direction of the larger gap. If the
gap is uniform all around the periphery, i.e.p; =P; then P,,=O. The maximum"
hydrodynamic lateral force occurs when the gap on one side diminishes to 0;
then p~ = Pl' Consequently when the gap is different at different points on the
periphery of the seal ring a lateral hydrodynamic force appears which is in the
direction of the larger gap. Since the minimum gap is displaced during rota-
tion of the runner the direction in which the lateral force acts also changes
with a fundamental frequency=n/60 Hz.
We may note here that when the shaft is located eccentrically (due to poor
centering) the seal dng gaps will likewise be
nonuniform and there will be a hydrodynamic
force in the direction of the larger gap. However,
in the case of vertical shafts this force will press
the runner so as to center it without exciting
vibrations since it is constantly directed toward
one side (force of damped vibrations).
In order to increase the damping forces
"Escher-Wyss" patented (1957) a gland seal .
arrangement for radial-axial turbines, shown in
Fig. 2.38.
When the runner goes out of true it is brought
back to the central position by the resultant
forces developing on the lateral surfaces of the Fig.2 .38. Construction of a
seal arrangement. damping seal ring manufac-
In a horizontal turbine, due to curvature of tured by "Escber-Wyss."
the shaft the gaps in the seal rings will be smaller
below than above. Under certain operating conditions it may so happen that
the magnitude of the hydrodynamic forces are comparable to the weight of
the rotating parts and the shaft "floats." But the lift of the rotor widens the
seal gap at the bottom, the hydrodynamic force diminishes and the shaft
drops. This gives rise to severe vibration of the shaft.
Prof. A.A. Lomakin [71] showed that the frictional forces of the fluid in
the seals influence the stability of rotation of shafts of high-head hydraulic
machines. In such cases vibrations occur in some particular operating regimes
and the stabiJity of the system is upset. The vibrations show a periodic rise
and fall in amplitude. The increase in vibrations finally brings the runner into
contact with the stationary parts and the vibrations abruptly diminish. Then
they begin to increase again.
Thus the hydraulic perturbation forces arising in the seals are directly
proportionil1 to the pressure in the seal gap. Consequently, as the load on the
turbine increases the vibration of the unit also increases. As stated earlier,
the frequency of vibrations and the variation in perturbation forces COrres-
. pond to the turning speed. The magnitude of the force due to fluid friction is
small in comparison with the elastic and inertial forces. Hence vibrations
occur with the natural frequency of the lateral vibrations of the shaft.
Hydraulic imbalance may also occur when -the balancing mass attached
to the rim of the runner protrudes above the machined surface, violating the
paraboloid. of fluid rotating in the cavity below the runner. This gives rise to
asymmetrical pressure distribution on the rim and fluctuations of water pres-
sure between the turbine cover and the runner or its rim and the packing. The
smooth opera~ion of the turbine is disturbed.
The balancing mass must be located so as not to destroy the symmetry of
pressure distribution in the cavity below the runner.
2.11 Cavitation Phenomenon in Hydraulic Turbines
The cavitation phenomenon in hydroturbines, apart from its destructive

action on the metal of the runner and other parts of the turbine, also leads to
excessive vibration of the unit and water hammer in the draft tube. Cavitation
occurs in the flow passages of the turbine where the pressure drops to the
vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature of the water. This leads to
a partial vacuum, bubble formation and disturbance of the uniformity of
flow. The flow changes to that of a two-phase mix (water and water vapor
bubbles). The vapor bubbles falling in the zone of increasing pressure parti-
ally condense, as a result of which local hydraulic shocks occur. Coalescence
of individual vapor bubbles occurs over a very short lapse of time, leading in
practice to an intense rise 'of pressure. If the coalescence of bubbles occurs
at the surface of the metal it gradually gets pitted atthese places. The frequ-
ency of pressure fluctuations in the flow at the points where cavitation occurs
varies over a wide range, from a fraction of a hertz to ultrasonic frequencies.
The appearance of the cavitation phenomenon in turbines is accompanied by
noise and water hammer which are transmitted to the runner, the lining of
the draft tube and other parts of the turbine. Cavitation conditions in a tur-
bine are evaluated in terms of a cavitation coefficient:
B-H,-H,
(1= H '
Where B is the barometric pressure;

-H, is the draft height;
H, is vapor pressure;'
Ii is the head at the turbine.
The permissible draft height for a given power output and head is obtained
from the curves of operating characteristics of a turbine.
The velocity and pressure distributions at the entrance section of the draft
tube have a considerable influence on the cavitation conditions.
Figure--2.39 shows the velocity distribution at the entrance section of a
model of a draft tube obtained.at the M.l. Kalinin Polytechnic Institute in
Leningrad. It may be seen that large velocities (70%) occur in the elbow of the
draft tube at the upper surface. The pressure here is considerably lower than
that on the opposite side. Hence it is necessary to introduce the Corio lis
coefficient ~ in the formula for determining the minimum pressure at the en-
trance section of the draft tube. This coefficient, especially under off-design
conditions, may reach large values (> 3) which cannot be overlooked in
determining the allowable draft height.
Bernoulli's equation for the entrance and exit sections of a draft tube may
be written as follows:
P2 v~ Po v~
-+~2-2 +Z2=-+Zo+oco - +h2-o,
y . g y 2g
where the suffix 2 corresponds to the entrance section of the draft tube and
suffix a to the exits ection; P2 and po are the average pressures; V2 and Vo are
the average velocities; Z2 and zo are the water levels; h2-o is hydraulic loss
over the section 2 -a.
From this equation it can be seen that the greater the nonuniformity of
flow after the runner (OC2), the lower the pressure P2/Y' Our tests on several
hydro turbines have shown that when the wicket gate opening is reduced the
pressure at the entrance section of the draft tube increases at the periphery
but falls at the center. Fig. 2.40 shows the nature of pressure variation in the
draft tube of one turbine under varying load conditions of wicket gate open-
ings. It was observed that with wicket gate openings ranging from 45 through
65% severe hydraulic shocks occurred.
From Fig. 2.40 it may be seen that in the range of wicket gate openings
from 45 through 60% the pressure at the periphery of the draft tube is positive
while in the central portion it is negative.
m. std. water
3 ~.---_.- .
ptfflJ Io! 3
~.
2
I 1
"
. .I aO
10 20 30 40 50 "60 70 80 90
.~ I
-1
.....
"
I~ miV
-2
~~ 2f'
-3 ~ Operation of units as IIooc....
I-
synchronous condenser
without c.entrlfuging
-4
Fig. 2.40. Variation of pressure in draft tube
Fig. 2.39. Velocity distribution at entrance of 34,000 kW turbine operating at 32.5 m
section of draft tube of model turbine head at various wicket gate openings:
at M.l. Kalinin Polytechnic Institute I-Periphery of draft tube; 2-central zone;
in Leningrad. 3-amplitude of pressure variations.
Figure 2.41 is a diagram of pressure variations at the periphery of the draft

tube recorded by the author during tests on another unit. The unit was sub-
jected to severe hydraulic shocks in the dr_aft tube. The force of these shocks
and the noise and vibrations they caused varied with the operating conditions
of the turbine. It was found that the unit operated smoothly.at design condi-
tions corresponding to a 75 to 80% wicket gate opening. A reduction in the
wicket gate opening gave rise to greater vibrations at the upper spider of the
generator. They reached a maximum with a wicket gate opening between 40
and 55%. The pressure fluctuations in the draft tube reached a maximum con-
currently.
The flow distribution in the draft tube may be approximately described as
follows: Under design conditions the flow of water is close to axial. Under
m. SId. waler 80=8%
i~ft"'" ::c o,",ll',!'l_v.." :§j@

m.".;_
E }v. <PH:
ao =33%
l!_~
~10sec-
m. sId. W81er . ao =50%
'i~
m. sId. Waler ao =:56%
:;~II
m.8Id.w~ler~Y 80: 63 %
_gE:f:OQ 0- OX1S<>0-~oos:c ....on n ?;1==3 Quoooo.a
m. s~. waler ·ao =82%
m. std. Waler ~Et 10 :ecz:::0=::3 80"=95%
::1 :
1:;::: 10 sec
OF?
;t::1
Fig. 2.41. Pressure variation at periphery of draft tube without
air injection: ao-wicket gate opening.'
these circumstances the flow of water around the profiles of the runner blades
is the most favorable and the pressure at the entrance of the draft tube
downstream of the runner is almost identical at all points.
When there is a deviation from the nominal (design) operating conditions
of the turbine tangential components of velocities appear at the exit of the
runner. It is found that the smaller the wicket gate opening, the greater the
rotation of the flow leaving the runne"r. This leads to a pressure rise at the
periphery of the draft tube due to the higher centrifugal force of the flow.
Pressure in the central zone of the draft tube falls continuously with decreas-
ing wicket gate openings and finally there is a transition to a vacuum.
Flow separation from the runner blades gives rise to the formation of air
bubbles which cause water hammer in the draft tube when they are drawn
into the high-pressure region. Flow separation may be observed over some
particular ranges of flow velocities. This phenomenon may be due to unsatis-
factory profiling of the runner blades. In such cases the frequency of vibra-
tions corresponds to the frequency of pressure pulsations in the draft tube.
It may be noted that during the construction of hydro power plants
(especially of large installed capacity) it is economically desirable to commis-
sion the first few units before the construction of the plant is completed.
However, this leads to the first units operating under low heads compared to
the design conditions. During construction of the Bratsk power plant the
first unit was commissioned at a head of 49 m against a design head of 96 m.
Under normal operating conditions the specific speed of this turbine is
n~ = 70 rpm, whereas during its initial period of operation its specific speed
was 100 rpm.
As a rule the operation of m H .. h 96m .... 1-10""
90 Hm~
turbines in these circumstances ~
80
at low heads continues for a
year or more until the storage 70 ~m H=51m I ,,~
reservoir fills to the design 60 H1 52m
level. Fig. 2.42 shows the varia- 50 ~ H=56'"I I
tions in head for the radial- 40 Commissioning of first unit

I ~Commissioning of second unit
axial turbines of the· Bratsk 30
I ~CommisSioning of third
power plant for different years. 20
It may be se"en that operation 10 I
and fourth units
~Commissioning of fifth unit
-
of the turbines at low heads I
o 1961 1962 1963 I 1964 I 1965
continued for more than two
years. Fig. 2.42. Variation of head at the Bratsk
"The operation of these tur- power plant during commissioning of its units.
bines at low heads (which they
were not designed for) led to cavitation, which severely damaged the runner
blades due to cavitation erosion. Moreover, operation of the turbines under
these conditions caused excessive pressure pulsations and water hammer in
the turbine flow passages: cracks developed in the blades of the turbine
runner. These phenomena were entirely to be expected since the cavitation
coefficient increases with an increase in specific speeds even when the flow rate
is constant. An inspection of the inlet velocity triangles of a radial-axial tur-
bine at low heads shows a considerable increase in the energy losses due to
shock at the entry, which is also responsible for the deterioration of the
transient operation conditions of the turbine.
Obviously in this case it would have been more appropriate to follow the
suggestions made by the LMZ (Leningrad Metal Plant) and KhTGZ (Khar-
kov Turbo-Generator Plant) regarding the installation of temporary runners
for high specific speeds or the use of alternators having two synchronous
speeds at such plants.
Conclusions. The qualitative analysis of hydrodynamic perturbation for~
ces shows that the variation in the fundamental frequencies of forces covers
a wide range: from fractions of a cycle to 300Hz (here we are not concerned
either with harmonic frequencies or with ultrasonic vibrations in the flow,
which may occur during cavitation in hydro units).
It may be noted that in most of the cases examined the greatest values of
amplitude of vibrations were those of blade components and low-frequency
components of perturbation forces due to cavitation.
C. ELECTRICAL PERTURBATION FORCES
. When an alternator operates under steady state conditions the perturba-

tion forces at work are:
l) periodic component of magnetic pull;
2) forces arising due to nonuniform air gap between the stator and rotor;
3) forces that appear during short circuiting of the rotor winding;
4) forces that appear during asymmetrical operation of the alternator;
5) forces that occur during a prolonged short circuit of the generator bus
bars.
All these forces appearing during operation of the generator act on the
different elements of the hydro unit to some extent or other in conjunction
with other perturbation forces. Since the electrical perturbation forces origi-
nate in the generator their impact on the various elements of the structure
depends on the type of generator. In the case of pendant-type hydro units
the load-bearing spider is usually mounted on the generator stator and the
vibrations of the latter are transmitted to the spider.
In umbrella-type hydro units the load-bearing spider is mounted On a
separate foundation and is not connected to the generator stator.
The frequency of electrical perturbation forces is fairly high (50 Hz and
more) under steady state operating conditions. Their impact is largely con-
fined to the stator (deformation and displacement) and to a lesser extent to
the turbine. Hence vibrations caused by electrical perturbation forces in

generators of the umbrella type are transmitted to the load-bearing spider to
a smaller extent than in pendant-type generators. .
The periodic component of a magnetic pull. The current flowing through
the windings of the generator rotor establishes a magnetoInotive force on the
rotor and magnetic induction in the air gap. Radial forces between rotor and
stator appear around the periphery of the rotor. These try to bring them
closer together.
The radial forces on an elemental arc of the rotor:
. SB2
p= 25 X 106 kgf,
where S is the surface area of the element of the rotor, cm2;
B is the magnetic induction, gf.
The variable component of magnetic force acts on the rotor at pole fre-
quency, i.e. 100 Hz, when the speed of the rotor is nominal.
An asymmetriCal air gap between the stator and rotor (for instance when
the stator is elliptical due to radial displacement of individual poles, etc.)
leads to a unidirectional radial force directed toward the point where the gap
is smaller. The maximum allowable deviation between rotor and stator for
machines having salient poles, according to the Kirov "Elektrosila" plant, is
10 to 15% of the mean air gap. If the deviation from the norm is appreciable
it must be corrected by centering or adjusting the rotor and stator. If neces-
sary, shims may be placed below the poles for this purpose. The frequency of
variation in the perturbation forces acting on the rotor or stator will then be
equal to:
ni/60 or 2 ni/60 Hz,
where n is the speed of the shaft, rpm;
i = I, 2, 3 represents the order of harmonics.
_ The asymmetry of the air gap is verified by gauging when the unit is
stationary. However, when the unit is in operation it may give rise to a
unidirectional rotor displacement which cannot be measured by gauges. In
this case the magnetic asymmetry can be better seen on an oscillograph which
simultaneously records the electrodynamic force in the three windings located
in the air gap on the periphery at 1200 to each other.
The characteristic indications of violation of the symmetry of magnetic
induction are: .
a) low vibration of the unit when run on low load and no excitation or
increase in vibrations with an increase in the excitation current;
b) with normal shaft speed and normal voltage at the stator terminals the
excitation current is greater after the onset of increased vibrations than
before;
c) the curves II drawn for no-load operations A and three-phase short
circuit at the stator terminals B lie below the corresponding characteristics I

obtained for operation before the onset of vibrations (Fig. 2.43a);
d) gradual decrease in vibrations with gradual reduction in voltage at the
stator terminals;
e) instantaneous disappearance of vibrations when the excitation is with-
drawn by the automatic field suppression of the rotor.
Short circuiting of generator field winding. If some of the field windings in
(i ) the rotor are short circuited (or are
.: u 0 I partially shunted by an external resist-
.. Cl nom ance) the distribution of magnetic
:g~.:~ I--~~-r-~--.J induction in the air gap becomes
> "i uneven and there is a resultant uni-
'1:1.
:; g 1--~7f-.....~r~;wi directional force which, acting on the
c! ~ ......-1~7 rotor "and the stator, gives rise to
; vibrations. The frequency of these
u
vibrations may be a multiple of the
turning speed of the hydro unit shaft.
A complete short -circuit of the
rotor field windings or partial shunt-
ing can easily be detected with an
oscillograph. For this purpose a con-
1 3 5 7 9 1113 15 No. of poles
ductor spanning a single pole pitch is
b fixed in the space between the rotor
Fig. 2.43. No-load operation character- and stator. The generator is run on no
istics, short circuiting of generator field load and excitation is introduced.
windings and oscillograph of current The electromotive force in the con~
flowing in conductors.
ductor is recorded on the oscillo-
graph. If the rotor winding is defective the oscillograph shows a dip in the
sinusoidal trace of the e.m.f. when the pole with the damaged winding
traverses the conductor.
Figure 2.43b shows the oscillograph obtained on a generator type VV-65~
.375 of465,000 kW output under no-load conditions with an excitation current
of 75 amp. It was found that the twelfth pole was damaged. In order to
identify the damaged pole, a contactor was attached to the generator shaft to
close the circuit once every revolution. The voltage from the contactor was
. transmitted to another loop of the oscillograph. After the defect was rectified
(short circuiting of the adjacent coil winding) the vibration of the upper
spider fell from 0.22 to 0.06 mm.
On one generator 17 of the 56 pole windings short circuited. This led to
excessive vibrations which reached dangerous proportions. The unit had to
. be stopped immediately. When the automatic field damper was isolated these
vibrations instantly disappeared.
Asymmetrical operating regime of generator. In many cases the system
operating conditions are such that It is necessary to run the hydro units with
asymmetrical loads on the three phases. For instance, the consumer may
have large single-phase electric furnaces to which power is supplied through
two lines with the earth as the third. The generator delivers power through a
group of transformers loaded on only two phases.
In all these cases the current flowing in the three phases is not in equili-
brium and the rotating magnetic flux generated by the stator winding becomes
variable.
This current may be thought of as comprising two components: one rotat-
ing synchronously with the rotor and the other in the opposite direction. The
magnetic lines of flux rotating in opposite directions induce a current of
•
double the frequency in the exciter coils. Apart from additional heating of
the rotor, this leads to variable oscillating forces between the stator and the
rotor at double the frequency (100 Hz). The greater the asymmetry of current
flow in the three phases, the greater the vibration of the hydro unit. For hydro
unit alternators the allowable asymmetry of current flow in the three phases·
is 20% (PTE-, sections 25, 24). It has been found by experiment that in such
cases the vibrations do not exceed the permissible limits. ,
Conclusions. Under steady state conditions perturbation forces of electri-
cal origin have their first harmonic frequencies as follows: a fundamental
frequency corresponding to the speed of rotation (50 Hz) and a frequency
double the former (100 Hz). .
D. MALADJUSTMENT OF UNIT DUE TO EXCESSIVE VIBRATIONS
2.12 Slackening of Assembled Components and Bolted Joints
Slackening of joints occurs at the supporting lugs of the upper spider of

the generator, the housing of the generator guide bearing, the lower spider,
the hub of the turbine runner and labyrinth seal ring, the generator rotor
poles, the runner blades of adjustable-blade turbines, the fixture between the
shaft and runner of radial-axial turbines, the bolts holding the buckets and
the runner disc and distance pieces between them in Pelton wheel turbines,
the bolts in the flange couplings and the detachable segments of the turbine
hOUSing in adjustable-blade turbines.
2.13 Increases in Clearance in Guide Bearings of Turbines and Generators
The rotor practically always has a certain amount of residual imbalance

and other disturbing forces which may throw the unit out of stable operating·
conditions. If under these circumstances the clearances in the guide bearings
become excessive the shaft may begin to vibrate. -
·PTE-(Pravila tekhnicheskoi eksplutatsii) Maintenance Regulations-Translator.
In harmonic motion the maximum acceleration of vibrating motion is

equal to j=aw 2 , where a is the amplitude of vibrations.
This acceleration of the rotor increases in dire.ct proportion to the ampli-
tude of vibrations, which is governed by the clearance in the bearings. Since
the product of mass and acceleration equals a force, the dynamic com-
ponent of the force due to pressure on the bearings of the hydro unit also
increases and so do the vibrations. Hence the clearances in the beasings must
be kept within the allowable limits prescribed by the manufacturer.
2.14 Resonance between Frequency of Perturbation Forces and

Natural Frequency of Vibrations of Assembled Components
The amplitude of vibrations increases abruptly if the frequency of the per-

turbation forces approximates to the natural frequency of vibration of the
structure. In this- case we get the resonance phenomenon or pulsations.
Sometimes the amplitude of vibrations is so large that it is impossible to run
the unit under design load conditions. Not only the supports and shaft of the
hydro unit may be in resonance with the perturbation forces but also indivi-
dual elements like guard rails, stator cover, oil piping, adjusting rods, etc.
as well as the penstock piping delivering water to the turbines of the power
plant. .
In each case it is necessary to find out if resonance exists and take steps to
eliminate it. Usually this can be done by eliminating or reducing the pertur-
bation forces and increasing the rigidity of the structure or installing addi-
tional supports. In carrying out checks it is necessary to evaluate or deter-
mine the natural frequency of vibration of individual components of the unit
whose vibrations seem to be excessive. This may be determined from the
oscillograph of the damped vibrations.
The natural frequency of vibrations of the following components of the
unit must be known:
Generator spider; exciter housing and
governor; generator stator; hydroturbine
,'" J L2
I \
\
cover; runner blades; hydro unit shaft
(flexural, torsional and pendulum vibra-
\
tions); shaft extension (exciter. shaft) and
\
,
_- " .... other components of the hydro unit;
penstock pipe delivering water to the
turbines.
w, w 2
The natural frequency of vibrations
Angular veloc:ilV
may be determined from.the oscillograph
Fig. 2.44. Natural frequency of
vibration of generator spider: 1- of damped vibrations of a component
transverse to spider supports; 2- when equilibrium conditions are disturb-
along axes of spider supports. ed. The latter may be achieved by a blow
or sharp tap on the structure. It should be noted that the natural frequency
of vibrations is different in different directions and is primarily dependent on
the rigidity of the structure in a particular direction. For instance, the spider
supports transverse section is far more compliant (low rigidity) in the hori-
zontal direction than in the horizontal direction along the axes of the
supports. Hence the natural frequency of vibration of the spider in the
direction transverse to the supports will be lower than that in the direction
along the axes of the spider supports (Fig. 2.44).
For generator spiders the natural frequency of vibration in the vertical
direction may be approximately determined from its static deflection;
fc= l5.8/..{x;"
where x.,' is in mm.
Table 2.8 shows the values of deflection and natural frequency of vertical
vibration of the load-bearing spider determined empirically. \
Table 2.8
Static deflection Natural frequency Type Type'

Power plant . - due to weight of of vertical of of
rotating parts, vibrations, turbine generator
mm Hz
----------------------------------------
Kadyr'insk 0,22 33,7 RO P
(Francis)
Adzharis-Tskal'sk 0,28 30 RO P
Zemo-Avcahl'sk I 0,22 33,7 RO P
Rionsk 0,32 _ 28 RO P
Ravaksk 0,16 39.6 RO Z
Aktepinsk 0.58 20,7 RO P
Akkavaksk I 0.42 24.4 RO P
A1ckavaksk II 0.40 25,0 PR P
(propeller)
Belorechensk 16.5 RO P
Salarsk 0.28 30 PL P
(Kaplan)
Kegumsk 0.56 21.5 PL Z
Tulomsk 0.64 19.8 PL P
Tereblyariksk 0.22·' 33.7 RO P
Gor'kovsk 1.50 12.9 PL Z
----------------------------------------
Note: RO-radial-axial turbine (Francis); PL-adjustable-blade turbine (Kaplan);
P-pendant type; Z-umbrella type,
As can be seen, the natural frequencies of the generator spider supports

in the vertical plane lie within the following limits:
for generators of the pendant type " , , , .20-35 Hz;
for generators of the umbrella type ... , .. 12-40 Hz;
The natural frequency of horizontal vibration of the exciter housing and

governor is usually obtained with the help of an oscillograph of damped vi-
brations after introducing a disturbance in the form of a sharp tap on the
structure. Usually these frequencies are not higher than 20 Hz (18 to 20 Hz
for the hydro units at the Tkibul'sk power plant and 12.5 to 14 Hz at the
Dubossarsk plant). The natural frequency of vibration of the generator
stator is fairly high. Instrument checks on the natural frequency of vibration
at various power plants in the radial direction (data supplied by G. Ter-
Gazaryan) and the tangential (our findings) showed the following frequencies
(Table 2.9):
Table 1.9
Natural frequency of.vibrations of stator, Hz

Power plant
10 tangeotial directioo
10 radial direction
(torsional vibrations)
Kanakersk II 50
zemo-Avchal'sk I 60
Sukhumsk 80
Adzharis-Tskal'sk 110
Kanakersk I 130
HEP No. 14, Mosenergo 120
Khramsk I 140 40
Baksansk 150
Kegumsk 25
Farkhadsk 35
Dneprovsk 50
Dneprovsk 32
The natural frequency of vibration of the turbine cover of hydro units

where the thrust bearing is located at the cover is obtained from its deflection
due to the weight of the rotating parts. The natural frequency of vibration of
the hydroturbine cover at the V.I. Lenin Volga power plant was found to be
approximately 12 Hz after its rigidity had been increased. Usually for tur-
bines of large power output this frequency lies between 40 and 65 Hz. For
small turbines it may reach 80 to 120 Hz.
The natural frequency of vibration of the runner blades of a hydroturbine
is shown in Table 2.6. Torsional vibrations at the lower rim are dangerous in
the case of radial-axial turbines. This is because the lower rim acts as a mass
attached to flexible plates (blades). These frequencies, according to available
data, are between 40 and 80 Hz.
Pelton wheel turbines usually"have a natural frequency of vibration of the
buckets between 100 and 150 Hz or more. The figures for the Pelton wheel
turbines of hydro units at the following plants were found to be:
Steady State Operating Conditions· I I I
Alma-Atinsk " 440

Khramsk I 200
Korenishchinsk ~ 180
Zvaretinsk 220
Bzhuzhsk 190
Torsional vibrations of shaft. Torsional vibrations of the shaft are obtain-

ed by calculation.
Transverse flexural vibrations of the shaft depend on its rigidity, location
of the supports, load and length of the shaft. If one knows the deflection of
the composite system the principal mode of vibration may be approximately
•
determined by the following formula:
(J)
cr
= JgfPI YI. _1 .
sec'
/I'
Ip,Y7
1
30 (J)cr
ncr = - - , rpm,
1t
where YI is the static deflection at the point where load PI is applied;

g is the acceleration due to gravity.
In order to determine (J)e, the vertical shaft is thought of as a horizontal
one between supports loaded with the mass of the exciter, generator, coupling
and turbine runner.
Depending on the location and number of the rotors and bearings the
indeterminate system is solved to obtain the deflections at the points where
the load due to the mass of the rotors is applied. In such cases it is more
convenient to use the tables and nomograms prepared by the Leningrad
Metal Plant (LMZ) [30]. A series of check calculations were carried out for.
the transverse shaft vibrations of a number of turbines and their critical
angular frequencies were determined (Table 2.10).
Table 2.]0
Normal'turning Desjgn critical

Power plant Ratio
speed, rpm speed, rpm
Dubossarsk- 150 1,020 7.0

Kanakersk I 500 1,570 3.2
Rionsk 300 975 3.25
Belorechensk 185.7 850 4.8
Kegumsk 107 340 3.1
Bratsk, named for 50th
Anniversary of the Great
October Revolution 125 575 4.6
-The transverse vibration of the generator shaft extension.

Considerable weal' or loosening of the bolts of one of the guide bearings

may sharply reduce the critical frequency.. For instance, at the Kanakersk
power plant the critical frequency fell to 450 rpm because of loosening of
bolts at the lower generator bearing, which could have caused resonance. In
a similar case at the Belorechensk plant the critical speed ncr was found to be
320 rpm. _
Torsional vibration of the shaft. The periodic time of the torsional vibra-
tions of the generator-turbine system is determined according to the equation:
T=27t J J,JgL ,
-, GoJo(J,+Jg )
where J,= (G~2), moment of inertia of the turbine rotor;
. (GD2)
J g = 4g g, moment of inertia of the generator rotor;
Go is the shear modulus=85 x 104 kg/cm 2 for steels;
Jo is the moment of inertia of the area of the cross-section· of the
shaft;
7t
J,o- - (D4_d 4)
-32 '
./
where D is the outer diameter of the shaft;

d is the inner diameter of the shaft;
L is the length of the shaft from the axis of the generator rotor collar
to the center of the turbine rotor.
When the weight of the shaft is also taken into account the formula used is:
T=27t
J J'J'L
' g. . ,
GoJo(J, +Jg)
The values of J; and J~ are obtained from the equations:
, 1 . Jp •
J,=J'+"jJa J,+Jg'
. 1 J,.-. yLJo
Jg=Jg+-3 J'J-J'
,+ g J,=--,
g
where y is the specific weight of the shaft material;
J a is the moment of inertia of the shaft..
If the frequency of revolution of the hydro unit shaft coincides with the
natural frequency of torsional vibrations of the turbine-generator rotor
system one may observe an increase in the vibration of the shaft and enhanc-
ed vibration of the supports.
illustrative example. A turbine with a turning speed of 7S rpm has a shaft
whose external and internal diameters are 900 mm and 350 mm respectively.
The periodic time of torsional vibrations T is to be determined. The moment
. of inertia of the generator rotor (GD2), = 13,300 tons· m2, the moment of
inertia of the turbine (GD2), = 1,100 tons· m2 • The length of the shaft, from
the axis of the generator rotor collar to the center of the turbine rotor,
L= 11,745 mm. The shear modulus Go=85 x]()4 kg/cm 2 ; y=7.8 tons/m 3 •
Neglecting the mass of the shaft
The moments of inertia of the turbine and generator rotors are:
(GD2)t ],]00
J t =-4g- = --=28
4g
tons·m·sec 2,•
(GD2), ]3,000
J'="4g"" =~=339tons.m.sec2;
1Z 1Z
Jo= - (D4_d4)= - (9()4-35 2)=630.10 4 cm 4 •
32 32, '
r 28· lQ5·339· 10'·1174.5

=21Z\J 85.1()4.630.1()4 (339+28).10'= 1·49 sec.
Frequency of vibrations f = ~= 1.~9 = O· 671 Hz;

nc,=60f=60·0.671 Hz=40.3 rpm.
Taking the mass of the shaft into account
_yUo_ 7.8· 11.75·630· 1()4·1O- 8 -0587' t
J'--g--
2.
9.81 -. ons·sec,
'-J -!
J.J,_ 8 !.58 . 0-2. 339
J,- ,.+ 3 Jt+Jg-2 + 3 .7] 339+28=28.18 tons .m·sec
' 2·
,
, 1 J.J, l' 0 2 28
, Jp=Jp +'3 J,+Jg= 339+ 3 .58.7.1 - . 339+28 =339.015 tons·m·sec 2;
, r 28.18·339.015 ·1174.5 ·10'

T =27r\J 85.1()4.630.]Q4 (339.015+28.18) = 1.495 sec,
from which
, 60
, n c,= T =40.1 rpm.
From the above example, it may be, seen that when the mass of the shaft
is taken into account it slightly lowers the natural frequency of the torsional
vibrations of the shaft.
When this turbine'was brought to a stop, as the turning speed fell to 35 to
40 rpm increasing pulsations of the shaft were observed. This condition did
not persist for long because at n=45 rpm braking force was applied to the
hydro unit.
Table 2.11 shows the computed values of torsional vibrations of hydro
unit shafts at several plants.
Table 1.11
• Power plant
Dubossarsk
Dubossarsk
Conditions for which calculations
have been carried out
With shaft extension but without .

taking into account mass of shaft
Shaft with turbine and generator
rotor masses
Frequency of
vibrations, Hz
19.4
8.2
Khramsk -do- 36.5

Kakhovsk -do- 6.32
Tereblyariksk -do- 24.0
Kegumsk -do- 7.0
BeIorechensk -do- 11.0
Aktepinsk -do- 12.0
Dneprovsk -do- 7.5
Gor'kovsk -do- 6.8
Ivan~kovsk -do- 11.2
It may be noted that in the case of adjustable-blade turbines the frequency

of torsional vibration of the shaft depends to a certain extent on the angle at
which the runner blades are set.
According to data gathered during tests on the turbine at the Kegumsk
power plant the frequency oftorsional vibration varied from 6 through 7 Hz.
It varied from 5 through 6.5 Hz at the Gor'kovsk plant.
, Pendulom vibration of shaft. A hydro unit shaft supported· by a. footstep
and having guide bearing clearances behaves like a pendulum system. It may
oscillate about the footstep as a pivot in the vertical plane passing through it.
. Neglecting the damping effect of frictional forces, the equation of the natural
frequency of pendulum osciUation may be written as follows:
where J is the reduced moment of inertia of the rotor of the hydro unit;
• qJ is the angle of rotation of the thrust bearing seat;
M 1 is the elastic moment during turning of the thrust bearing seat

through unit angle;
M2 is the restoring moment due to the weight of the rotor for unit angle
of rotation of the thrust bearing seats.
The solution of this equation gives the fundamental frequency of pendulum
oscillations:
fp=(J)P=~ {MI-M2.
2n . 2n'V J
Usually, the fundamental frequency fp lies between 2 and B Hz.
Vibrations of penstock piping. The phenomenon of resonance may also
occur in a hydro unit when the frequency of hydraulic perturbation forces
•
(for instance, pressure variations in the draft tube due to cavitation condi·
tions or vortex separation from the runner) coincides with the natural fre-
quency of vibrations of the piping or some part of it or with the velocity of
propagation of pressure waves along·. the pipeline. If these frequencies
approximate to one another pulsations may be set up with alternate increas-
ing and decreasing amplitude of vibrations.
As is well known, the time taken for propagation of pressure waves along
the pipeline from the turbine to the level of the headwaters or surge well and
back is equal to
T=2L,
Q
where L is the length of the pipeline, m;

a is the velocity of propagation of pressure waves (depending on the
tube material, wall thickness and diameter of pipeline), m/sec;
1,425
a= JI+A ~io'
where A is the nondimensional coefficient depending on the tube material
(for steel tubes it may be assumed that A = 1);
D is the diameter of the pipeline, cm;
c5 is the wall thickness of the pipeline, cm;
Eo is the bulk modulus of elasticity of water, approximately equal to
2.1 x I ()4 kg/cm 2;
E is 2.10 X 106 kg/cm 2 •
The velocity of propagation of pressure waves in pipelines may be deter-
mined from the graph in Fig. 2.45.
It may be noted that transient pressure variations in the pipeline and
vibration are caused by unstable operation of the speed regulator of the
hydro turbine. The vibration of the pipeline becomes especially severe when
the time taken to change the opening of the wicket gates by the speed regu~
lator approximates to or is a multiple of the time taken to propagate pressure
waves through the pipeline (bypass line).
Pressure variation in the pipeline may be due both to faulty working of
the components of the speed regulator and to the characteristics of the power
system if power output is close to the installed capacity of the power plant.
These undesirable phenomena are eli-
m/sec ~ minated by adjusting the regulating system
1300 of the hydroturbines (altering the response
""
•
1200
1100
time of the servomotors, damping valves,
1000
...... etc.).
i'-o.
900 ..... ~ Neglecting the mass of water inside,
800 the damping frequency of lateral vibra-
AD/'>
70°0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N'OI'CQCQON'OI'IDCQON tions of the penstock may be approxi-
...... p' NN
.....
mately determined as that of a beam
Fig. 2.45. Dependence of velocity of
propagation of pressure waves in steel
supported at several points having a cross-
pipeline as a function of diameter section equal to that of the penstock [113].
and thickness of pipe walls: A more accurate formula for these vibra-
D-inner diameter of pipeline; tions, where the mass of water in the
o-wall thickness. penstock is taken into account, is given by
F. Kito [148].
According to Kito the frequency of vibrations of the shell is equal to:
n4 (n 2 _1)2
x
J k2+ 2 2 2 " ,
l_ y2 ,+(n -1) (n +k )2 (1-
--
y2)
where f is the frequency of vibrations, Hz;

r is the radius of the pipeline, cm;
E is the modulus of elasticity of the tube material kg/cm 2;
y is Poisson's ratio for the tube material; for steels y is 0.29;
n is a coefficient characterizing variation in the pipe cross-section
when the penstock vibrates (Fig. 2.46);
k=I{ ~ );
/ is the length of pipeline between adjacent supports, cm;
,,= 2Eh
qr .
(1- v2), •
q is hydrostatic pressure at the middle of the pipeline, kg/cm 2 :
,= h2
3r 2 '
where h is half the thickness of the shell walls;
e is a coefficient that takes into account the specific mass of water in
the pipeline:
)lw r n2
e = Y; h a n2 + I'
where y.. is the specific weight of water;
Yt is the specific weight of tube material;
a is a coeffi(;ient which for practical purposes is equal to lin, (see
•
Fig. 2.46).
n=2 n=3 n=4

Fig. 2.46. Various types of deformation of pipe cross-sections.
In the example described by Den-Hertog [34], the vibration of the pen-

stock pipe and the hydro unit at a frequency of 113.3 Hz became so severe
that they posed a danger to the power plant building. The hydro unit had
18 guide vanes in the wicket gate with 17 blades on the runner. The turning
speed, n, was 400 rpm (f= ~~ x 17= 113.3 Hz). Analysis of the vibrations
showed that their frequency coincided with those 9f th.e blades on the runner.
Den-Hertog gives the following explanation for the cause of these vibrations:
The streams a and b pass through adjace~t g~~~~nes pf the wicket
gates (Fig. 2.47a). During one revolution ot the runner each stream experi-
ences 17 impulses corresponding to the number of blades on the runner.
Hence the streams receive 113.3 impulses per second which are transmitted
to the pipeline. These impulses from all the flow passages of the wicket gates
travelling through the water at sonic velocities (nearly 1,400 m/sec) approach
section A-A ofthe penstock practically in phase with each other. This gives
rise to a very large resultant impulse in the form of the sum of 18 vectors
(Fig.2.47b). It was decided to replace the 17-blade runner with one having 18 .
blades. This measure was found to be beneficial because the impulses of
adjacent streams now approached section A-A with a phase difference of
316~ =200. The vector 'diagram for this case is shown in Fig.2.47c. As can
be seen from the Figure, the resultant vector equals O. These measures helped
b c
Fig. 2.47. Perturbations due to pressure variation in penstock piping:
a-propagation of pressure waves in spiral casing; b-vector diagram
under unfavorable conditions; c-vector diagram under altered
. conditions (resultant force at section A-A=O).
Table 2.12
Method of fix·
ture as shown
in Fig. 2.48
A 3.1416 6.2832 9.4248 12.5664 15.7080

B 4.7300 7.8532 10.9956 14.1372 17.2788
C 3.9266 7.0685 10.2100 . 13.3520 16.4940
D 1.8751 4.6941 7.8548 10.9955 14.1378
b~~--~ d---_~
Fig. 2.48. Single-span arrllDgement of penstock piping.
to reduce the amplitude of penstock vibrations to one-third.

The natural frequency of transverse vibrations of the penstock piping
(without taking into account the weight of the water) supported on rigid
supports (nonelastic) may be approximately determined from the formula
I a~ r
EJ
f;=2n 12 \j m'
where ji is the frequency of the ith mode of vibrations, Hz;

a/ is a coefficient (Tables 2.12 and 2.13) depending on the number of
spans, type of vibrations and method of anchoring the ends of the
pipeline (Figs. 2.48 and 2.49);
I is the distance between penstock supports;
EJ is the transverse cross-sectional rigidity of the pipeline;
m is the mass per meter run of the pipeline.
Usually the following four vibrations are of interest:
Lower and higher fundamental tones and lower and higher first overtones.
Table 2.14 is a list of frequencies of the first harmonics of the principal
perturbation forces acting on hydro units under" steady state operating
•
conditions.
Fig. 2.49. Multiple-span arrangement of penstock piping.
Table 2.13
Method of
fixture as No. of ~ (low) o~ (high) of (low) of (high)
shown in spans 21r 21t 2it 2tt
Fig. 2.49
----------------------------------------
3 1.57 2.94 6.28 8.78
4 1.57 3.17 6.28 9.17
A 5 1.57 3.30 6.28 9.38
6 1.57 3.37 6.28 9.50
co 1.57 3.56 6.28 9.82
----------------------.------------------
3 1.69 3.37 6.54 9.50
4 1.64 U5 6.43 , 9.63
B 5 1.62- 3.49 6.38 9.70
6 1.60 3.51 6.35 9.73
co 1.57 3.56 6.28 9.82
----------------------------------------
3 2.01 3.56 7.16 9.82
4 1.83 3.56 6.82 9.82
C 5 1.74 3.56 6.64 9.82
6 1.69 3.56 6.54 9.82
co 1.57 3.56 6.28 9.82
Table 2.14
Types Perturbation forces Frequency Types

of and cause of of
forces vibrations Formula Magnitude, Hz hydroturbines
1 2 3 4 5
Centrifugal forces due n/60 1 to 5 PL

to rotor imbalance (Kaplan)
1 to 12.5 RO
•
(Francis)
5 to 12.5 K
(Pelton wheel)
Elastic forces of shaft n/6Q; 1 to 10 PL

2n/6Q 1 to 25 RO
5 to 25 K
. Frictional forces (2 to 5)n 5 to 40 for all types
Nonuniform velocity 4 to 20 PL
distribution and vorte" 10 to 80 RO
formation
Hydraulic imbalance of n/60 1 to 12.5

runner
Cavitation phenomenon 0.5 to 100 for all types

in turbine
Vote" formation in n/60k 0.2 to 1.5 PL

draft tube k=4.2 to 4.6
nl60 k· 0.3 to 4 RO
k=3.6 to 4.2
Variable components nZ runMr 60 to 300 K

of moments due to one 6Q
nozzle in Pelton wheel
~--~~~~-'~-------------------------------
Periodic component of 21 100 for all types
magnetic drag
Variation in air gap n/6Q; 2n/60 1 to 25
Short circuiting of rotor n/60 1 to 12.5

pole windings
Asymmetrical loading 21 100

of generator . (200-300)
(Contd.)
2 3 4 5
Asynchronous operation 2f, 90 for all types

without excitation
Asynchronous operation fs; 2f, 45; 90

with eltcitation
~ ----------------------------------
Continuous short circuit 2fo 100
of one phase of genera- "
tor
Continuous short cir- 2fc 100

cuit of two phases of
generator
Chapter 3
Unsteady Operating Conditions
The perturbation forces that appear during unsteady operating conditions

(transition processes) have different effects on the different components of the
hydro unit. The forces developed in the generator, which have large frequen-
cies, chiefly affect the generator frame and have less impact on the turbine
components. Conversely, the high-frequency forces originating in the hydro-
turbine mainly affect the turbine and to a lesser extent the generator. This is
explained by the fact that the generator rotor, which has a large mass, acts as
a unique damper blocking the transmission of high-frequency impulse forces.
Let us see how the stresses vary in a turbine shaft when the generator
rotor is subjected to impulse forces of different time durations.
Let us assume that when the unit is idling the load on the generator is re-
presented by a rectangular impulse. At the moment when the impulse is felt
an electric turning moment Mel appears between the stator and the rotor
which isk times the nominal turning moment of the turbine Mt, i.e.
Mel=kM,·
We will make the following assumptions to estimate the mechanical
stresses that appear in a turbine shaft under these circumstances: Moment
Mel continues to act during the time T in the form of an instantaneous im-
pulse (Fig. 3.la); the mass of the shaft and the change in its diameter may be
ignored; with the disappearance of moment Mel after time T free. torsional
vibrations appear, causing the generator and the turbine shaft to swing in
opposite directions with equal periods [113].
During these vibrations the section a-a of the shaft will remain station-
ary (Fig. 3.lh) and the period of vibrations will be equal to:
T,=2n rJ, I,
\J GoJ p
for the turbine rotor and

122
Unsteady Operating Conditions 123
'7'
19=
2-J
1C
Jg [g
GoJp
for the generator rotor;

where J, and JIl are the moments of inertia of the turbine and the generator;
I, and III are the distances measured from the section a-a to the centers of
the turbine and the generator respectively; I, + Ig =L; Go is the modulus of
elasticity of the second kind (shear modulus); Jp is the polar moment of iner~
tia of the hydro unit shaft.
Since the periods are identical during these vibrations, i.e.
T,=TIl ; J,I,=J¥IIl;
I JilL. I J,L
,= J,+Jg' Il= J,+Jg'
the period of torsional vibrations is obtained as
r JIlJ,L
T,=TIl = 21CV GoJp(J,+JIl )'
E
Before the application of the impulse o
c
the rotor revolved with a constant angular :E
oK
velocity eva. Moment Mel appears "at the

G T
instant the impulse is applied and the rotor a b
begins to slow down. The equation of mo-
tion of the generator can, therefore, be
written as
dev
Jg - = -kM,·
dt
If it is assumed that Mel remains

constant during the interval of time 0< t< T
we have:
- kM,
ev=Jt+c.
- II
At t =0, ev = eva and therefore c = wo. Sub- Fig. 3.1 Mechanical stresses:
stituting the value of c in the above a-load graph (rectangular im-
equation. pulse); b-schematic arrangement
for calculating torsional vibrations _.
kM, of rotor: I-generator rotor; 2-
ev=evo---y;- t· turbine rotor; c-variation in
mechanical stresses in turbine
At time t = T the generator rotor will shaft at various magnitudes and
have an angular velocity periods of impulse loading.
kM t
W=OJo- J T,
Il
and consequently
kM,T
Wo-w=--'
J Il .
The kinetic energy of the turbine rotor in relation to that of the generator
rotor (if it is assumed that the difference between the angular velocities of the
rotors increased by an amount (wo-w) during time T) will be:
J, (0J0-W)2.
2
The kinetic energy becomes the potential energy of the shaft under torsion,
which for the turbine shaft is equal to:
Go Jil 2
---:rr;-'
-where 0 is the angle of twist. Hence we may write
(WO-W)2 _ GoJP£J2
J, 2 - 2/t l7 ,
from which
O=(wo-w)
J -
Jt /t kMt TT,
GoJp
=
21tJIl
.
Thus during free torsional vibrations the turbine twists through an angle
O=kMtTTt .
21tJIl
On the other hand, when-the unit is operating under normal conditions
the angle of twist due to the action of torque on the turbine is
MtL
rp=--'
JpGo
It is well known that the torsional stress in a shaft is proportional to the
angle of twist of the shaft and hence the ratio of the twist angles O/rp equals
the ratio of the stresses in the shaft at these angles of twist, i.e.
a, stress at the instant an impulse is applied k T Ttlp Go
a:; = stress in the shaft under normal loading = _21t JIl L .
Substituting
in the above expression and re-arranging, we have

(1/ T J,
-=k·2n- - _ .
(1/1 TIlJ,+JIl
IDostrative example. The principal data of a hydro unit are as follows:
N=55,OOO kW; nominal speed n/l=62.5 rpm; GD~=50,OOO tons· m 2; GD;=
4,500 tons· m 2 ; L = 18,000 mm: outer diameter of the shaft D = 1,250 mm;
inner diameter of the shaft d=550 mm; Go=850 tons/cm 2 •
The moments of inertia of the generator and the turbine rotors are
50,000
J Il = 4.9.81 = 1,275 tons.m·sec 2;
and
J,= 44.';~I = 115 tons·m·sec 2 •
The polar moment of inertia of the shaft is obtained as

n .
JP =32 (D4-d4)=0.23·108 cm4 •
The periodic time of the natural frequency of vibrations of the system is

-r
J,JIlL
T Il =T,=2n"'GoJp (J,+JIl ) -
r
1275· IO'·1l5·lO'·18·10 2 .
= 2ny 85.1()4.0.23 .108 .1390.10,=0.198 sec~0.2 sec.
Then
(1/ 1152n -
(1/1 =kT 13900.2=2.6kT.
Table 3.1 shows the values of ((7//(1/1) for various multiples of the moment
k and duration T of the impulse Mel.
Table 3.1
Value of (a;la,J ·100% at various values of T, sec

k
0,02 0.05 0.10
2 10.4 26 52
3 15.6 39 78
4 20.8 52 104
5 26.0 65 130
6 31.2 78 156
Figure 3. Ie has been plotted on the basis of the data given in Table 3.1. As
can be seen from these calculations, the stress appearing in the shaft of the
hydro turbine during the application of a rectangular impulse from the gene-
rator stator does not exceed the stress existing in the shaft under nominal
loading for the conditions met with in practice, where Mel lasts for 0.02 to
0.05 second and k ranges up to 6.
An analysis of the results obtained from computations confirms the fact
that the large inertia of the generator compared to that of the turbine in a
way shields the turbine from the action of the shock of electrical loads (self-
synchronization, short circuiting, etc.).
In the case of steam turbines the force transmitted to their shafts would
be somewhat greater than that for hydro turbines due to the relatively smaller
inertia of the generators coupled to them.
As can be seen from the equations given earlier, the ratio of the stresses is
proportional to J JI . The moment of inertia of hydroturbines does not
1+ J ,
c~nstitute more than 0.1 of the moment of inertia of the generators. Hence
JI 0.1
J,+J, =0.1 + 1=0.09,
whereas for steam turbines J JI is, on the average, equal to 0.450, i.e. the
,+ J, .
ratio is
0.450 -5
0.09 - .
So under identical conditions (for instance, when synchronizing a set in
parallel with others in the grid) the ratio of the stresses U//Un is found to be
five times greater in the case of steam turbines than in hydroturbines.
The principal transient regimes in the operation of hydroturbines are dur-
ing starting, synchronization of a set with other sets in the grid, sudden short
circuiting of generator, sudden loading and unloading of generator, switching
operation of generator to that of synchronous condenser and back, stopping
of set and braking; runaway regime of unit, automatic repeated switching in
of unit with self-synchronization and resynchronization of generator.
All these regimes of operation are frequently met with during the opera-
tion of a power plant.
Let us consider some of the more interesting of these regimes and
qualitatively evaluate the principal perturbation .forces that appear during
these operating regimes.
3.1 Mechanical and Hydraulic Perturbation Forces
The appearance and action of mechanical and hydraulic perturbation

forces during transient regimes is better understood when one considers the
nature of the transient processes themselves.

The start-up of a hydro unit may be divided into three distinct phases:
1) the opening of the wicket gates to the minimum required to set the tur-
bine in motion (during this period the shaft remains stationary);
2) the time when the unit begins to turn and gathers speed;
3) steady increase in speed of the turbine up to or close to no-load speed.
Initially the wicket gates are opened enough to set the turbine in motion:
this is more than what is necessary for no-load running of the set. The water
entering the turbine exerts pressure on the runner blades and builds up the
torque necessary to overcome the resisting forces. At the same time it exerts
an axial force on the runner. The axial force exerted on the runner increases
the deflection of the spider supporting the rotor. The space within the turbine
housing between the rotor and the stator fills up and a steady flow is estab-
lished which gives rise to vibration of the hydro unit. These vibrations have
no particular periodicity. Their amplitude depends on the characteristics of
the flo~ filling the turbine and the nature of the flooding of the runner by the
tailwaters. At the instant the shaft begins to revolve the torque has to be
somewhat greater than with steady motion in order to overcome the static
frictional forces at the turbine bearings.
Mter the hydro unit is set in motion the shaft speed goes on increasing
steadily and the frictional force at the guide and the thrust bearings goes on
changing. When the disc and pads of the thrust bearing lose contact the
friction coefficient changes appreciably and the shaft begins to Vibrate. Mean-
while the friction at the pads of the thrust bearing changes periodically while
switching from semi-fluid friction to fluid friction due to the change in the
speed of relative displacement between the thrust disc and the pads. These
vibrations are transmitted to the load-bearing spider, essentially in a tan-
gential direction. They may have fairly large amplitudes. However, these
vibrations are completely eliminated as the _turning speed of the shaft
increases.
Further increase in the turning speed o(the shaft usually leads to an.in-
crease in the horizontal vibrations at the supports of the unit. These have a
frequency corresponding to the turning speed. This may be due to some resi-
dual imbalance of the rotor or incorrect centering of the shaft. The vibrations
now attain a steady state value corresponding to those of no-load conditions.
However, the magnitude of the vibra~ions is affected by various other factors
such as the vibration of individual components of the hydro unit in resonance
with their natural frequency of vibrations or the rapid closure of the wicket
gates by the governor when the rotor approaches normal operating speed. In
the latter case water hammer occurs in the :flow passage of the turbine, caus-
ing uneven running of the unit for a short period. In the case of adjustable-
blade turbines the most unfavorable flow regime from the point of view of
governing occurs during start-up of the set when the runner blades are rotat-
ed on their axes. Usually there is a sharp rise in vibrations during this peri~d.
In several adjustable-blade hydroturbines it has been observed that the
rotor lifts during start-up. Often this abnormality is eliminated by a proper
choice of setting for the runner blades at start-up, of speed of adjustment of
the blades and of wicket gate opening.
During the start-up of Pelton wheel turbines one often encounters the
resonance zone between the natural frequency of the torsional vibrations of
the shaft and the frequency with which the jet strikes the buckets of the
,Pelton wheel.
The oscillographs obtained during the starting of an adjustable-blade and
a radial-axial turbine are shown in Figs. 3.2 and 3.3.
20 30 40 50 sec
Fig. 3.2. Oscillograph obtained during start-up of adjustable-blade turbine:

J-vibrations of turbine cover (vertical vibrations); 2-vibrations of spider support
(radial vibrations); 3-axial thrust; 4-torque on shaft; 5-stress in turbine cover;
6-vibrations of stator flange (vertical vibrations); 7-setting of runner blades;
8-stroke of servomotor piston; 9-tuming speed.
Fig. 3.3. Oscillograph obtained during start-up of radial-axial turbine:

J-horizontal (tangential) vibrations of spider; 2-vertical vibrations
ofspider; 3-horizontal and radial vibrations of spider.
For hydro units the operating conditions during load shedding happen to
be especially difficult. When the entire load on a hydro unit is shed this
happens:
1. The generator is relieved of the full load torque as a result of which the
-stator executes damped torsional vibrations. In the case of generators of the
_suspended type these vibrations are transmitted to the load-bearing spider.
2. The speed of the shaft increases rapidly by 30 to 40% above the nomi-
nal rated speed. If the rotor has some residual imbalance this leads to an
increase in the radial and tangential components of vibrations of the spider
and the guide-bearing supports. The amplitude of horizontal vibrations in-
creases by 1.5 to 2 times with a frequency corresponding to that of the speed.
3. When the wicket gates are closed rapidly water hammer occurs in the
spiral casing and the intake flume.
4. The turbine may begin operating like a pump which may give rise to
water hammer in the draft tube and often to hydraulic forces directed axially
upward.
5. In the case of adjustable-blade turbines normal governing conditions
are violated due to the very slow adjustment of the runner blades compared
to the time taken for the wicket gates to close. This mismatch within the gov-
erning regime also leads to an increase in the vibration of the hydro unit.
For adjustable-blade turbines the most dangerous phenomenon is the
water hammer in the draft tube that arises when the hydro unit is suddenly
unloaded. It has been described in detail by Yu.E. Garkavi [28]. The pheno-
menon may be roughly described as follows:
After the unit is unloaded and the wicket
gates are closed the turbine runner revolves
at an increased speed and forces the water
downward (Fig. 3.4). The air entering
through the valves fiUs up the turbine
housing and due to inertia the level of
water falls by height h until it stabilizes,
creating a head equal to h+Hs • Under this
head the water starts flowing in the opposite Fig. 3.4. FaIl of water level in
direction. When it reaches the rotating turbine casing during load
runner it receives an opposite impulse force. rejection..
(retardation) since the motion of the
runner attempts to force down the level of the water.
If this retardation takes less time than is required for the propagation of
pressure waves in the draft tube (for large units this time may approach 0.05
to 0.1 sec), then a normal shock occurs. The increase in pressure due to nor-
mal shock may be obtained from Zhukovskii formula as follows:
AH='!!:.,
g.
where a is the velocity of propagation of the shock wave (for a concrete draft
tube a = 1,400 m{sec); v is the velocity of water at the moment when it reaches
the runner; g is 9.81 m/sec.
25 microns
~~
~
~
13 - ' - --..:..t,--
-----15 - - -- - - -
microns~~
i i ' ~"
, sec
Fig. 3.5. Oscillogram obtained during unloading of adjustable-blade turbine:
l-vertical vibrations of upper spider; 2-'-tangential vibrations of upper
spider; 3-radial vibrations of upper spider; 4-tangentiaI vibrations of lower
spider; 5-radial vibrations of fower spider; 6-vertical vibrations of stator
flange; 7 and 8-tangential and radial vibrations of flange.
-a:l o 00
1.0
0 ...
00
NMoqolQCOO
00000' ... ... ci 00
N Moqo,.O
0.8 9"'" . 0.8

<;p'
0.6 I;" 0.6
o; .... 2~ ~
.J
'/I~
0.4 :;p1.'3~ 1;7 ["7:;; 0.4
.
co
0.3
-t--I-- -~V
l/l
1.;'..... 1/
~t/
0.3
E 0.2 4 0.2
:I:
a. ,... ~t2 ~ '~r7
WI
:I: 0.10 f - ~~
~"" ~ B v.. . . I.;' 0.10
0.08 li ~~7 8
S;; 'i~ .-
0.08
--
0.06 10 0.06
0.04
0.03 to- --
10-
i5~ 15
-~
.~ 20
,...
I...,;'
:.- ~ l,...o
~
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
~5l
rc>JO 60
......
-
..;
-- 8 .!:!~
:;~
2
40 ~
=.::;; ....
:::..;;
'- ~ L.".
0.02
0.01
o
co'"
00
t'!
000
C"!~
...
"!CX!~
0 0 ...
N
0
Nr<i. 00
Pipeline constant. P
M oqo
000
u:icOo
0
ci 00
00
Fig. 3.6. Nomogram to determine increase in pressure during hydraulic shock.
- Assuming v=O.4 m/sec, we have:

AH 1,400.0.4_
D 9.81 - 57 m,
i.e. the rise in pressure due to hydraulic shock below the runner is 5.7 ata.
When'the runner diameter is 8 m the force in the upward direction is found
to approach 2,500 tons, which is enough to lift a rotor of 800 tons weight
(for the hydro unit in question)..
One may expect the greatest hydraulic shock to occur where the runner
blades close up at the instant the surging water column hits the runner. In
order to reduce the hydraulic shock in the draft tube upon sudden unloading
of the unit the time for complete closure of the runner blades is considerably
prolonged (from 40 to 60 seconds or more) and the closure of the wicket gates
is slowed down during the last 20% of their stroke., These measures help to
prevent separation of flow from the runner blades.
Variations of some of the characteristic parameters occurring during un-
loading of a generator are shown in Fig. 3.5.
It may sometimes be necessary to estimate approximately the increase in
pressure in the penstock during unloading of a genera~or, or when the unit
cannot be started on no-load, etc.
This pressure rise may be estimated from the nomogram developed by
Prof. I.I.. Kukolevskii [15] (Fig. 3.6) in the following way:
a) The constant for the penstock is determined from the expression
av
p= 2gHo'
-
where a is the velocity of propagation of pressure waves along the pipe,
'm/sec; v is the velocity of water in the pipe before unloading the generator,
m/sec; H o is the static head in meters. '
The quantity a is determined from Fig. 2.45 as a function of the mean
diameter and average thickness of the pipe. The quantity A, which appears
as a multiplying factor in the product plotted on the abscissa of this Figure,
equals unity for steel pipes;
b) The closure of the wicket gates is determined in terms of the coefficient
()= Tel!!:...
2 L'
where Tel is the closure time, sec and L is the length of the penstock, m.
Knowing the values of p and (), the ratio -H.p / Hmax is determined from the
nomogram. Hmax is determined from the expression Hmax=av/g so that H. p
can be calculated.
AH'P= H.p-Ho
D Ho 100%0' were
h H'.ptS
'. t h e spec!'fl'c h ead .
The inverse problem can also be solved with the help of this nomogram,
i.e. it is possible to determine the value of Tel necessary to permit any desired
pressure rise to occur in the pipe.
In this case p and H.p/Hmaxare det,ermined first. The point of intersection
of the ordinate at this p with the required H.p/HmaJ< gives the value of e, from
which one can easily determine the allowable value of closure time Tel.
3.2 Electrical Perturbation F~rces during Transient Processes in Generator
Switching a hydro unit into the power grid can be done by three different
techniques:
1) by precise automatic synchronization;
2) by precise manual synchronization;
3) by self-synchronization.
When the generator is synchronized with other u,nits in the grid by the
first or second method it is necessary to have identical frequencies and phase
angles of the generator and the grid voltages at the instant when the unit is
switched in. '
•
With self-synchronization it is not necessary to match the frequencies and
the phase angles precisely. The unit is switched into the grid at subsynchro-
nous speed without excitation, which is introduced later. As a result the unit
is brought up to the synchronous speed by the synchronizing moment of the
unit.
Self-synchronization has now become very widespread in the operation of
hydro power plants. This has led to the problem of evaluating the impact of
the forces developed in the generator during self-synchroniz~tion on the unit
asa whole and on individual components.
'~~'~-m
2.,.;=;.......-"...,-~H-:
3~""''''''',."....--tHoI
4WWM'V\A..c.~
5 Wo,MWNV"",
6---~-=""""!'74-~F.J"_""""'-_--_- ___
7-~~=e::==:M
8--.:~..;,,;;.;;=---:t'-1
1 sec
Fig. 3.7. Oscillograph of self-synchronizing hydro unit:
/ to 8-nomenclature as in Fig. 3.5.
,::::::~~~~~;;;;~=:;:;===e=-::
..........
2 -'-';--""---"f"OO
3~.
4 _ _- _ - ~..
Fig. 3.8. Oscillograph of self-synchronizing hydro. unit:

/ to 4 and 6 to 8-nomenclature as in Fig. 3.5.
Figures 3.7 and 3.8 show the oscillographs obtained during the self-syn-
chronization of hydroelectric generators with various degrees of slip. As can
be seen from these oscillographs, the dynamic effect on the components of the
Table 3.2
Force or moment Periodicity Frequency, Hz Time constant, sec

2 3 4
Rotating electro- constant o

magnetic moment periodic 2f.
during self-syn- damped periodic f. T~, T~ and T~
chronization
-do- f. (1-.1')=50 (1-.1') T(j TlJ •
T~+T~'
T~TlJ. T;-Ta
r;+Ta ' T;+Ta
-<10- 2f. (1-.1')= 100 (1-.1') To
2"
damped aperiodic TlJ
"2
Rotating electro- damped periodic f.
magnetic moment
during sudden short
circuiting of all
three phases at
terminals of gene-
rator stator winding .
-<10-
damped aperiodic
----------------------------------------
Rotating electro- periodic f.; 2f.
magnetic moment damped periodic f.
during asynchro- -<10- f. (1-.1')
nous switching in
of excited generator
-do-
aperiodic
(COn/d.)
2 3 4
Electrodynamic periodic 2/0==100

forces appearing in
the generator stator
winding
Rotating electro- periodic 10=50

magnetic moment
during asynchro- damped fa
nous operation
with' excitation periodic 2/a
• Note: la-generator frequency, Hz; lo-frequency of grid, Hz; s-slip (positive value
corresponds to speed less than synchronous speed); s=fo~- la;
J 0
T~ and T; damping time
•
constants of aperiodic components of currents in longitudinal slots of rotor; Tq-damping
time constant of aperiodic components of current in transverse slots of rotor; Ta-damping
time constant of aperiodic components of currents in stator.
unit largely depends on the state of the generator at the instant it is switched •
into the grid (the amount of slip, rate of change of rotor speed, etc.).
Table 3.2 shows the frequencies and damping time constants ofvarious
components of the electromagnetic forces and moments appearing during the
occurrence of transient processes in the generator [137].
It can be seen from Table 3.2 that the principal frequencies of the varying
perturbation forces (moments) occurring during transient processes have
average values o'f 50 and 100 Hz. When the frequency of the unit differs from
the nominal, at the instant it is switched into the grid the varying perturba-
tion forces have frequencies equal to fs and 2 fs which in practice lie in the
ranges 45 to 55 and 90 to 110.
When the generators are provided with stabilizer windings the electrical
transient processes are damped far more rapidly and the alternating compo-
nents of electrodynamic moments diminish in amplitude appreciably. As a
result, in generators having stabilizer windings the transient processes are
usually somewhat damped and the vibrations they cause are of much smaller
magnitude compared to those without stabilizer windings.
However, the magnitudes of the vibrations and deformations of hydro
units during transient processes depend both on the type of structure and on
the way the individual components are assembled.
Even hydro units. of the same type may have entirely different values of
vibrations a~d deformati'ons during transient conditions.
An analysis of the electrical perturbation forces occurring during transient
conditions enables us to isolate the following types of impulse forces:
•
Sew)
T=O.l
,.(=0.01 05
'T=O.O
1E? t
rS•
1" /r!..
~
10-1 2.a
2.6
,Tl t
2.4 )t=0
2.2 0.1 T2 = l{f
10-2
2.0
1.8 0.2 s·
1.6
10-3 1.4
1.2
1.01 c~.....
,.. 0.5
0.8
~
,()-4
I ,
, 0.6
0.4 '"~
I 0.2
10;;1 , , I II I ' \ ' 0'
I . , ,~ !
~
o 300f. Hzfor r l';'O.Ol sec
~
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N 0.0,1 0.92~.Ot.0.l0i20.40.6 1 ~ ~ ~~10l, 100 200
o- ...
.-<'1(1) 10 0 0 0 : 1 :
a
- N -.:t..,: ... <'I 'q'CDCDO C O g 0
,_<'I ..,<DO
0
0
000
000:1:
N {, 200 400 800,.Hz f~r r2 -0.005 sec ~
..... N ...,. CD 0 .. I:l
C
b - - ~.
Fig. 3.9. Frequency spectrum:
a-frequency spectrum of increasing impulse; b-frequency spectrum of damped sinusoidal impulse;
c-frequency spectrum of cosinusoidal impulse. ~
~
~.
'"
-
w
VI
I. Forces rapidly increasing from zero to the nominal value during a time
interval of T = 0.005 to 0.02 sec.
This impulse force may be expressed in the following way (Fig. 3.90):
0 at t~O; .
t
-:r at T~ t~O;
1
f(t) =
e-O: (I-f) at t ~ T .
(when (%--+0, e-O: (I-f) --+ 1).
The spectral density wi11 be equal to:
. .
[5 (W)] -_ 241C2
sin 1C fT
•
[2 T '
wherefis the frequency in Hz.
Assuming various values for the frequency f for T = 0.005, 0.01 and 0.1
sec, we obtain the spectrum of the impulse due to the force, which rapidly
rises to the nominal value. - The spectrum of impulses shown in Fig. 3.90
shows that the fundamental components of the impulses are sinusoids having
a frequency equal to 200 Hz.
2. An impulse in the form of a damped sinusoid with frequencies of 20,
50 and 100 Hz with periodic time equal to 0.02 to 0.03 sec and impulse dura-
tion equal to 0.2 to 0.4 sec.
The impulse function is
( (t) = e-O: I sin wt.
The spectral density
5 (W)=-2
WI
Wo 1- (~
·)21+ i . 21( ~;
Wo Wo
1 . f2- (%2 f2
I( =21Cfo T' 0- 41C2+ 2·
WI
A tw= 0 S0=2' and'"
wntmg'..r =-,
W
Wo Wo
we have
-S. (w) = S (w) = 1
So (w) 1-(2+2 i I( (
Rearranging the expression for S (w)/So (w), multiplying the numerator
and the denominator by [1- (2_ 2 i I( G, and separating the real and imagin-
ary parts, we obtain
-These spectral calculations were carried out by the Senior Scientific Assistant of the
VNIIE, Yu.M. Elkind.
The spectrum of this impulse for fo= 100 Hz, T=0.02 to 0.03 sec; f2=20,
50 and 100 Hz and ,=0.2 to 0.4 sec is shown in Fig. 3.9b. It can be seen
from this figure that the fundamental frequencies of the components of the
sinusoidal impulse lie in the range of 200 to 300 Hz.
3. Cosine impulse of time duration ,=0.02 to 0.01 sec, the functional
dependence of which is as follows:
1Ct
f(t)=h cos-;
. ,
1C 1C
f(t)=O at t~ -2 and t~ +"2'
• Then the spectral density would be equal to:

[5(w)]= COS1Cf1:
1-412,2
The spectrum of this impulse is shown in Fig. 3.9c from which it can be
seen that the fundamental components of this frequency for 1:=0.01 sec lie in
a range of less than 150 Hz and for 1:=0.005 sec less than 300 Hz.
From the spectra of the three typical impulses met with in hydroelectric
units during transient operating conditions it may be conCluded that the fre-
quencies of the vibrations generally range up to 300 Hz.
Conclusion. Summarizing our analysis of the perturbation forces occur-
ring in hydro units, we find that their fundamental frequencies lie within a
wide range (0.5 to 300 Hz). It may be noted that no other machine has such
a variety and range of frequencies of perturbation forces as the hydroturbine.
When these forces act in combination with the normal forces on the unit they
give rise to complex vibrations and lead to difficulties in identifying the cause
of the vibrations and in prescribing the right method to eliminate them.
Chapter 4
Equipment Used and Results
• Obtained in Checking ·Units
In order to determine the causes of perturbation forces giving rise to vi-

brations it is necessary to use high-quality equipment capable of recording
variable quantities with the minimum possible error. In connection with this,
the ORGRES and other organizations have developed and are using various
types of instruments and equipment designed specifically for these checks.
During vibration checks of hydro unitsJt is necessary to measure the
vibrations of individual elements of the unit, deformations and displacements
of components and pressure variations at different sections of the flow
passage.
A specific feature of hydro units is that the range of the fundamental fre-
quency of vibrations and the perturbation forces acting on them (as has been
shown in Chapters 2 and 3) lies between 0.5 and 300 Hz.
4.1 Equipment for Vibration Checks
The following are the principal requirements of vibration measuring

equipment for checking the vibrations of hydro units at power plants:
I. Provision for measuring frequency of the first harmonic of vibrations
ranging from 0.5 to 500 Hz. . -
2. The range of amplitudes measured must lie within 0 to 2,000 microns
(it is. desirable to have 3 ranges of progressively largerfrequencies; 100, 300,
600).
3. The sensitivity of the instrument must-be such as to measure displace-
ment (amplitude) to 5 microns.
4. In measuring the amplitudes of vibrations the error must not exceed
±S percent.
138
Equipment Used and Results Obtained 139
5. The instrument must be able to measure phase difference between vi-

brations in the range from 0 to 360°.
6. Error in measuring phase difference should not exceed 10 per cent.
7. The ambient operating temperature must lie within - 20 and +60°C.
8. The vibration curve must be registered (auxiliary instrument) either on
an oscillograph or on a magnetic tape.
9. The vibrations of different components must not interfere with one
another.
10. It should' be possible to measure vibrations separately in all three
directions (2 horizontal and one vertical).
11. Within an ambient temperature range of ± 15°C, the adjustment of
the instrument and its characteristics should be stable (it would be desirable
•
to have a remote control pick-up for correction).
12. The instrument should be unaffected by varying magnetic and electro-
static fields up to 30 volts with a frequency of 50 Hz.
13. It should be capable of reproducing unit impulses of wbrations with-
out much distortion.
14. Various types of attachments should be available for mounting the
pick-ups on site.
15. The instrument should be both robust and portable.
These requirements are satisfied to a considerable extent by the vibration
measuring instruments manufactured by the Institute of Earth Physics, Acad-
emy of Sciences, USSR. The construction of these instruments is based on
that of VEGIK type seismographs.
VEGIK eJectro-dyoamic vibratioo pick up. This pick-up operates in con-
juction with an OT-24-51 type oscillograph.
The pick-up has a seismic mass 6 (Fig. 4.1) supported on four flat springs
4 and 5 and a spiral spring. The cylindrical induction coil 2 connected to the
seismic mass is located in the gap of the permanent magnet 1. The period of
natural frequency of seismic mass is approximately 0.5 Hz. The vibration
pick-up is installed on the vibrating part of the hydro unit and the resulting
electrodyna:ri:Lic force appearing in the coil, which is proportional to the vibra-
tion velocity, shows up on the reflecting mirror galvanometer of the oscillo-
graph. The parameters of the galvanometer are chosen so that it has an
integrating property when operating in aperiodic regimes. This gives rise to a
deflection of the light rayon the oscillograph film proportional to the ampli-
tude of vibrations of the part in question.
The differential equation of vibrations of the galv{lnometer [13] connected
to the electro-dynamic pick-up is as follows: .
d 2rp drp 2 dx
dt2 +2£ dt +n rp=c dt '
where rp is the angle of deflection of the galvanometer frame;

e is the damping constant; _

n is the natural frequency of vibrations of the galvanometer frame;
c is a constant characterizing the parameters of the vibration pick-up
and the galvanometer;
dxjdt is the rate of displacement of the structure.
The parameters of the system are chosen in such a way that
drp d 2 rp 2
2e (ij't> dt 2 +n rp.
This allows us to neglect the terms on the right-hand side of this inequali-
ty and rewrite the differential equation as follows:
drp dx
•
2e-~c-·
dt dt
After integration, we have
Fig.4.1. VEGIK electro-dynamic vibration pick-up:

l-magnet; 2-coil; 3-body; 4-flat spring; 5-flat vertical spring;
6-seismic mass; 7-support; 8-arrestor.
So the deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the displacement

of the part in question.
The electrical wiring diagram of the vibration pick-up connected to the
galvanometer of the oscillograph is shown in Fig. 4.20.
Changing the magnitude of resistors Rand r, one may obtain different
amplification coeffiCients for the vibrographs. In order to facilitate operation
of the equipment a special amplifier switch with a choice of various resist-
ances has been provided. This allows one to select any desired amplification
when measuring vibrations.
• 2.6 Kv=~~
2.4 c
~ 2.2~~~**=*==I=~~=~t=*=~
a
g 2.0 ~.I.-...L--1---l........L.-1.-L-.l_I--..I.-....L-J
.0
mm
70
"S 2A I~<:l)
'0 1.2 K;.;"!:=~+:::>:~=>=>=5::;j;::&=~
60 ~
1//
.2 t .Ol-*--I-+- 50
,l,-.lo
').o}::J
~ 0.8t-f--,+--+---t--+--+~=r-=;;';':"'1-+-+-1 40
/ .l;;o'
I
~ 0.6r'R~~~*;;!;=t:;;;;;t;;;;;;l~~;,i;;;;;;;;J;;;;:;;i}
<
30
20 - tI V V
~
"
<='.2;:
-
~~ l<."
10 +
oz
~ -to 2Ac
N .... OOOOOOOOO(IJ
_ ... 0
N'llCtt.OCOONIIltCDCOC
b u·
c "5
Fig. 4.2. Characteristics of the VEGIK vibration pick-up:
a-wiring diagram of vibration pick-up and galvanometer; b-frequency character-
.. istic of vibration pick-up; c-amplitude characteristics of vibration pick-up; 2A t -
double amplitude of vibration of calibrating stand; 2A o8c l-double amplitude of
vibrations on oscillograph; k-amplification coefficient of oscillograph.
The vibrographs are calibrated on special vibrostands in order to obtain

the frequency and amplitude chara.cteristics. The amplitudes and frequencies
of vibrations of the platforms of these stands can be varied within desired lim~
its. These stands also .enable us to obtain separate unit impulses. Thefre-
quency and amplitude characteristics of one vibration pick-up is illustrated
in Fig. 4.2b and c.
Figure 4.3 represents a vibrogram simultaneously showing displacement
of the vibrostand I and the indications from the vibration pick-up II when
the vibrograph reproduces unit impulses.
As can be seen from the Figure, the reproduction of the vibrations of the
142 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP'
vibrograph platform is quite goad. Amplitude distortions from 5 to 8 per cent

occur only when there is a sharp impact on the platform, whose displacement
time is less than 0.015 sec. However, the duration of vibrations is recorded
without distortion.
The operating principle of the vibration pick-up described above was later
utilized by the VNIIE in developing small-size pick-ups which are produced
under the marks VOTs and KOOL The latter is manufactured in the Soviet
Union.
KOOl-type vibration pick-up. Pick-ups of this type have lately found wide
use in vibration checks on hydro units. These pick-ups are delivered in a set
along with an N-700 type oscillograph. This set of instruments is manufac-
• tured by the Kishinevsk plant for electrical measuring instruments.
Principal /echnical specifications 01 the equipment
Range of frequencies ...........•.............. 1 to 200 Hz

Range of amplitudes
Amplification coefficient of oscillograph
O to 1 mm
500, 200, 80 and 30
Error in amplitude characteristics of
equipment '" " ± 5%
Error in measurements due to 10° change
of ambient temperature (from + 20°C) does not exceed±4%
Reliability of operation of vibration pick-ups From +lOoe to 60 e and for
0
relative humidities up to 80%
External electromagnet fields in

any direction with voltages to 20 V
and frequencies to 50 Hz have no
influence on the working of the vibra-
II tion pick-ups.,
Light ray oscillographs of four
a
different types are manufactured by
the Vibro-pribor Plant [3]: the
N005M, N008M, N004M and
NOIOM. These instruments can
record various processes (vibrations,
deformations and other variable
quantities) over a wide range of
b frequencies. The same optical system
Fig. 4.3. Oscillograms for verifying calibra- is used in all these oscillographs.
tion of VEOIK vibration pick-ups obtained These oscillographs are supplied
with different input disturbances: together with galvanometers whose
. ) -displaCement of platform; 2-vibration
pick-up recording: a-impulse forces appli- parameters are given in Table 4.1.
ed to vibrating platform; b-sharp tap To record vibrations sensed by
applied to rigid platform of stand. . the KOOI vibration pick-up a new
Principal data 01 Oscillographs
Range of frequencies 0 to S,ooo Hz

Number of simultaneous recordings:
NOOSM 6 per recording paper width of 60 mm
N008M ., ., ., .,12 per recording paper widths of 60 to
100 and 120 mm
N004M .. , , 20 per recording paper wid ths of 120, 1SO
and 200 mm
NOIOM 30 per recording paper widths of 120,
150,200,280 and 300 mm
Linear speed of photo-film. .- 1, 2.5, 10, 25, 100, 250, 1000 and 2SOO
mm/sec.
Operating voltage of the oscillograph 27 V
•
Table 4.1
----------------------------------------
~ ~ ff Ii
I
0
Cl
'"
e::l ~
= ~
Cl
s :~
'r;;
Cl
'" ~ ..E
e
::l
.
-...
"' .~ "'
>
i... 8'
.:::
l! '0
co Cl
'Cl
8 5
"' cae
'fl ..<J
e::l
..
Cl ::l
._ ...
C C;
e
0
8.B
.......
C;
E E 8'
8,':::
i:i
~ e
::l e
u
::-
8 ·Cl
~ e
"'
Cl
~ e ..
.;;;
Eo< e '" N
Z::t: 0'0 U"';;j ~ a
,!:log ~og ::E'" e
'"
----------------------------------------
MOIQ-20 20 o to 12 1.7 x HJS 6 x lQ4 ISO 3000 0.007
MOl 0-40 40 o to 24 7 x lO- s 1.4 x 10' ISO 1500 0.027
MOIO-80 80 o to 48 1.4 x 10-' 7x lOS 70 800 0.08
MOOS-o.lS 1S0 o to 90 0.5 X IO- S 2 x lOS 60 200 0.2
MOOS-o.3 --300 o to 180 2.0>< lO- s S x 10· 60 80 0.8
MOO4-Q.6 600 o to 300 1.25 x 10- 8 80 . 13 4
M004-I.2 1200 o to 600 5 x 10-8 20 13 13
MOO4-2.S 2500 o to 1200 2.5 x 10-' 4 17 80
MOO4-3.S· 3500 o to 1700 7.0 x 10-' 1.43 17 80
MOO4-7.0 7000 o to 5000 30 x 10-· 0.33 13 130
------------ - -- --- - -- --------- - ---- --- ---
galvanometer, the M009, has been developed. It has a natural frequency of

25 Hz for a current constant of 6.25 x to-sA/mm.
This new instrument is helpful in reproducing the variations in parameters
during hydro unit checks~
For vibration checks the pick-up must be cemented to the vibrating com-
ponent. When the acceleration of vibrations exceeds gravitational accelera-
tion the vibration pick-up comes off the surface it is attached to and does not
register its vibrations. If we assume the law of vibration of vertical vibrations
. d2
to be harmonic, i.e. z = A sin wt, then the acceleration will be dt~ = - Aw2
sin wt and the amplitude of acceleration will be Aw2=47t2j2A,
where A is the amplitude of vibrations, mm;
ro=277:f, circular frequency of vibrations, _1_;

sec
f - is the frequency, Hz.
The vibration pick-up will register the vibrations of the surface if
A X477:2P~g,
where g is the acceleration during free fall
=9.81 x 103 mm/sec 2 •
Then
g 9.81.10 3 250
A ~ 477: 2 P = 477:2 P p' mm.
The variation in maximum amplitudes of vibrations as a function of fre-
quency is shown in Fig. 4.4 (the double amplitude of vibrations 2A microns is
plotted along the ordinate). If the double amplitude of vertical vibrations
for a given frequency lies above the curve the vibrograph must be reinforced,
microns
otherwise the indications it shows
750 2A will be incorrect.
\ For hydro units whose funda-
500 mental frequency of vibration is
1\ Vibrograph must be within 1 to 10 Hz vibration pick-ups
\ . rrmlY lixed - I - may be mounted without clamping.
250 However, in this case one must take
Vibrograph n~e~ into account the higher frequencies
nOj bel rigi,dl YIfix~d r-.
-r- that may be superposed on the
o 10 20 30 40 5060 70 80 90 f. Hl fundamental frequency and also the
Fig. 4.4. Region in which vibration nonharmonic law of variation of vi-
pick-up must be firmly attached. brations. In the latter case there may
be isolated acceleration peaks that
cause the vibrograph to lift off the surface on which it is placed so that the
recording is distorted. It is particularly necessary to cement vibration pick-
ups during transient regimes when accelerations of vibrations may exceed
that of gravity. The vibration pick-ups are held in place with the help of
clamps and locks 'or wood braces.
Before making vibration recordings it is necessary to check for the effect
of the alternating magnetic fields set up by the generator. For this purpose
the coil of the pick-up is placed on the arrestor and a vibrogram is obtained.
It has been found in practice that where large alternating magnetic fields
occur their influence on vibrographs can be minimized by using shielded
cables and earthing the screen and the body of the oscillograph.
In many cases the vibration pick-ups have to be located in places inacces-
sible for observation and adjustment during testing (for instance, in vibration
checks on removable segments of the hydroturbine chamber, on parts of the
power plant building situated below water level, etc.). However, if a vibra-
tion pick-up is not in use for a good while it may go out of alignment, i.e. the
pendulum (seismic mass) may be displaced beyond its operating range. In
this case it is desirable to equip the vibration pick-up with an arrangement
that will allow the pendulum to be brought back to its central position by
remote control. A remote-control instrument for adjusting the position of the
pendulum has been developed and successfully utilized in tests carried out by
the Scientific Research Sector of the Hydroproject Institute [74].
Strain gauge and mechanical vibration pick-ups. Apart from electrodyna-
mic pick-ups, the vibrations of a hydro unit may be determined with the
vibration and acceleration pick-ups made up of resistance strain gauges.
These pick-ups may be used during vibration checks on individual elements
•
of the turbines and generators.
Pick-ups for measurement of vibrations using resistance strain gauges
come in the form of a metallic beam one end of which is fixed to a rigid sup-
port. The other end has a small bolt or a single ball which is placed on the
vibrating part (Fig. 4.5a). Any change in the deflection of the beam corres-
ponds to the vibration of the part. The stresses in the beam, which are pro-
portional to the vibrations, are
recorded by an oscillograph. For
optimum performance the strain
gauge beam is usually given cons- 200
tant regidity.
To measure acceleration of vi- a
brations one may use a pick-up
consisting of a strip fixed to the
base with a small weight placed at
the free end (Fig. 4.5b). The strip
is usually made of steel or bronze.
The natural frequency of vibra-
tions of the strip should lie bet-
ween ISO and 200 Hz. The
pick-up enables one to measure b C
accelerations with a frequency of Fig. 4.5. Arrangement of strain gauge and
50 and 70 Hz. The strip with the mechanical vibration pick-ups:
weight at one end and the strain a-attachment for measuring vibration of
generator spider: l-generator spider flange;
gauge cemented to it is enclosed 2-adjustable bolt; 3-flexible beam; 4-resist·
in a hermetically sealed container anee strain gauges; 5-rigidly fixed bracket; b-
which is filled with oil. The visco- arrangement of strain gauge acceleration pick-
sity of the oil chosen is such as to ups: l-mass; 2-flat spring; 3-strain gauge;
provide the required damping 4-container; 5-leads from the strain gauges;
6-base; c-acceleration pick-up: l-mass; 2-
coefficient to damp the. natural enclosure; 3-flat spring; 4-strain gauge;
frequency of vibrations of the 5-housing (plexiglass).
weight and the beam [93].

Another arrangement of pick-ups used to check the vibrations of turbine
runner blades is shown in Fig. 4.5c. This pick-up is mounted in the hole
provided for lifting the blades. Leads are led out through the turbine shaft.
Dial gauge indicator. If a vibrograph is not available at a power plant a
, dial gauge indicator with an accuracy of measurement of 0.01 mm may be
used to obtain a quick approximate estimate of the amplitudes of vibrations.
It may be noted that when this instrument is used for measuring vibrations it
should not be directly mounted on the vibrating part or the measured values
may be highly distorted.
To measure amplitudes of vibrations the indicator is placed on a heavy
•
base plate of 30' to 40 kg weight suspended from the hook of the overhead
crane. This arrangement provides reliable results only for horizontal vibra-
tions. When vertical vibrations are to be measured one must be sure that the
crane itself is not vibrating. It has been found from experience that most
often when the crane is at the center of its span it has vertical vibrations of
the order of 0.01 to 0.02 mm (and sometimes greater) due to the vibrations
passed on by the running units. In this case the base plate should be suspend-
ed from the overhead crane hook via an
elastic element (spring or rubber).
If the crane is not vibrating in the
vertical direction the indicator may simply
be attached to the hook but in this case the
load variation cycle must be carried out
three times for measuring vibrations in the
three directions with the dial gauge placed
at different heights..
To measure amplitudes the dial gauge
pin should be placed on the vibrating part.
When vibrations of the upper generator
spider are measured this way the dial gauge
pin must be close to the center of the spider
span. Vibration measurements may not be
indicated by the dial gauge if it is placed at
the point where the spider is attached to
Fig. 4.6. Mounting of dial gauge the foundations or the stator. When vibra-
to measure horizontal vibrations
tions of the ,lower spider or the turbine
of lower generator spider:
l-dial gauge; 2-spider; bearings are measured, where the overhead
3-bracket. crane cannot be used, the vibrations must
be measured with a rigid support fixed to
the walls of the turbine cavity or the turbine tunnel (Fig. 4.6).
In every case readings are obtained over the entire scale range of the dial
gauge (double amplitudes of vibrations).
The disadvantage of using dial gauges for vibration measurement is that

it is impossible to determine the frequency as well as the nature of the vibra-
tions (there is no record of vibrations with respect to time).
The periodic check on the vibrations of hydro units requires that the con-
ditions under which the measurements are taken and the instruments used be
identical. For every component of the unit a constant location must be
marked for measuring vibrations. When vibrations are measured with a dial
gauge the place where the dial gauge pin is mounted must be cleaned and pol-
ished. Depending on the type of hydro unit, vibration measurements are
taken at the following locations:
a) for vertical hydro units with pendant-type generators: at the upper
spider, at the lower spider and on the housing of the turbine bearing;
b) for vertical hydro units with the umbrella-type arrangement: at the
lower generator spider and on the housing of the turbine bearing;
c) for horizontal hydro units: at all journal bearings;
d) for generators: on the upper surface of the stator housing;
e) for all hydro units: at the floor of the machine hall, draft tube cover,
dividing piers, columns supporting the overhead crane, etc.
Vibration measurements on the spiders and the turbine bearings must be
taken in the same vertical plane. When vibrations are measured on the spider,
the measuring instruments are placed on one of the footsteps or beams as
close as possible to the axis of the unit. In the case of turbine bearings the
instrument is placed on its cover or on a special rigid platform firmly attached
to the bearing housing.
Vibrations are measured in the three directions. In the case of vertical
hydroturbines one of the axes lies along the vertical axis of the hydro unit,
the other two being horizontal and perpendicular to one another. One hori-
zontal axis is in line with the headwaters and tailwaters and the other joins
the right and left banks. Sometimes it is more convenient to measure hori-
zontal vibrations, radial or tangential, to the axis of the shaft.
For horizontal hydro units one of the horizontal axes is perpendicular to
the axis of the shaft and shows the direction of transverse vibrations. The
other is in line with the axis of the shaft, giving the vibrations in the axial
direction. The third axis gives the component of vibrations in the direction
of the vertical axis.
In order to judge correctly the directions of displacements and strains on
the various parts of the hydro unit the measurements indicated by the vibra-
tion pick-ups must be correlated with the directions of these deformations.
This is achieved by fixing the direction of deflection of a light rayon the oscil-
logram paper and the direction in which the vibration pick-up housing is de-
flected. This is checked by forcing the seismic weight of the pick-up from its
equilibrium position (sharp tap) when the unit is stationary and the cover off
the vibration pick-up unit. The light is deflected in the desired direction on
the oscillograph by interchanging the cable leads from the pick-up to the
oscillograph.
Often it may be required to obtain the deformation of a particular com-
ponent in relation to another and not its absolute value. For these cases
L.S. Maksimov [73] proposed the use of two absolutely identical electrodyna-
mic vibration pick-ups mounted on the parts in question (for instance, the
spider and the base plate). The emf from these pick-ups is applied to the re-
sistance bridge. A difference in the emfs from these pick-ups results in a de-
flection of the galvanometer which is a measure of the relative deformation
of one component with respect to the other.
In running vibration tests it is also desirable to measure the play of the
shaft and its behavior during rotation. Often shaft play is measured by sim-
•
ple indicators which are installed on rigid supports (bars, beams, etc.). The
dial gauge pin is mounted on the shaft of the hydro unit. When the indicator
is placed on the bearing a rubber sheet must be placed below the supporting
column. Shaft play is measured by the indicator at three points along its
height; at each bearing (generator and turbine) in two vertical planes at right
angles to one another. .
Pick-up for testing shaft play. The oscillogram of shaft play may be obtain-
ed by using a resistance strain gauge beam or an induction pick-up. The
Fig. 4.7. Induction pick-up for measuring shaft play.
arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.7. The pick-up is mounted on a fixed support.

The magnetic lines of the core pass through the shaft. When there is a change
in the gap between the magnet and the shaft it causes a change in the emf of
the winding of the pick-up. The sensitivity of the pick-up, on the average,
is equal to 0.50 mY/micron. The range of frequencies measured varies from
5 to 200 Hz.
The alignment of the rotating shaft is of considerable interest during tests,
i.e. the position of the shaft when the unit is running at its nominal speed of
rotation. The position of the shaft may be checked with the help of special
amplitude contactors placed at three or four points along the height of the
shaft in one vertical plane.
The contactor (Fig. 4.8a) consists of a bell-crank lever rotating about a
fixed axis in a ball bearing. The short end of the lever is in contact with the
shaft and the longer end periodically makes
and breaks contact as the shaft moves to
its extreme positions. The contact is made
through a spring with a device to adjust
the minimum closing time. The contactor
is fixed on a rigid support. If the signals
obtained due to closure of the contactors
•
located at the three bearings are delivered
to the oscillograph or a chronograph the
line joining the mid-point of the signals a
gives the shape of the center line of the
rotating shaft. Fig. 4.8b shows three differ- A B c
ent forms of shaft center lines and the three
traces obtained from the contactors corres-
ponding to these forms. Defective shaft
alignment and centering and balancing of
the rotor can be brought out with the help
of these contactors. If an oscillograph is b
available a strain gauge beam is preferable Fig. 4.8. Arrangement for checking
shaft play:
for checking shaft play. a--contactor indicating extreme posi-
Calibrating stands. All vibration pick- tion of shaft: I-ball bearing; 2-
ups must be calibrated on special vibration lever; 3-springj 4-adjustable con-
stands or platforms before they are used tact; 5-shaft; 6-ball; ~scino
for vibration checks. graph for checking alignment of
shaft. A-parallel displacement of
The most suitable calibrating stands for shaft; B-misalignment at flange
vibration pick-ups are those made by the coupling; C-weaving motion of
Institute of Earth Physics of the Academy shaft (dynamic imbalance of unit).
of Sciences, USSR and the VUT-300/6 type
vibro installation developed by the Taganrogsk Vibropribor Plant. Tl).e
vibration stand of the Institute of Earth Physics enables one to obtain the
frequency-amplitude characteristic of vibration instruments over a range
from I to 80 Hz with amplitudes up to 0.2 mm.
The arrangement of this stand is shown in Fig. 4.9. The stand consists of
an aluminum platform 1-400 x 250 mm in area which is placed on four
cruciform springs 3 attached to the supports. Below the platform, lever 2
is attached to the foundation plate by cruciform springs.
One end of the rocker arm 4 is located in the slot of the lever. The other
end is connected to an eccentric lever 5 which is rotated by a D.C. motor
through a belt drive and pulley 6. When the D.C. motor is in operation lever
5 is displaced in the vertical direction and platform 1 is also displaced in the

. vertical plane via the rocker arm 4. A change in the speed of the D.C. motor
is reflected in the frequency of vibration of the platform within the limits 1 to
80 Hz. If the eccentricity of the eccentric 5 is altered the amplitude of vibra-
tions of the platform changes anywhere from 0 to 0.2 mm. Because the plat-
form is provided with an elastic mounting on four cruciform springs it pro-
duces exact sinusoidal vertical vibrations of the platform.
The amplitude of vibrations of the stand is determined either visually or
. ~ 8 with the help of an oscillograph
",----::---~&Sic 7 for which the platform is pro-
vided with an optical system
•
consisting of a mirror 7 and
prism 8. The light ray directed
through the prism falls on the
mirror. After reflection the ray,
magnified 200 to 300 times, hits
a screen and the tureamplitude
of vibrations of the stand can
be read off.
Fig 4.9. Calibrating Vibrostand SIAN. The lower platform of the
stand 9 is constructed from a
framework of steel channels (5 through 8) which is grouted in a concrete
foundation.
The vibrograph to be calibrated is mounted on the platform with the help
of clips, clamps, etc.
Another type of calibrating stand for vibration pick-ups manufactured by
Soviet industry is the VUT-300/6 installation. This vibration-testing device
consists of a calibrating stand for horizontal and vertical vibrations, a control
panel and a selenium rectifier.
Principal operating characteristics 01 the installations
Range of vibrations of platform in terms of
double amplitudes 5 to 300 microns
Frequency of vibrations of platform from I to 100 Hz
Weight of device to be calibrated not more than 3 kg
Maximum allowable acceleration 6S
Size of the platform:
for vertical vibrations .......•.............. 850 x 600 x 400 mm
for horizontal vibrations '" 700 x 330 x 405 mm
.These stands provide for sinusoidal vibrations of the platform both in the
vertical and in the horizontal direction.
The sinusoidal vibrations of the platform are generated by an eccentric
mechanism brought into rotation by an electric motor. The electric motor is
of 270 watts. Its maximum speed is 8,000 rpm. Speed regulation of the
motor is achieved with the help of an auto-transformer. The operation of the

installation is regulated from a control panel. The power supply to the in-
stallation is at 220 V A.C. at 50 Hz. The schematic arrangement of the VUT-
300/6 testing installation is shown in Fig. 4.10.
The calibrating stand manufactured by the firm Askania has found con-
siderable use in the Soviet Union for verifying the stable amplitude character-
istics of vibrographs over the frequency range 15 to 80 Hz.
All organizations that regularly have to run vibration checks on buildings
and machinery must have calibrating devices .
•
vpp
Fig. 4.10. Schematic arrangement of the VUT-JOO/6 calibrating stand:
SR-Selsyn receiver; SG-sweep generator; HA-1, HA-2. HA-J-horizontaJ ampli-
fiers; CRT-cathode ray tube; FM-frequency meter; AM-amplitude meter;
ST-stroboscope; FL-IO Bash lamp; VA-I, VA-2-vertical amplifiers; T1 -Tll -tum-
bIer switches; I-integral contour; D-divider; CS--control signal; SP-5elsyn
probe; (SPH-horizontal platform, SPV-vertical platform); VPP-vertical platform
pick-up; HPP-horizonta1 platform pick-up; P I, P Il--extemal pick-ups; IF-indi-
cating frequency meter; lA-indicating amplitude meter; LO-leads to multi-loop
oscillograph; LF-lead from frequency meter; CW--changeover switch for probe;
IF-indicating frequency meter.
To measure the vibration level of hydro unit components directly in

decibels an apparatus has been designed consisting of acceleration pick-ups,
(inductive or piezoelectric), filters and other subsidiary instruments, (indicat-
ing or recording), together with a frequency analyzer. Lately instruments
made by firms like Dow, Marconi, Brule and Kerr, etc. have found consider-
able application in vibration measurement.
Since perturbation forces having similar frequencies appear simultaneous-
ly in hydro units the instruments used must have narrow band filters.
The instruments manufactured by the firms Brule and Kerr and Marconi
have filters with a 3per cent band width and a frequency transmission of 4 Hz
db db over the entire range of frequen-
3 3 cies measured.
Octave and semi·octave filters
(for instance PF-l) permit far too
many frequencies to be transmit-
ted in their range of operation.
. This complicates the analysis of
the causes of hydro unit vi bra-
'""7""......::--~~~-_1 ~~_-"-~2o-claves - tions.
-2 -1 '0 Figures 4.lla and b show the
•
Fig. 4.11. Characteristics of filterS: characteristics of octave and tri-
a-octave filter; b-trioctave filter.
octave filters. The advantage of a
narro~ band filter is clearly evident from this Figure.
4.2 Apparatus for Checking Deformation and Pressure
Pick-ups for checking deformation and mechanical stresses. Strain gauge

methods of measurement are widely utilized in checking deformations of
hydro unit components. '!,
Resistance strain gauge pick-ups (Fig. 4.12a) are usually made of a cons-
tantan wire of 20 to 30 microns diameter. The length of the strain gauge may
vary from 5 to 30 mm. The use of a strain gauge of a particular length is
entirely governed by the shape of the component. At stress concentration
locations (near fillets, recesses, at sharp angles, etc.) short strain gauges are
used for accurate deformation measurements. If the surface of the part in
question is not expected to have sharp stress variations; larger-size strain
gauges are used because they are'more sensitive. The variation in sensitivity
of these strain gauges as a function of their length, is shown in Fig. 4.12b. It
can be seen that when the length is less than 13.mm the sensitivity noticeably
diminishes.
For deformation measurements the strain gauges are connected in a resist-
ance bridge to which a D.C. power supply is provided with or without an
amplifier. The most suitable amplifiers are the IDD-3 and IDD-4 types de-
signed by the ORGRES [84] and the 8ANch-7M (8 channels with a carrier
frequency of 3500 Hz and a bandpass of 0 to 500 Hz).
Strain gauges are calibrated by determining their constants with respect
to either deformations or stresses. Since it may not be possible to remove'
strain gauges bonded on a particular component without damage calibration
is carrieci out by selecting 2 to 5 per cent of the total number to be used in
checks. • _
For calibration purposes strain gauges are bonded on a special calibration_
beam (of constant rigidity, Fig. 4.12c).

The stresses in the beam are calculated for
various leads placed at the end of the beam.
Oscillograms are obtained on the multi- . a. sz
loop oscillograph with several different
loads .on the beam. The strain gauges are
connected through every channel of the
strain gauge amplifier. The deflection of
the light ray is recorded on the oscillogram
(stress scale) for various stress values.
While these strains are being checked the
sensitivity of the amplifier may change.
• Because of this it is necessary to carry out

calibration of each channel simultaneously
with the calibration of the strain gauges on
the loaded beam. This is achieved by
balancing one arm of the resistance bridge
against a known resistance. Each loop is
N
LnE
-E
o
Ql
calibrated by comparing the deflections en
ca
.c
obtained on the oscillogram when the oQl
strain gauge is mounted on the calibrating -g'oO
beam and when it is balanced in the resist- ~ ca
CI
C
ance bridge against a known resistance. \ §
Thereafter it is no longer necessary to check
the calibration every time by switching in
\
, LnV;
the amplifier of the calibrating beam. It is

enough if the resistance bridge is periodi- N 0 co 10
cally checked for nul1 balance against a N N ...: ....;
known calibrating resistance. AlllI'llsuas
a6n'e6 ·U1eJIS
Apart from this, the deflection of the
loop oscillograph for different stresses in
the calibrating beam is ascertained for
every channel. Under normal operating
conditions the strain gauge amplifier must
give a linear relationship between the
deflections and the stresses. .
It is also necessary to know the fre-
quency characteristics of each channel of
the amplifier, Le. the dependence between
deflection of the light rayon the oscillo-
graph and the frequency of the deformation
being measured. The amplifier must give
a .constant deflection of. the light ray
(with an accuracy to ± 5%) while the amplitude of deformation remains cons-

tant over a range of frequencies from 0 to 150 Hz.
Depending on the aim of the tests the strain gauges are bonded on the'
following components of the hydro unit:
Generator: On the clamping plates of the steel laminates and on the lami-
nates themselves; floor of the generator, wedges and welded joints of the
stator; on the foundation bolts of the stator; tie rod junction pins of a built-
up stator; on the lateral part of the stator winding (where the winding emer-
ges from the slots); at the point where the windings are bent and at the center,
between spacers; on the generator shaft and on the load·bearing spider of the
generator.
Turbine: On the turbine shaft; on the turbine cover;'on the draft tube
casing; on the guide vanes of the wicket gates; on the runner blades and bolts
•
fastening the runner to the shaft; tie rods and levers of the governing system;
casing of the penstock piping.
The strain gauges are usually mounted on the component.in a group (in-
the form of a rosette) when the direction of the principal stress is not known.
When the direction of the strain is known the strain gauges are applied in
pairs. The location of strain gauges is shown in Fig. 4.13. Wherever electro-
magnetic fields are present special bifilar strain gauges have to be used. This
concerns deformation checks on the generator components. In this case the
leads from the strain gauges running to the strain gauge analyzer must be
twisted and the entire cable must be shielded. The shielding must be in the
form of a steel tube 8 to 25 mm in diameter. This shielding must be properly
earthed.
'--' The surface on which the strain gauges are mounted must be cleaned to
y
&,
a b c
y
y
d '0
e
Fig. 4.13. Various methods of locating strain gauges.
remove paint and rust. This may be done with a special tool. The surface
should be scraped and filed, then cleaned with emery paper.. Holes, notches
or fillets near the place selected for strain measurements make it unsuitable
for mounting strain gauges.
Strain gauges should not be bonded on welded joints since blow holes,
minor cracks and crevices present in the welds give rise to regions of stress con-
centration which distort the actual stresses. Before cementing strain gauges on
surfaces ofcastings they should be prepared by scraping for better adhesion.
To prepare a surface for a strain gauge it is first cleaned with spirit or
acetone (for degreasing) and then covered with a thin layer of adhesive with a
brush. The strain gauge is also smeared with adhesive. After the adhesive
dries (in 3 to 5 minutes) a second layer of adhesive is applied and the strain
•
gauge is pressed onto the metal surface. By pressing the strain gauge (with a
clean finger) excess adhesive is squeezed out and can then be removed. One
should not physically touch the strain gauge element with a finger or anything
else as this may damage it. The strain gauges may be bonded with the help of
the following types of adhesives:
BF-2, BF-4 and 192-T.
BF-2 adhesive is used when stability up to temperatures of 200 to 300° C
is required. ~fter polymerization it becomes stable for temperatures ranging
from _50 0 C to+200 to 300 0 C. BF-4 adhesive remains stable for tempera-
ture variations of 100 to 150 C. BF-4 adhesive dissolves only in spirit and
0
acetone.
Polymerization (hardening) of BF-2 adhesive is achieved at a temperature
of 1'40 to 150° C. The process takes 20 to 30 minutes. BF-4 adhesive poly-
merizes at 100 to 110° Cover 40 to 60 minutes or at + 60 0 C over a period of
two to three days.
It is difficult to provide such temperatures under operating conditions and
hence the adhesive is dried at the ambient temperature over a longer period
(say, 24 hours). We may of course make use of special types of heating de-
vices for strain gauges such as heating lamps and fans.
When 192-T adhesive is used bonding of strain gauges is carried out at 15
to 35° C followed by a drying period of 24 hours. To protect strain gauges
from moisture after they dry out they should be covered with a thin layer of
No. 216 varnish manufactured by the Moscow Match Plant.
The Leningrad Metal Plant has developed a special mastic (compound)
for protecting· strain gauges from moisture which can be prepared on site as
follows:
Small strips of weak vulcanized rubber are boiled in an oil of medium vis-
cosityat 146 to 148° C temperature. The rubber is boiled in oil for about 10
to 12 hours with fast, continuous stirring.
The mixture is then allowed to cool. Later the viscous, elastic mass is
heated and rosin in powder form is added to it a little at a time. The mastic
is ready when all the rosin is dissolved.
The amount of rosin added determines the hardness of the mastic. The
ingredients are used in the following proportions: 400 g of rubber and 3 to
10 kg of rosin are necessary for 2 kg of oil. The quantity of rosin should be
smaller for strain gauges operating at 5 to 100 C and larger for 20 to 25 0 C
conditions. The strain gauges and their leads are covered with 1 to 2 mm layer
of this mastic which provides full protection from the moisture of the environ-
ment. In many cases further protection from moisture is provided by apply-
ing a thin layer of rubber solution No. 88.
The presence of an electro-magnetic field in the measurement zone distorts
the results of checks and make it difficult to decipher the oscillogram. The
• influence of electro-magnetic fields is determined as follows: Half the resist-

ance bridge comprising of two strain gauges is pasted on a textolite sheet
which is then connected to the strain gauge analyzer. This sheet with the
.b 5 1 2 ' 10 3
'~~=,{~=:""",--
Fig. 4.14. Strain gauges used with compensating beam of VNIEE:

Q-(;ompensating beam ofVNIEE: 1-steel compensating beam; 2-brass cover;
3-compensating strain gauge; 4-main strain gauge; 5-fastening screw;
6-shielding; 7-ferrule for attaching shielded cable to intermediate clamp
assembly; 8 and 9-1eads from compensating and main strain gauges; 10-
flannel or chamois or other heat insulating material; 11-steel surface of com-
ponent being checked; b-strain gauges mounted on stator.
strain gauge mounted on it-is then placed very near the strain gauges which
are to be checked for the interference effects of an electro-magnetic field.
This sheet with the strain gauges need not touch the object whose defor-
mation is to be measured. If the sheet with the strain gauges is located at a
point where it may be affected by air currents from a fan, etc. then a glass
enclosure must be provided to protect it from such pulsating forces. Thus
two oscillograms are obtained, one for the combined deformation and inter-
ference effects due to the electrical field and the other for the electrical field
alone. Comparison of these two oscillograms enables one to evaluate the in-
fluence of the electro-motive force induced by the electromagnetic field.
If this effect is present it may be minimized by shielding the strain gauges
•
with metallic enclosures. These enclosures are either secured in place with
wooden braces and wedges or are glued with BF adhesive.
Temperature variations in the strain gauges also lead to distortions in the
strain measurements by the oscillograph. Hence temperature variations must
be compensated either by compensating strain gauges (when the deformation
direction is known) or by using special compensating arrangements such as
that developed by VNIIE (Fig.'4.14a).
-The compensating arrangement designed by the VNIIE [36] consists of a
cantilever beam fixed within a copper or brass container. The strain gauge is
fixed on the beam. In order to eliminate the influence of vibrations of the
beam the strain gauge is bent at the center with one half bonded to the upper
surface of the cantilever beam and the other half to the lower surface.
The brass or copper container along with the beam and the compensating
strain gauges attached to it is fixed just above the measuring strain gauge to
form a protective shield for the measuring strain gauge against air or thermal
currents.
When the temperature change is slow its effect may be eliminated by
balancing the measuring bridge before each change in the operating condi-
tions of the hydro unit. This helps in measuring the deformation from one
operating condition to another withou~ admitting errors due to temperature
variations.
Location of strain gauges. The strain gauges are attached to the stator
wedges as shown in Fig. 4. 14b since the principal axis of deformation is un-
known in this case. The stresses are measured in the three directions and the
principal stress is then calculated.
In measuring the stresses in bolts fixing the stator to the foundation and
in the bolted joints of the stator and other important components of the gene-
rator and the turbine, the bolts have to be prepared before the strain gauges
are attached. If the bolts have a free cylindrical surface (not touching the
bolt hole), the strain gauge is bonded to this surface. If there is no room to
take out the leads and the bolt is completely sunk in the hole the bolts are
given an undercut to provide space to bind the strain gauges and the leads are
then taken out through holes drilled in the head of the bolt (Fig. 4.15a).
It is also possible to place strain gauges in holes specially drilled halfway
along the bolt or in a machined surface, as shown in Figs. 4.15b and c. The
stresses measured must be adjusted by multiplying by the ratio of the area of
the cross-section of the bolt before drilling to that after drilling.
• 8
1/>16 mm ,... Tension
§b
IS-
-I
- c
b
Fig. 4.1 S. Bolts prepared for strain gauge measurements:
a and b: l-hole drilled to take out leads of strain gauge; 2-filed surface;
3-strain gauge; c-Iocation of strain gauges: l-union nut; 2-copper
tube; 3-union; 4-bolt.
To measure stress distribution near welded joints the strain gauges must be
fixed just by the joint in such a way that enough measurements are obtained
to plot the variation in stress along the entire joint.
.Stresses in the front parts of the
generator are usually measured by
placing the strain gauges at accessible
locations, for instance at the point
where the windings emerge from the
slots. For safety, the strain gauges
are placed near the null point of the
stator winding. To measure torque
the strain gauges are placed on the
easily accessible part of the shaft. The
strain gauges are attached at 45° to
Fig. 4.16. Location of strain gauges on the axis of the shaft. In order to
shaft for measuring torque: Strain gauges R1
and R1 are bonded on one side of the measure the torque only and elimi-
shaft and R; and R~ on the side nate the effect of tensile and compres-
diametrically opposite. sive stresses on the strain gauges (for
instance, due to bending of the shaft) strain gauges of equal resistance must
be mounted in pairs on diametrically opposite sides of the shaft as shown in
Fig. 4.16. Here the strain gauges Rio R3 and R2, R4 are connected in series.
The deformations in the generator's supporting spider are obtained by
fixing strain gauges on one side of the beam at the center of the span and at
the supports. With pendant-type generators the static deflection of the spider
a
may be determined by raising or lowering the rotor with the help of jack.
The deformation of the spider may be ascertained by a simple dial gauge
whose pin is mounted on the spider as close as possible to the shaft of the
hydro unit. In this case the deformation (deflection of the spider) is measured
in the vertical direction (Fig. 4.17):
-Placing the dial gauge on the rigid
•
support, the rotor of the hydro unit,
which is stationary, is lifted with the
help of a screw or hydraulic jack
until the gauge shows a steady indica-
tion. The rotor is then brought back
to rest on the footstep collar and the
deflection of the spider is ascertain-
ed. Then the unit is started. In order
Fig. 4.17. Deflection of spider:
to determine the deflection of the l-dial gauge placed on support indepen-
spider when the unit is on load the dent of spider; 2-position of spider before
loading is carried out step by step lifting rotor by jack; )-deflection due to
and the dial gauge indication is re- weight of rotor.
corded each time. As the dial gauge
pointer oscillates' during operation of the hydro unit the mean indication
of the dial gauge is taken to ascertain the true deflection. From the readings
obtained a graph is plotted for the deflection of the spider as a function of
the load on the hydro unit (Fig. 4.18). Knowing the weight of the rotating
parts of the unit G and the corresponding deflection at load Xl as well as the
overall deflection at some other load X2, the axial hydraulic force on the
runner is determined from the expression
P Q,. = G ( ~~ - I ):
As can be seen from Figs. 4.17 and 4.18 the variation in the axial forces of
hydro units differ for radial-axial and adjustable-blade turbines. With radial-
axial turbines maximum axial force occurs when the power output is maxi-
mum. With adjustable-blade turbines it occurs when the power output
exceeds that at which the blade setting of the runner begins to change (tran-
sition to automatic control).
Slip ring arrangements. In checking stresses and deformations in rotating
parts (rotor, shafts, etc.) it is necessary to adopt slip rings. The most
convenient, reliable and proven slip ring arrangements are:

1. the arrangement designed by the Elektrosila plant and IMASh AN
SSSR for the case where a free shaft surface is available;
2. the arrangement designed by VNIIE for shafts up to 1,200 mm in dia·
'Adzharis' Tskal"sK
hydro po wer plenll
mm )l
/
H"R-Rlonsk hydro power planl
l")
0.8
0.6
\' ' N
/ I l")
Zemo·Avcha I'sk '-- --~
hydro power p lanl 0 .4
~l") r... T -
0.2
T_
-I Na
•
o 2 46 8 10 12 MW
625 Ions a
mm It Vl r
0.8
l/;"' I I
0.6 368 Ions
n=107 rpm Na
0.4
o2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 MW
b
Fig. 4.18. Variation in deflection of generator spider with
(0) radial-axial and (b) adjustable-blade turbines:
1-static deflection; 2-deflection during no-load operation;
3-maximum deflection due to pressure of water.
Fig. 4.19. Slip ring arrangement of Elektrosila plant and IMASh AN SSSR:
1-shaft; 2-insulated slip ring; 3-washer; 4 and 5-threaded bush; 6-nut;
7-ball bearing; 8-front sleeve; 9-rear sleeve; 10---cover; 11---coupling; 12-
bearing support; 13-front ring; 14-rear ring; 15---contactor ring; 16-half
ring; 17-insulated collar; 18-dowel pins; 19-switching ring; 20-hand
lever; 21-rubber ring.
meter for units with a fairly long free shaft which is easily accessible;
3. the arrangement designed by the Lenfilial Gidroproekt for shafts up to
1,200 mm in diameter with a fairly long and easily accessible free shaft end.
The slip rings made by the Elektrosila plant and IMASh consist of a shaft
(Fig. 4.19) 1, on which brass slip rings 2 are fitted. These'are insulated from
each other as well as from the shaft. Shaft 1 is connected with the turbine
shaft through a coupling. The leads from rings 2 are connected to the leads
of the strain gauges placed on. the turbine through a slot in shaft 1.
Ring-shaped contact strips of brass 0.2 mm in thickness are placed on the
pins 18 connected to the front and rear rings 13 and 14. The entire arrange-
ment is fixed on a bracket where it is to be installed. In order to make use of
this slip ring system a: free end of the hydro unit shaft must be accessible.
• The slip ring can be brought into play by a hand lever 20 as and when
desired by the operator (for testing and adjusting the apparatus and for use
in strain measurements). When it is desired to bring the slip rings into play
the hand lever is turned through, 90°. This provides an axial displacement of
all the contacting rings 15 and the requisite pressure between them and the
slip rings 2. Once the strain gauge measurements are complete the slip rings
are disconnected by bringing the hand lever back to its original position. The
rubber ring 21 provides the necessary force to return the entire system to its
original position.
The construction of the slip rings is such that they can be disconnected
while the turbine is running; this increases their life. The rubber ring of the
contactor units 15 ensures a good contact between them and the slip rings.
The slip ring arrangement of the VNIIG [36] is mounted right on the tur-
bine shaft. A laminated micarta strip 0.5 mm in thickness of the required
width for placing of a brass slip ring 20 mm in width and 0.5 mm in thickness
is fixed on the shaft with the help of two clamps. The ring is firmly fixed on
the micarta strip with a suitable ctamp. The ends of the ring are cut and '
soldered (Fig. 4.200). Mter the joint is soldered the clamp is removed from
the ring and the traces of solder are removed by filing or scraping.
Copper-graphite brushes (MG-2 type) mounted on special brush-holders
are placed on each of the rings. The contact pressure between the brushes
and the rings is approximately from 6 to 9 kg/cm 2•
The leads from the strain gauges pass under the brass rings between the
joints of the micarta strips and are soldered at the lateral surface of the rings.
This type of slip ring operates satisfactorily at tangential velocities of up to
5 m/sec.
Figure 4.20b shows the slip ring used in checking the hydro units at
the Ivan'kovsk power plant. The units at this station have a shaft speed of
100 rpm.
The operation of the slip ring was found to be entirely satisfactory.
The slip ring of the Lenfilial Gidroproekt is also mounted right on the
turbine shaft before tests. The insulatIon between the ring and the leads con-
sists of a safety film which is glued onto the shaft with adhesive No. 88. The
1 2 3 4 5 6 710 8 9 slip ring, made up from 0.2 mm
- thick by 20 mm wide brass foil, is
~1 fixed on this film with the same
_ adhesive.
The brushes consist of a: set of
~ brass foils for each slip ring. They
,15 are fixed on a bracket. The bracket
can be swivelled so that the brushes
make contact only during the pro-
cess of recording. This type of slip
•
ring was found to operate satisfact-
orily when the strain gauges were-
supplied with direct current and the
tangential speed was 4 to 5 mJsec.
Usually the number of strain
gauges attached to the shaft is quite
large whereas the amplifier has a
limited number of channels. Hence
testing begins with the selection of
a) certain "active" measuring points,
Fig. 4.200. Slip ring arrangement of VNIEE: i.e. points corresponding to the
o-(;onstruction of slip ring arrangement: locations where strain gauges will be
I-point where eye-bolt is soldered to ring; subject to maximum deformations
2-point where outer and inner rings are during load variations on the hydro
soldered before assembly; 3-joint of outer
unit. In order to ascertain this the
ring; 4-insulation joint and location of
leads; 5-point where outer and inner rings mechanical stresses are measured
are soldered after tightening; 6-joint of wherever the strain gauges are fixed
inner ring; 7-eye-bolt; 8-spindle; 9-nut; under one and the same operating
IO-bolt; . lJ-outer ring; l2-insulation regime.
ring; 13-ioner ring; i4-layer ofvarnished
The operating conditions are
cloth; 15-leads; 16-sbaft; J7-'-point where
leads are SOldered to rings; . varied by switching on and switching
I
off the automatic field damper with
the generator on no load and thereafter by switching the generator into the
grid by self-synchronization.
A comparison of the oscillogram obtained during this preliminary test for
aU the strain gauge pick-ups allows identification of those showing maximum
mechanical deformation.
Once the "active" points are chosen the test is conducted according to the
standard procedure.
Pressure transducers (pick-ups). Various types of pressure transducers
designed for the following frequency ranges are used for checking pressure
Equipment Used and Results Obtained 163 -
variations in the flow passage of a hydro unit:

I. differential type of universal transducer for frequencies up to 30 Hz;
2. Bourden tube type pressure transducer for frequencies up to 10 Hz;
3. bellow type pressure pick-up for frequencies below SO Hz;
4. diaphragm type pick~up for frequencies up to 200 Hz;
• Fig. 4.20b. Slip ring arrangement of VNlEE:

b-slip ring arrangement moUnted on shaft of hydroturbine
at Ivan'kovsk power plant.
Figure 4.21 shows the universal pressure transducer made by the
ORORES. It may be used both for recording the differential pressure between
two points and for recording pressure and vacuum at a single point. in the
pipeline.
The pick-up consists of a body with two connections for coupling to the
measuring points.
A valve is provided in the body to equalize the pressure between the
chambers when the pick-up is connected to the measuring points.
A section of Bourden tube 2 is soldered to the body. The strain gauges
are attached over half the surface of the Bourden tube. The leads from the
strain gauge are soldered to the plugs 4 (3 Nos.). The cover 1 forms the
second pressure chamber. This chamber is filled with oil which insulates the
strain gauges from the water.' '
When pressure variations whose frequency does not exceed 10 Hz are
being checked a different type of pressure transducer is used (Fig. 4.2Ib). In
this case the entire Bourden tube is utilized. The free end of the Bourden
tube is attached to a strip on which the resistance strain gauges are mounted.
These strain gauges may form either the entire resistance bridge or just half
of it. A set of strain gauges are selected depending on the maximum expected
pressure. When it is planned to use amplifiers in conjunction with the strain
gauges they may be directly mounted on the Bourden tube. .
When the frequency of pressure variations is much higher (up to SO Hz)
transducers of the bellow type are, used (Fig. 4.2Ic). Here also, the end of
the bellows is connected to a flexible strip on which strain gauges are mount-
ed. The diameter of the bellows and its length are chosen on the basis of the
maximum pressure and the desired natural frequency of vibrations of the
system.
Diaphragm type pressure transducers (Fig. 4.2ib) are used for checking
high-frequency pressure variations
(up to 200 Hz and above). These
transducers are made in different
3
sizes: from 10 to 40 mm in diameter.
They can be easily mounted on the
walls of the turbine flow passages to
measure high-frequency pressure
•
pulsations.
It has been found from experience
that diaphragm type pressure trans-
ducers perform well when the dia-
phragm and the body are made in
one piece.
a When a separate diaphragm is
fixed between two rings "with bolts it
leads to considerable hysteresis dur-
2 3 ing pressure variations, first in one
'~- . direction, then in the other. The
strain gauges are mounted in the
central section as shown in Fig.
2b
C t p
d I
",p
4.2.
Fig. 4.21. Pressure transducer!: Figure 4.22a shows a diaphragm
o-universal pressure transducer of OR- type transducer which was used by.
GRES: I~ver; 2-Bourden tube section' Permakyan [IS7] to test pressure
3-strain gauges; 4-plug (leads of stran:: pulsations in the flow passage of a
gauges); b-Bourden type pressure trans- hydroturbine including the pressure
ducer!: I-Bourden tube; 2-flexible strip; pulsations on the runner blades.
3-strain gauge; c-bellow type pressure
transducer: I-bellow; 2-flexible strip; Figure 4.23 shows a pressure
3-strain gauge; d-diaphragm type pres- transducer designed by the Scientific
sure transducer: I-diaphragm; 2-nipple Research Sector of the Hydroproject
for connection; 3-strain gauge. Institute which has been successfully
. used to check the pressure pulsations
in the flow passage of model and prototype hydroturbines (lIS]. This trans-
ducer is usually mounted flush with the wall that the flow passes over.
According to our experience pressure transducers must be firmly mounted
on vibration-proof supports and the connecting tubes must be as short as
possible. Otherwise there will be parasitic vibrations which distort the nature
of the pressure pulsations and lead to large errors in measurement.
+
5t
~!~~~
0/2
~
-
• . 1/16"
--
oot
3/16"
b
Fig. 4.22. Diaphragm type pressure transducer:
a-diaphragm type pressure transducer for measuring pressure on pressure side
of radial·axial turbine blades; b-distributioD of stresses in diaphragm and location
of strain gauges to obtain maximum signal: l-diaphragm; 2-body; 3-four core
cable; 4-turbine blade; 5-tangential stress; 6-radial stress; R 1-main transducer;
R,--compensating transducer.
So, before using a particular type of pressure transducer it is necessary to
assess firstly the frequency and the expected amplitude of the process to be
recorded and secondly the errors in fre-
quency and phase measurements of the
.transducer itself depending on the way it
is mounted on the components.
LA. Charny [129] studied the influence
of the connecting tubes and characteristics
of the pressure transducer on the accuracy
of response to perturbations occurring
at the point of pressure measurement in
the flow. Fig. 4~24 shows how to calculate
the errors for a Bourden tube type pres-
sure pick-up. It shows the errors in ampli-
tude as a function of pressure pulsations
occurring at the measuring point. The Fig. 4.23. Transducer for measuring
place· where the pressure is measured is pressure pulsations designed by
Hydroproject Institute:
designated by the section x = 0: It is l-cable-RVShE-2 x 0.5; 2-
assumed that the pressure variations at gland cover; 3-plug; 4-gasket;
this point are expressed by PJ<-O=Po e'OJ ', 5-transducer body.
where Po is the amplitude of pressure variations;

'w is the angular frequency;
t is time. '
Then at section x=1 (at the instrument) the pressure variation will be
given by
P:x=/=)..Po e' (wI-d).
where).. is the coefficient of amplitude distortion;
t5 is the phase distortion.
o
~
a. 16 I I I I
~~~l-
I I I I I I I
II 14 ,I
I I ~
9 12 I -
~X =0.01 cm 3 /kg I-~ l=0.002 cm 3 / kg
; 10 I •
,
"
X=O X=I II 1\
.~ 8
II \
~ 6
-g 4 II /
7 '\. I-....
~ 2 ro;; I-
.>t'
,,~ ~_lC- lC ~ roo ;-,..
~ 0
Frequency of pressure pulsations. n Hz
Fig. 4.24. Amplitude errors of Bourden tube type pressure transducer as

a function of frequency of pressure pulsations at point of measurement.
For incompressible fluids Charny gives the following relationships:

I 's
).. V R2+S2; tan t5=:R;
w2 2aw
R=I-...2; S=-2 ;
'fo qo
where qo is the natural frequency of vibrations of the column of incompres-
sible fluid in the tube governed by the elasticity of the transducer
sensing element;
2_
q0- f ,
(;, +"cF) pi
where f is the area of the cross-section of the connecting tube;
Vo is the mean volume ofthe pressure transducer;
K' is an impulse which takes into account the combined effect of the
compressibility of the fluid in the chamber and its elasticity;
" is the transducer constant characterizing the elastic property of the
, transducer deformation and the way it is fixed;
F is the area of deformation (area of the transducer chamber);

p is the density of the fluid, I, length of the connecting tube;
c is the coefficient assumed = 0.5;
where v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid;

d is the internal diameter of the connecting tube;
. leq is the equivalent length for all the local hydraulic resistances.
Let us consider some of the 'arrangements of strain gauges shown in Fig.
4.21 and carry out approximate calculations.
1. Consider the complete Bourden tube transducer arrangement shown in
•
Fig. 4.21. The data .necessary for calculating the amplitude errors of this
transducer· are as follows:
Diameter of the connecting tube d= 10 mm; length of the connecting tube
1= 10 m; the internal cross-sectional area of the tube F=(2b+2h) L=(2 xl
+2 x 0.3)·10=26 cm2 (h-thickness; b-width of Bourden tube; L-Iength);
volume of the fluid in the Bourden tube va = bhL = 1 x 0.3 x 10= 3 cm3; density
of water p=0.102xlO- 5 kgf·sec 2/cm4; kinematic viscosity v=O.OI cm 2/sec;
modulus of elasticity K' =2 x 104 kg/cm 2 •
Calculations will be carried out for two values of the bulk modulus of the
tube, i.e. ,,=0.01 cm 3/kg and ,,=0.002 cm3/kg.
The graph shown in Fig. 4.24 is based on the results obtained from these
calculations. It can be seen that:
a) the amplitude distortion coefficient A. depends on the parameters of the
strain gauge of the transducer and the length of the connecting tube between
the transducer and the point at which pressure is being measured;
b) the coefficient A. does not exceed 20% for the first transducer (,,=0.01
cm3/kg) at frequencies of pressure pulsation not exceeding 6 Hz (at I::;, 10 m).
This enables us to study the pressure
pulsations in the flow passages of
adjustable-blade turbines where the
frequency of pulsations corresponds
to the turning speed and blade fre-
quencies (1 to 5 Hz);
c) for the transducer for which
,,=0.002 m 3Jkg (very rigid dia-·
phragm) the operating range may be
assumed to be up to 12.5 Hz (al'
I::;, 10m). ' .
The influence of the length of the Fig, 4.25. Variation of error in measurement
connecting tube on the permissible of pressures as function of length
range of operation of the transducer of connecting tubes.
(amplitude distortion coefficient does not exceed 20%) may be evaluated on

the basis of the allowable magnitude of the frequency when the connecting
tubes differ in length by assuming A.m...., =1.20. Obviously the general form of
the expression would be
Substituting the values of Rand S and solving the equation with respect
co
to n (n = 21t ). we have "
Fig. 4.26. Schematic arrangement showing location of measuring equipment

on hydro unit with adjustable-blade turbine during vibration checks:
a-vertical unit: 1 to 6-vibration pick-ups for measuring three components of vibra-
tions; 7-displacement pick-up for monitoring angle of rotation of runner blades;
8-pick-up for measuring displacement of servomotor plunger; 9-strain gauge on
shaft for measuring torque and axial hydraulic force; lO-pick-up for measuring
play of shaft; ll-tacho-generator for measuring turning speed of shaft; 12-pres-
sure transducer for measuring pressurepulsatioDS in flow passage of turbine;
nmD
_ 1 .
"-21t \J
r2q~-4a2 ( 2%-4a 2)2' (
2 ± 2
1 )q~,
- 1- A;'tu
where qo depends on the length of the connecting tube.

For transducer No.2, Fig. 4.25 shows the theoretical curve 1 for the am-
plitude distortion coefficient A= 1.2 (the amplitude distortion corresponds
to 20%).
The same Figure also shows curve 2 for the transducer shown in Fig.
4.21a. As can be seen, this transducer may be used for checking pressure pul-
sations when the connecting tube length does not exceed 10 m and the range
of frequencies measured is 20 Hz. One may carry out a detailed analysis
for diaphragm-type transducers which can measUre frequencies up to
•
400 Hz and above.
Figure 4.25 shows that in order to reduce the amplitude distortion of a
transducer the connecting tube length should be reduced. On the other
hand, reducing the length of the connecting tube alters the limits of the
frequencies of pressure pulsations that can be measured by the transducer for
a given value of Amu.
b-horizontaJ bulb-type bydro unit; instruments and pick-ups for measurements;

N-power output of unit; Q-mass flow rate of water tbrough turbine; z-levels
of bead and taiIwatersj Qo-opening of wicket gates; ~-ruDDer blade adjustment
around axes; U,,-stator voltage; Ur-rotor voltage; 1st-stator current; i-rotor
current; n-rotationaJ speed of hydro unit; I-frequency of system; P-piezometric
pressure; PIl-pulsating pressure; V-vibration of hydro unit components; S-
strain gauge measurements of deformations and displacements; to-temPerature of
bydro unit components. .
Obviously, one must evaluate the operating range of frequencies of each

type of pressure transducer before using it.
We have already considered the working of a transducer for measuring
pressure whose gauge tube is liquid-filled. When the transducer measures
vacuum pulsations the tube is filled with air and the theoretical formulas for
evaluating the amplitude and phase errors are governed by highly complex
equations [129]. However, calculations based on the equations for compres-
sible and incompressible fluids give results which are close enough for the
transducers used in practice and the prevalent conditions in'power plants:
For pressure testing the transducers are mounted at these locations in the
turbine flow passage:
at various points along the penstock piping;
in the spiral casing of the turbine; .
•
in the space between the wicket gates and the runner;
in the runner housing;
in the draft tube below the runner (at the periphery and at the center of
the draft tube);
at the exit section of the draft tube.
Connecting tubes for pressure measurements must be regularly blown
through in order to dispel air locks which would distort the value indicated
by the transducer. In the cas~ of vacuum meters the vents should be kept
open. for some time before each reading is taken in order to break the water
column that maybe present in the tubes. The connecting tube betwee~ the
transducer and the measuring point should be as short as possible.
Apart from measuring vibrations, deformations and pressure variations
the following quantities should also be measured in checking hydro units:
1. the power delivered to the bus bars of the generator as shown by the
plant wattmeters;
2. water levels in the head and tailwaters with the help either of depth
gauges or of remote level indicators;
3. the pressure in the spiral casing as measured by pressure gauges;
4. the vacuum in the draft tube measured by the absolute height of a mer-
cury column;
5. the turning speed of the hydro unit measured either by a frequency
meter or by the speed regulator tachometer;
6. the opening of the wicket gates measured on the scale provided on the
regulator and by the stroke of the servomotors;
7. in the case of adjustable-blade turbines the setting of the runner blades
as measured on the governor scale.
In checking transient processes in hydro units quantities 3 to 7 above are
recorded on an oscillograph.
The location of the measuring instruments for testing hydro units with
adjustable-blade turbines is shown in Figs. 4.26a and b.
4.3 Vibrogram Processing
Periodic oscillations
Determination of period and frequency of oscillations. In most cases the
recorded curve of vibrations consists of several components of different fre-
quencies. Hence with periodic processes it is necessary to determine the fre-
quency and the periodic time separately for each component. The period of
oscillation is measured in relation to a particular time level on the vibrogram.
The period of oscillations is determined as follows:
Five to ten periods of oscillations are chosen and' the total time they take
is determined. This is then divided by the number of periods to get the
periodic time for one oscillation, i.e. T=Et/z, sec. Correspondingly the fre-
• quency of oscillations (vibrations) is obtained, as!= i.

1. For a two-component curve the periodic time of the low-frequency
component is TJ and the periodic time for the high-frequency component is
T2 (Fig. 4.27a).
2. For beats the periodic time is
determined as shown in Fig. 4.27b.
Beats have the following properties:
a) the envelopes of the curve are a
close to .sinusoidal but are in phase
opposition; l:
b) the width of the space between T
-----.-- .ll
N,
tlte envelopes periodically changes " : !
and the frequency of vibrations is

equal to the difference between the l- T :t.:..., •
frequencies of the components;
b
0) the maximum width of the
space between the envelopes is equal
to the sum of the double amplitude
of the components and the minimum
width of the space equals the differ- .
ence oetween their amplitudes;
3. for a three-component curve
the periodic time of vibrations is c
determined separately for each com- Fig. 4.27. Determining period of
ponent (Fig. 4.27c). vibrations:
Figure 4.27c shows a vibrogram a-two-component vibration curve; b-
beats; c-three-component vibration curve.
consisting of. three components of
vibrations (curve J). Two components are due to beats (curve 2) which are
superimposed on the low-frequency component of vibrations (curve 3).
Determining the amplitude of vibrations. For single-component periodic
vibrations the double amplitude is determined as the value between the two·
extremes of the vibrations (Fig.
~p7Z£
4.28a) and equals 2A. In this case
it is necessary to take into account
> a the thickness of the trace b. The
amplitudes of two-component vi-
brations are determined separate-
ly. The vibration envelopes are
.; drawn for each of them (Fig.
N
4.28b). In this case the low-fre-
b quency component has a double
amplitude of 2A t and the high-
•
frequency component, of 2A2.
When the shape ofthe vibration
curve is very complex (Fig. 4.28c)
c envelopes are drawn. The ampli-
Fig. 4.28. Amplitude of vibrations: tude of the fundamental harmonic
a-single-component oscillations; b-two-
component oscillations; c~omplex shape
here is equal to 2At and the other
of a vibration curve. has an amplitude of 2A 2 • The
amplitudes of three-component
vibrations (Fig. 4.29) may be established by the method of envelopes. The
two components of the beats are superimposed on the fundamental harmonic
having an amplitude 2A. It is well known that during beats the sum of the
amplitudes of the harmonics equals the maximum width at the hump of the
curves whereas the difference between them corresponds to the neck, i.e.
c=2At +2A2; d=2AI-2A2, from which
c-d c+d
2A2=-2-; 2A t =-2-'
Determining the velocity and acceleration during vibrations. It is often
necessary to know the velocity and rate of displacement of the component
during vibration. This helps in evaluating the vibration level in decibels (see
equation I.SS) and in determining the addi- ftl'vI. .r"t\.. rI""\. Jf\'v
tional forces that appear on the structure due V· . V '1NV Vi~.ralion
to these vibrations since force equals the pro- curve
" Envelope
duct of mass and acceleration; P= m X] where ".
m is the mass; j is the acceleration. The mass i~, ;;'~~~~-;f,: . .]J,
of a given structure is usually a known value "1~' '~ . ._
and the acceleration can be obtained from Fig. 4.29. A ~ree<omponent
the vibration curve. vibration curve.
In the first approximation the branch of the vibration curve that is of
interest is replaced by a sinusoid. Then the velocity and acceleration are
obtained as:
v=Aw cos wi; j= -Aw2 sin wt,
where A is the amplitude of the given branch of the vibration curve;

OJ is the circular frequency, l/sec; OJ= 21r.IT; T is the period of
vibrations.
In order to assess the acceleration quickly in terms of g one may utilize
the nomogram shown in Fig. 4.30, assuming that the vibrations are
sinusoidal.
o o
o o o 8N :il 8
~ ~
T, alI , ~I
10 ID
l') ID 0
I I 1 t I I, , jt , I ! , , !
....
I " "
l')
I
Frequency. Hz
•
o 0 00 8
00000008000
i ....7 .7.1.':'. "..~ ....7. 7.T.If ....~ .... ~, f,j.;. "Ii
Acceleralion in terms of g
oil
l')
Q
......
0 0 ... .. N C')"" U) _ ~
_ N
ci, ,
ciI ,
ciI , I ,
,f" "T" "9,, "Til ,,1 ,f , . ,
Amplitude. mm
.1,·tI
'
",,'
C"I
, ,
....
,
10
, I
Fig. 4.30. Nomogram for determining acceleration of sinusoidal vibrations.
However, if the values ofv andj are obtained more accurately the vibra-
tion displacement curve should be differentiated. This may be carried out by
graphical methods.
Aperiodic vibrations
When the hydro unit operates under cavitation conditions irregular vibra-
tions are established. In such cases it is not possible to establish any periodi-
city for the vibrations. The peak values of vibrations differ among themselves.
Hence a so-called mean amplitude of vibrations for the selected time
interval is determined in order to compare different operating conditions and
to estimate approximately the influence- of vibrations on the components.-
Usually the same time interval is chosen for all the operating conditions
being checked (for instance 5 to 10 sec). The peaks of vibrations are joined
by straight lines and the enclosed area is measured (planimetered).
The area F is divided into selected time intervals. This helps in obtaining
the mean amplitude of vibrations (Fig. 4.3Ia).
During transient processes the vibrations they cause are superimposed on
the steady state frequency of vibration, as shown in Fig. 4.3Ib.
174 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP.
In this case it is necessary to isolate the superimposed vibration of the

transient process. For this purpose the steady state process curve is extended.
(broken line) and the amplitude of the transient process is measured from it.
~ a
• ~Fig.
b
4.31. Aperiodic vibrations:
Q-method of determining mean amplitude;
h--superimposition of vibrations of transient process.
The vibration curve of the transient process is usually plotted with· the
rectified mean line as the axis.
Since a transient process may be superimposed on a steady state vibration
curve, when the curve attains its peak value the deformations (displacement)
at this point will be at their maximum. Hence the maximum displacement
that the structure can undergo during transient processes is equal to sum of
the amplitudes of the steady state process and transient process, i.e. A,o/al =
An+A •
"
When the shape of the vibration curve is highly· complex harmonic
analysis [34] and spectral analysis methods are used to determine the compo-
nents of vibrations. More will be said about these later.
4.4 Analysis of Strain Gauge Output
Analysis of data obtained from strain gauges consists in determining the

mechanical stresses in the components of hydro units in terms of the record~
ing obtained on an oscillograph. Figs. 4.13a and b show examples of mount-
ing strain gauges where the direction of the principal axes of deformation el
and e2 are known. In this case one of the strain gauges (main) is mounted
along the principal axis and the second (compensating) perpendicular to it.
The magnitude of stresses along the axes of deformation is determined
from the formula
where p. is Poisson's ratio (for steels-O.3); 81 is the measured deformation.

When the strain gauges are mounted at an angle to the principal axes of de-
formation 81 and 82 (Fig. 4. 13c) the principal deformations are obtained as
follows:
890+80 890-80
8 1 =-2-+2--;
cos 11'
89O+eO e9O-eO
e2=-2--2 cos 11' ,
where 890 and eo are measured deformations; el and e2 are the principal
deformations to be determined.
Normally stresses may be obtained from a knowledge of the values of the
principal deformations:
• and summing the stresses,

0'1 - 0'2
-r=-2-'
When the strain gauges are mounted in the form of a rosette (Fig. 4.13d)
the principal deformations will be equal to:
eo+89O rn.
el =-2- +2 iii (eO-84S)2 + (e45-890)2;
.
e~ + e90 -1"2 r~- .,.---:------':-;;-

82=-2---2- iii (eo-e4S)2+(e4S- e9O)1.
The angle at which the principal axis of deformation is located is obtained
from the formula
2£4S-(eO+e90)
t an 211'0= ,
eO-e90
where eo, e4S and e90 are the measured deformations; e I and 82 are the princi-
pal deformations to be calculated; 11' is the angle subtended by the principal
axes of deformations.
When the strain gauge rosette is in th~ form of a delta (Fig. 4.13e) the
principal d~formations are equal to:
1
81 =3(80+860+8120)+ J[ 80- 80 +860
3 +8120J2 - [ 1 (860-8120) J2
..f3
and
The angles subtended by the principal axes of deformation are obtained

from the expression
. 1
.f3 (860-8120)
tan 29'0= 1 '
80- .f 3 (80+860+8120)
·1
where 80, 860, 8120 are deformations measured by strain gauges.
Knowing the stresses and the dimensions of the component, one may
determine the forces and moments acting on the element of the machine
being checked.
According to Hooke's law the stress in a material is given by (j =E8 where
•
E is the modulus of elasticity [for steels £=(2.0 to 2.2) x 106 kg/cm2]; 8 is
unital strain, 8 = f; I is the length of the beam.
The stresses during tension or compression are (j=P/F, where P is the
force acting along the axis of the beam; F is the transverse cross-section of
the beam.
The torsional stresses are given by
M ,o,
-r=--,
Wp ·
where M'D' is the torsional moment at a given section;

Wp is the polar moment of inertia of the section.
The bending stresses are
where Mb is the bending moment at the section in question;

W is the moment of resistance of the section.
However, in most cases we have all three types of forces acting simul-
taneously and the resulting stress in the component is obtained from the
following equation: . -
4.5 Aoalysis of Random Processes
. The variation of many different parameters during the operation of a

. hydro unit may be similar in nature to that of· a random process. These
parameters (random quantities) can be the. amplitude and frequency of dis-
placements, velocities and accelerations of vibrations, variation of stresses in

the component, pressure pulsations in the Bow passage of the turbine block
of the power plant and so on.
The characteristic features of random processes (as described in Chapter 1)
are:
1) Density of probability distribution of a random quantity, which in
most cases is governed by the normal distribution law as determined from
the curve (1.31).
The equation (1.31) may be transformed for convenience into a norma-
lized probability density distribution which is calculated from tables like
those shown in [92]: .
,2
1 --
W(t)=.,_e 2,
v 2n
• where 1= x-m is the argument of the tabulated function .

(1
2) The probability of obtaining a random quantity in the interval XI- X2

(which is determined by the probability distribution function, i.e. probability
integral) is:
where
xl-m X2-m
'1=--;/2=--'
(1 a
The probability integral is also detenriined from the tables as a function
of 12, since II is assumed to be O. Thus the tables are helpful in determining
the probability that the random quantity lies within an interval ±x (for a·
steady random quantity it is assumed that the mathematical expectation
m=O). Since the values have been tabulated for the interval 0 to 12, (]j (12)
obtained from the tables, must be doubled in order to obtain the probability.
3) The probability of a ·random quantity lying beyond the interval ± x is
obtained from the expression
N = [I - 2(]j (t2)].
The values of N are shown in Table (4.2).
4) The variance, mean square error, correlating function and spectral
density are determined from equations (1.32) through (1.34) and (1.37). At
present these quantities are determined either on an analog or digital
computer.
Table 4.2
2 t/I (I) 1-2t/1 (I)
1
al2 0.3829 0.6171
2"
2
2a13 0.5000 0.5000
3"
a I 0.6827 0.3173
2a 2 0.9545 0.0455
3a 3 0.9973 0.0027
4<r. 4 0.999938 0.‫סס‬OO62
•
The oscillograms obtained for the time-dependent random variations
(vibrations, pressure pulsations, stresses, etc.) are subjected to further
analysis.
Methods of analyzing oscillograms developed by Tyukeev [35, 158] are
given below. '
The time axis of the oscillogram is divided into equal intervals .dt.
This interval 11t is chosen in such a way that it is not greater than half the
period of the greatest frequency of the process, i.e. 111=2;
JmaJt
Assuming that the correlating function comes down to 5% R (0) during
time 7:maJt (on the basis of initial estimates) (Fig. 4.32), a value of m is
obtained from the formula
7:mQJt
m=-·
.dt
It was established by Tyukeev that the ratio between the ordinates of
spectral density calculated from the approximate formula SIJ (w) and their
real values S'(w) is satisfied by the distribution law ~2. He gives a graph of
this ratio SIJ (w)/S (wo) (Fig. 4.33) as a function of parameter k, the number
of degrees of freedom. The graph has been plotted for confidence probabili-
ties of 0.95 and 0.9.
The coefficient k is determined frpm Fig. 4.33 from a known value of the
confidence probability and the desired ratio S IJ (w)/S (wo). Knowing the
values of k and m, the number of points n that one can have is obtained from
the formula
n=O.625 km.
Obviously the general realization time will be equal to:
tr =nL1l.
The number of points n is selected on the basis of the speed with which
spectral density is calculated and the capability of the digital computer. If the
number of points n is too large they may be brought within permissible limits
by altering the coefficients k and m alldreducing the confidence level of the
results.
2.5
2.0 I~~
r--~
R(O)
R(t) 1.5
1.0
0.5
/.p ~
~ ....
r.:: ~
~ -
r ~ - K
o . 5 10 5 102 5 103
•
Fig. 4.33. Graph of spectral density ratio
Fig. 4.32. Variation of correlating function S(ro) .
R (T) as fuaction of time T. T", is time for S(roo) as functIon of k.
which function R (T) comes down to 5% --0.95 confidence level;
of initial value. - •• 0.90 confidence level.
After determining 4t, m and n the correlating function is obtained from

the formula
If-p
1 ~ x, X,+p,
Rp('r:)=-- . 1l=0, 1,2, ... , m.
n-Il
1=1
Preliminary values of the ordinates of spectral density are thereafter ob-

tained from
m-l
Lp(w)=-;; ~ R/cosm+Rmcosrn
4t[ Ro+2.ttC., inr ] .
I-I
The mean values of the ordinates of the spectral density curve are determined
from the formulas [35, 158]:
So (w)=0.5 £o+0.5L;
Sp (w) =0.25 L p_1 +0.5 L p +0.25 L p+ 1;
Il= 1,2, ..., m-I;
Sm (w) = 0.5 Lm_t + 0.5 L m.
The graph of corrected spectral density values is shown in Fig. 4.34.
The value of 'fmaJl: is calculated from the graph of the correlating function.
If this value of 'fmaJl: differs appreciably from the value assumed during cal-
culation of the coefficient m then it is necessary to make a fresh estimation of
TmaJl:, determine the values of m, nand t, and repeat the calculations.
The following values of m arid n have been recommended by Gutkovskii
[35] to obtain fairly good results: m=40 to 60, n= 1,500 to 4,000. .
The method described above for calculating R (r) and S (ro) are also use-
ful for estimating the time necessary for recording random processes before
experimentation. This undoubtedly
improves the accuracy of calculations
in subsequent analysis of the observa-
5(0) tions.
When the amount of recorded
data of random processes is fairly
large it is better to analyze them on
w
an analog or digital computer.
The Volgograd Polytechnic Insti-
tute (vPD used the MN-7 analog
•
Fig. 4.34. Graph of spectral density. computer to calculate R (r) and S(ro)
[64].
The oscillograph film with the recording of random processes was fed into
the computer with the help of a potentiometric converter.
The block diagram of the correlator, based on the analog computer princi-
ple, is shown in Fig. 4.35. (The potentiometric converted block is enclose4
by broken lines). . < '
The spectral density of a process is determined from the centered cor-
relating function R (r):
Tnuu
S (ro)=
o
JR (r) cos roT dr,
where ro is angular frequency; rmax is the maximum time needed for the cor-
relating function to come down to 5% of its initial value (sometimes this
quantity is known as the delay time).
The spectral density is likewise calculated with the help of a type M'N-7
analog computer. The block diagram of the spectral density analyzer of the
Volgograd Polytechnic Institute (VPI) is shown in Fig. 4.36.
A cosine frequency ro is supplied at one of the input terminals of the
analog computer.
For this purpose a network for solving the differential equations of har-
monic vibrations y+ky=O which give the function y=a cos rot is provided in
the commutating field of the machine.
The amplifier A3 operates as an inverter whereas AS, A6 operate as
integrators. The variable coefficient R c helps in varying frequency roo
Signals proportional to R (r) and the cosine function are delivered to the
multiplier block MN-7, after which the product is integrated. The voltage
is then applied to the amplifierA7. For a given frequency ro this voltage re-
presents the spectral density to some scale.
POlentiomellic converter
-X(I)X(~+r)V E
A12 AS 20-/.
V
•
Fig. 4.35. Block diagram of correlator based on analog computer type MN-7:
Al to A6, A12-amplifiers, MB-4--rnultiplier block.
R(r)
A 1 o--r-~__ -.J
A6
A2
A3~--...-_-
C
Fig. 4.36. Block diagram of spectral density analyzer based on

analog computer type MN-7:
AI to -A7, Al2-amplifiers, MB-4--rnultiplier block.
•
i Y; '?-
Table 4.3
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Recorded quantities Other measured quutities
Location
ud~~
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ..:. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Instruments and equipment
of instru- Vibrations and shaft Pressure pulsations Deformations and stresses Quantity being used for measurements
ments run-out in flow passages in hydro unit components measured ---------------
Steady state Transient
c0l\.ditions conditions
----------------------------------------------------------------------
2 3 4 5 6 7
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Measur· I. Load-bearing genera- l. Penstock pipe 1. Load-bearing spider
ingloca- tor spider
tion ,2. Spiral casing (ahead of wicket 2. Components of stator hous-
2. Generator stator hous- gate) ing
ing
3. Turbine housing 3. Turbine cover
3. Turbine cover
a) after wicket gate; 4. Shaft of the hydro unit
4. Penstock pipe shell
b) In vicini~ of runner; 5. Levers and linkages of govern-
5. Draft tube shell c) after runner ing system
(wherever possible)
4. Draft tube: 6. Shell of penstock, spiral cas-
6. Generator foundation
ing and draft tube
a) exit section
7. Structural components
b) elbow 7. Bolted joints (guide bearings,
of hydro unit block
screens, spiders, etc.)
8. Run-out of turbine c) at entry to diffuser
shaft d) at exit section of draft tube
~-~~--------- ---- - ----

I
/' I 2 3 4' S 6 7
Type of Vibration measurements: 1. Bourden tube pressure trans- I. Resistance strain gauges 1. Stator 1
I
. . .-I
pick-up 1. VEGIK, VDTs, KOOI ducers (for frequencies to Method of mounting strain current
and vibration pick-ups 10 Hz) gauges 2. Stator
measur- a) when direction of princi- voltage
2. Strain gauge accelero-
ing pal stresses is known 3. Rotor
meters Multi-loop
instru- current
a) for accelerations to V ~El mounted oscillo-
ments 4. Rotor
Sg £9 instruments graph
voltage
X S. Power
-
b) for accelerations to
10 g
tp b) when direction of principal
£2
stresses is not known
delivered at
generator
bus bars
6. Wicket gate
opening
7. Level of
water in
J
Indicating
scale
Depth
gauges and
j
Rheostat-
type trans-
ducer
w
head and Iimoographs
tailwaters
8. Pressure Differential
drop in manometers
spiral (or (water or
other me- mercury)
thad of flow
measure-
ment)
(Contd.)
I y- 3
~ - ---- -----
•
/ ."rt.!
2 3 4 s 6 7
Type of 3. Strain gauges mounted 2. Strain gauge transducers 2. Measurement of torsional 9. Shaft speed Frequency Speed trans-
pick-up on f1ex.ible beams a) Be1lows type (for frequen- stresses in hydro unit shaft (current meter ducer (uni-
and cies from 20 to SO Hz) Location of strain gauges on frequency) polar
measur-
ing • =liiJ b) Diaphragm type (for fre-
quencies to 200 Hz)
shaft plan machine
driven by
~0"2
instru- shafl)
Measurement of beats of
'=f'';", !;:b
ments f=300 Hz 10. Vacuum in Mercury Strain gauge
shaft , 2 3 • 4
I. Indicator mounted on draft tube manometer pick-up
shaft (for frequencies , ,~
to 10 Hz) 2.
3~
.-_. __ . U
Connection
diegreffi
tp
a
b
Multi-loop
oscillogram
Rc==200 ohms;
No. of locations of gauges-4
R. Il ==1 megohm;
•
2 3 4 5 6 7
Type of 2. Induction-type pick- 3. Differential pressure trans- 3. Measurement of axial thrust
pick-up up (for frequencies ducer (for pressure pulsations Strain gauge located on shaft
and from 5 to 200 Hz) to 30 Hz)
measur- Plan
ing
instru-
3 ' i j ) , 31'1"
ments
'-$-- 2'2"
4'4'
'_t",,·
Strain gauge.
2· 4 1k flngs
2k
Transducer 3k
4k
rush••
Hydro unit shaft
Connection
diagram
-
~
N
~
R,=200 ohms;
R=lOOohms;
No. of locations of gauges-2
R.I&=l megohm
(Contd.)
/ d.>-
•
I f)- IS
2 3 4 5 6 7
Type of I. Vibration pick-up I. Witbout amplifier I. Amplifier type SAN 4-7M. Witbout Without
ampli- witbout amplifier . IDD-2 or 100-4 amplifier amplifier
fiers 2. For arrangements witb 2. SAN 4-7M. 2. Without amplifier
100-2. 100-4 IDD-2 (ORORES).
(ORGRES) strain 1D0-4 (ORORES). etc.
gauge pick-ups.
SAN4-7M
amplifier and otbers
Type of I. OT-24 I. OT-24 I.OT-24 Without OT-24
oscillo- 2. N-700. 2. MPO-2 2. MPO-2 oscillogram N-700
gram 3. N-700 3. N-700 MPO-2
It may be emphasized here that when the oscillogram film is directly fed
into the analog computer it must be of high quality (the recording must have
high contrast and dark background with a line thickness of 0.2 to 0.5 mm).
During testing several processes are recorded by the oscillograph and the
curves frequently criss-cross each other on the film: Before they are fed into
the analog computer they should be transferred to a fresh film. The curve it-
self must be fairly accurately centered (the average value of the process must
be determined). Although analysis of oscillograms on analog computers
saves considerable time the process can be speeded up 10 to 30 times by using
digital computers with automatic card punchers or a special system of data
feeding. One such machine is the "silhouette" reader which converts graphi-
•
cal information into a numerical code. This machine can read up to 2,000
characters in 10 minutes.
Conclusions: I) The instruments used for testing hydro units are of several
types. It is therefore necessary to make an overall assessment of their capa-
bilities in relation to the problem and the maximum permissible error.
2) The instruments used for vibration and stress testing must be calibrat-
ed on special calibrating stands in order to obtain the amplitude, frequency
and phase characteristics during both steady state and transient conditions.
3) When pressure transducers are used it is necessary to determine their
amplitude and phase errors in the range of operating frequencies theoreti-
cally, taking into account the way the pick-ups are mounted in the flow pas-
sage of the hydroturbine.
4) A list of some typical instruments used for testing hydro units is given
in Table 4.3.
Chapter 5
Checking for Vibrations:

Standard Test Procedures
• Vibration checks on hydro units may be divided into the following

groups:
1. Acceptance and delivery tests conducted before the unit is commission-
ed for regular operation.
2. Service tests conducted before taking out a unit for maintenance and
after completion of maintenance and repairs.
3. Exploratory tests usually run on units that have abnormal vibrations,
severe noise and hydraulic shocks during operation, severe cavitation damage,
etc.
4. Breakdown tests carried out after renovation of a unit in connection
"with accident damage to parts of a hydro unit. "
The acceptance tests carried out before a unit is commissioned help to
determine the precise vibration characteristics of a hydro unit and the most
favorable operating conditions from the point of view of vibrations, cavita-
tion, noise level, etc. to assess the quality of erection and assembly work and
obtaining the standard characteristics of a new machine. Field tests are also
helpful for comparison of the characteristics of a hydro unit over a giv'en
period of operation with the standard characteristics, allowing one to evaluate
deviations during that period.
Service tests, especially those conducted before taking out a unit for
maintenance, allow one to determine deviations in the operating conditions
from the .standard conditions and assess the precise extent of maintenance
work to be carried out on the unit. Apart from tWs, the vibrations of a unit
before it is withdrawn for maintenance may alert the operating personnel to
defects not noticeable during normal operation, e.g. loss of centering of the
shaft, loss of balancing, etc. The quality of maintenance and repair work is
188
Checking for Vibrations 189
also assessed by the vibration conditions which must be better than before
the unit was taken out for repair. It is therefore necessary to carry out vibra-
tion tests on the hydro unit after completion of maintenance work.
Exploratory tests are conducted in order to determine the cause of exces-
sive vibrations and to adopt suitable measures to reduce them. These checks
are carried out according to the standard test program No.1.
Apart from this, transient operation tests are carried out according to the
standard test program No.2 on one among identical hydro units installed at
a power plant. The aim of these tests is to evaluate the forces and deforma-
tions that appear in the various components of the unit during transient
operating conditions. If necessary, suitable measures are adopted to reduce
•
stresses and deformations in the individual components of the unit (greater
strength, rigidity, additional bracing, etc.). Measures of this kind must
ensure reliable working of the unit as a whole when it is subjected to different
types of transient conditions in subsequent operation.
5.1 Vibration Checks AccordiDg to Standard Test Program No. 1
Standard Test Program No. I for checking the vibrations of a hydro unit:
Serial No. _ Power plant _
Certified by
Chief Engineer _
Power Plant _
Date _
I. Aim of checks
Determining the vibration characteristics and the cause of excessive
vibrations.
II. Extent of work to be done and the operating conditions of the hydro unit
Maintenance work carried out with the unit stationary: 1. Checking the
bolted joints of the supporting elements of the hydro unit such as the spiders,
bearings, runner, etc.
2. Checking the gaps in the gland seals of the runner, the oil scraper ring
of the governor,. air gaps in the generator, exciter and pilot exciter and com-
paring these data with those logged during assembly. Measurement of actual
blade setting angles of the runner blades of adjustable-blade turbines (see ref.
IS for methods of measurement). In the case of radial-axial turbines it is
necessary to measure the pitch of the guide vanes of the wicket gates at the
exit section and the distance between the trailing edges of the runner blades.
3. Setting up and adjustment of the measuring apparatus, connecting up
the leads from the probes to the oscillographs, etc.
4. Determining the period of natural frequency of vibrations of individual
elements of the hydro unit (runner blades, buckets of Pelton wheel turbines,
spiders, governor housing, various links and levers of the governing system,
pipes, etc.).
No-load operation of the unit (without switching it into the grid): 1. In-
vestigation of influence of the exciter on vibration of the unit run at normal
shaft speed under the following no~load operating conditions: a) without
excitation; b) with excitations of 0.25, 0.50,0.75 and 1.00 of Unomlnol; c) with
switching on and off of the automatic field damper.
2. Determining the mechanical imbalance of the rotor. The unit isolated
from the'grid and without excitation is run at the following speeds: 0.6,0.8,
1.0, 1.15 and 1.30 of the nominal speed, nnomlnol.
On load operation of the hydro unit: The unit is switched into the grid.
The wicket gates are set at certain desired positions and the corresponding
• load on the turbine is noted (Table 5.1).
Wicket gate
opening, % of
maximum
at generator
bus bars, kW
Table 5.1
Power delivered Wicket gate

opening, %of
maximum
Power delivered
at generator
bus bars, kW
20 80
30 90
40 100
SO 6O}COntrol
60 40 points
70
Operation as a synchronous condenser: After the unit is unloaded the

wicket gates are completely shut and the runner is freed from water by inject-
ing compressed air into the runner housing.
Determining magnetic asymmetry: Magnetic asymmetry is determined with
the help of the oscillogram of the current flowing in a conductor when it tra-
verses one pole pitch with the unit running on no load (this is carried out
only if there is a sharp decrease in vibration of the unit when excitation of
the generator is withdrawn).
III. Quantities to be ~easured
1. Vibrations at the supports of hydro units are measured with the help
of vibration pick-ups and oscillographs.
2. The variation of pressure in the flow passage of the turbine is measured
with the help of pressure pick-ups and oscillographs.
3. The power delivered at the generator bus bars is measured on a watt-
meter connected to the bus bars.
4. The voltage and current in the stator and rotor are measured by panel-
mounted instruments.
Checking/or Vibrations 191
5. The level of water is measured by a depth gauge and by remote indi-

cating level gauges.
6. The opening of the wicket gates is measured both on the scale provided
and by monitoring the stroke of the servomotor.
7. In the case of adjustable-blade turbines the setting is measured on the
scale provided on the governor.
8. The turning speed of the unit is measured either by a tachometer or by
a frequency meter.
IV. Time required for condactlng tests on a single unit
]. Preparatory work to be carried out when the unit is stationary .. ]6 hours

2. No-load testing of the unit ., 8 hours
•
3. On load testing of the unit (including synchronous condenser operation) .. ]6 hours
Total time for testing 40 hours
V. Number of persons required for numing tests
l. Control panel. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . • • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
2. Machine Hall (including machine haD operator) ................•....... 3
3. At turbines ................•...••••••••••••...............•.•...... 1
4. For observing levels of head and taiJwaters, etc '" ....•• , 2
Total 7 persons
Signed by:
Test program prepared by _
Approved by:
Superintendent Power plant _
Turbine Foreman _
Electrical Foreman _- _
Date_" _
Explanatory note on testing. The cavitation shocks that occur in the tur-
bine in a particular range of opening of the wicket gates cause the whole unit
to shake and its components to vibrate at greater amplitudes. It may be noted
that the variation in the amplitude of vibrations from minimum to maximum
coincides with this range of openings of the wicket gates. In almost all cases
the frequency of variation of maximum amplitude corresponds to the frequ-
ency of pressure fluctuations in the draft tube. This is often less than the fre-
quency corresponding to the turning speed of the shaft. In certain cases it
may be a multiple of the turning speed. Changes in the amplitude of vibra-
tions (in the unstable range) must be recorded in the test log.
To evaluate the influence of the excitation current on vibrations the unit
is run on no-load and the vibrations of the components are measured with
excitation set at 0.25,0.5 and 0.75 %of the normal and at the normal value of
the excitation current. If the magnitude of vibrations changes with a change
in the excitation current (appreciable increase in vibrations with increasing
excitation) it shows that there is magnetic asymmetry in the generator. In

such cases an oscillogram of the current flowing through the conductor while
traversing a pole pitch should be obtained as described in Chapter 2.
No-load testing of the unit without excitation is carried out at various
shaft speeds to ascertain rotor imbalance. The shaft speed is varied in the
following order: 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 of the nominal speed and then 15 and 30% above
the design speed. In each case the amplitude of vibrations is measured. In the
case of rotor imbalance this is almost a linear function of the square of the
frequency.
It is not desirable to test for vibrations at low shaft speeds (below 50% of
the normal speed) because thrust bearing lubrication suffers at such speeds.
Whether vibrations are caused by cavitation or by any other hydraulic
•
phenomenon in the turbine (shock on blades from abrupt entry of water, etc.)
can be easily ascertained by starting the turbine with the turbine housing
drained of all water. In this case the vibration of the unit sharply decreases
compared with the situation when there is an active load on the alternator.
If the vibration of the unit is due to mechanical factors (rotor imbalance,
misalignment of shaft, etc.) their magnitude remains almost unaltered during
motoring of the alternator.
Motoring of an alternator is carried out with wicket gates completely shut
and power supply provided by the grid. When the draft height is. positive
(runner not below the level of tailwaters) the water from the turbine is drained
by allowing atmospheric air to enter through specially provided pipes or
vacuum breakers which are forced open. When the head of water in the tail-
waters is high enough to keep the runner submerged, water in the turbine is
removed by injecting compressed air (the air is supplied from a low-pressure
compressor at 7 to 8 ats.). In both cases the loss ofvacuurn below the turbine
runner is monitored by vacuum meters and the removal of water fram the
turbine casing by the decrease in the power absorbed by the alternator from
the grid. Usually the time taken to expel all the water from the runner does
not exceed 50 to 60 seconds.
The methods described above for ascertaining the cause of vibrations by
eliminating the various perturbation forces appearing at certain operating
conditions of the unit considerably simplify the operating staff's task in tak-
ing the appropriate measures to reduce vibrations to the permissible limits.
Table 5.2 gives the nature of variation in vibrations depending on the
cause and typical oscillograms obtained.
Test procedures. Vibration tests on hydro units are carried out with tur-
bine operation restricted to a certain wicket gate opening in order to elimi-
nate changes in operating conditions. These are inevitable with the automatic
controls functioning. They would make it difficult to compare and analyz~
the results obtained from observations.
The operating conditions to be checked are set up by the operating person-
•
Table 5.2
Perturbating Cause of vibra- Operating regime of Nature of variations in

Typical osciUograms
force tions of unit unit vibrations
2 3 4 5
r
r
A
no-load operation "
rotor imbalance wilhoul .""i.. O.D al ~ &lUM a 2 . ' 2 ; 2A2_2A , JI
'.: A
..
('2)2
different values of n ~ Ifw,f" ,
02
.. n, n2
------------------------------~--------~----------------
r
no-load operation
without excitation at ~I '>, 'a, :,~
. misalignment of different values of n - - 7r--7\- -It ·
Mechanical shaft and with unit run as , 0:: : n ___ !.1L.-G_ ..
a synchronous con-. Q
denser • n, 02 'l>
~
------------------------------------------~-------------
Ji'
~
r ,J
rotating parts different operating
2A2~2A. ...
rubbing against ~
stator
"",d.. DO' at ."'''.
tant nand varylOg a o
, ~
~
:: 80 n=cons.. a=varia
....
• o'
~
------------------------------------------------------------~-
(Contd.) -
\0
W
•
--------------------------------------------------------------
2 3 4 s
--------------------------------~------_._------------ ---------
-..,.
'0
~...
2A
presence of by- synchronous con-
denser regime, no
,.~,.~
draulic perturba- c'
;:s
tion forces water in turbine
bousing n=constant sc l08d regime
" -~; 2A 'a .. ri ,2Aa;> 2A·
~
regime
~
~
<:l
governor charac-
~
2~\t~\,~
teristics not propeller regime of ~.
optimal for ad- operation at O'=const
justable-blade and 00 variable
S·
turbines :;'"tl
Hydraulic --------------------------------------------------------
vortex filament in
draft tube
on load operation
with air admitted in-
2A
~halr
/'rW'lhOU',8ir '}iA' ~>-~~ ~Kpi
Q~
., ;1, ;2A\
..!?:: s
'a =.1Tz
~.
"4.2-4.8
to draft tube 81;la-...! Kp.o ;'38
I K .
80 . 2AZ72A\
-----------------------------~------------------------
--
r
On load operalion
on load operation
hydraulic im-' and as synchronous
balance of runner condenser, no water
around runner ~ ~o 12 ='1 ;2 A 2 72A
•
------------------------------------------I-----~----- --------
2 3 4 S
--------------------------------------------------------------
Hydraulic cavitation
00 load operation
with changing levels
of tailwaters
r ~ ~~H"
2At No load operalion n=nH
1\iT4Mt
.,; 2A, n=cORst.
& IiJF ".IIMTv .~
'2; 2A2 «;;2A,
pi
I
~,.•
no-load operation ·2A
presence of elec- without excitatioo.
trical perturbat- switching on aod off
iog forces of automatic field
,...-- ....--.. "j""'..------ AFD slNitched 0"
damper
--------------------------------------._----------------
Electrical
« 2A '2; 2A2 7 2A , =10
,. ~-, ..
N
'2
short circuit of
part of rotor
no-load operation
with aod without ex-
-= AFD &lNilChed on I conduClor
accounling
. windings citation Wilh excitation 2P

t~_o.nl!l
diVISion
posilive g
~
Without e><citation ~
S·
OQ
~
..,
~
i?l
~.
.....
\0
Vt
nel by adjusting the limiter mechanism until the desired load is achieved.
Different turning speeds of the runner operating under no-load conditions
without excitation are obtained by adjusting the limiter mechanism with the
power supply disconnected from the pendulum governor drive and speed
regulated through the tachometer governor.
The various instruments record the quantities to be measured at each
operating speed at three locations (in the case of a pendant type alternator):
in the machine hall, in the turbine room and in the control room.
The quantities recorded in the machine hall are the vibrations of the upper
spider in the three directions, the opening of the wicket gates on the scale pro-
vided on the limiter mechanism and the turning speed on the tachometer
•
when the generator control is located in the machine hall, the angle of the
blade setting and the vibration of the lower spider of the alternator.
The quantities recorded in the turbine room are the vibration of the tur-
bine bearing housing and the play in the shaft, the wicket gate opening meas-
ured on the ·servometer scale, the pressure in the scroll casing and the
vacuum in the draft tube (it is advisable to measure the vacuum with the help
of a pressure pick-up recorded on an oscillograph).
The quantities recorded at the control panel are the power output of the
alternator, the voltage, the current, the levels of water in the head and tail-
waters indicated on the control panel through remote "indicating devices and
the frequency of the grid.
Observers are stationed at these points to record the readings on the
appropriate data sheets.
In most cases the control room staff of the power plant are utilized to
record the quantities indicated on the control panel. It is usually the leader
of the group that carries out the vibration measurements since this work is of
crucial importance. Any changes to be made in the operating conditions of
the unit are carried out only on the instructions of the chief investigator.
Recording of observations for each operating speed begins at a signal
from the chief investigater.
Vibration of the spider is measured at each supporting leg. If it is found
that the vibrations measured at each leg during the first test run happen to
be the same, then during further testing vibration measurements may be con-
fined to two points (at two of the spider legs located diametrically opposite
each other). .
Often when the number of vibration pick-ups available is limited it is con-
venient to carry out the complete test cycle with vibration measurements
taken only at the upper spider without transferring the vibration pick-up to
the next location. The test is then repeated with the pick-up placed on the
lower spider and thereafter on the turbine bearing. The direction of vibration
must be selected in such a way that it remains constant.
The measurements of various quantities and the readings on the instru-
ments are logged on the data sheets. The format is shown below (for hydro-
units with pendant type generators).
Processing of test data. After completion of all tests a technical report is
prepared describing in detail the order-in which the work was carried out, the
instruments used for measurement, their mounting, the locations where vibra-
tion measurements were taken and the test results. This information is given
in the form of minutes of the test proceedings (see format) and graphs.
For convenience in analyzing the results it is recommended that the
following graphs be plotted:
1. Variation in the double amplitude of vibrations in each direction and
for each component of the unit (spider, bearings, etc.) as a function of the
power output of the unit or the wicket gate opening. The variation in power
•
output from maXimum to zero at no-load conditions with change of either
excitation or wicket gate opening is plotted on the abscissa. The double am-
plitude of vibrations (mm) is plotted along the ordinate. The double ampli-
tude is plotted for each frequency component as well as for the overall maxi-
mum amplitude. The unstable zone of amplitude of vibrations is indicated
on the graphs.
Figure S.la shows one such graph for various openings for admission of
air below the runner of a 14,000 kW hydro unit.
2. The variation in the double amplitude of vibrations in each direction
and for each component of the hydro unit as a function of the square of the
turning speed, n2 • .
In this case the square of the turning speed n2 is plotted along the abscissa
and the double amplitude of vibrations 2A (mm) along the ordinate.
mm
)( 10- 2 2A
12
.
mm
10 0.20
2A
I I
8
6
4 ,0.14
0.18
0.16
I
K----i-r-r
1
2
,
',0.12 1---4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 .~*o O.10,....-3-1-'.4.L--l.L..5-~1.'-6--1-'-.7~x-l0-{.
Opening 01 wicket gates as indicated on scale Square of rotational frequency .
a 375 - b 400 rpm
Fig. 5.1. Graphic plots of test results: a-variation in double amplitude of

vertical vibrations 2A as function of wicket gate opening; x - x - x-air
inlets blocked; . -. _. -air inlet orifice of 2 mID dia; 0-0-0 -10 mm
dia orifice; 6-6-6,-6 mm dia orifice; b-variation in double amplitude
of vibrations 2A as function of square of turning speed, nl ; i-horizontal
longitudinal vibrations; 2-horizontallateral vibrations.
Figure 5.1 b illustrates one such graph for a hydro unit of 15,000 kW
power output.
3. The variations in pressure downstream of the runner, at the periphery
and central portion of the draft tube, are plotted as a function of the power
output of the unit or the wicket gate opening.
In this case the power output is plotted along the abscissa, ranging from
the maximum value to that under no-load conditions (with change of excita-
tion) or wicket gate opening on a scale similar to that in the first graph. The
double amplitude of pressure variations in the draft tube in meters of static
water head is plotted along the ordinate. The unstable region of pressure is
likewise indicated on this graph. Fig. 5.2 is an example of such a graph.
After the test data are processed and analyzed and the vibration condi-
•
tions of the units are ascertained it may become necessary to carry out tests
at some other operating conditions or to repeat some of the previous test runs.
Apart from this, excessive vibration of the unit requires that appropriate
corrective measures be adopted. From this point of view it is necessary to
interpret correctly the various amplitudes of vibrations obtained in the tests
and to decide whether it is necessary.to adopt prompt measures to reduce the
amplitude of vibrations or whether the hydro unit-can be allowed to remain
in operation until a more opportune time (maintenance of the unit, renova-
tion) when the vibrations can be remedied permanently without recourse to
temporary and hurried measures.
m. of std. water
18
16 2A
14
12 o
'Or
10
10
8
6
4
2 "
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Opening of wicket gatas as indicated on scale
Fig. 5.2. Variation in double amplitudes of pressure fluctuations

in draft tube with variation in wicket gate opening.
Graphic tables of permissible amplitudes of vibrations are provided in

Chapter 6. They facilitate evaluation of vibrations and vibration conditions
of hydro units. In addition, the nature and the most probable causes of these
vibrations are described in Chapter 6.
I
Report Noo _
Tested b~
Date, _ Test on Unit Noo _ 1) _
Commenced hr min, _ of Plant 2) _
Completed hr min _ 3), _
for testing vibrations
Double amplitude of vibrations. mm
Blade setting
Operating Wicket gate of runner Pressure in Vacuum in Upper generator spider
regime of Turning spiral casing draft tube.
opening blades (for speed. Footstep No. Footstep No.
unit (power as indicated adjustable- in meters of meters of
output. rPm static water static water Right Right
on scale blade tur- Tailrace- Tailrace-
kW) bines) head head bank- Vertical bank- Vertical
headrace headrace
; left bank left bank
1 2 3 4 S 6 I 7 8 9 10 11 12
I
Double amplitude of vibrations. mm Q

Lower generator spider Turbine bearing
~
~.
Tailrace- Right bank- Tailrace- Right bank- Vibrogram No. Remarks
Vertical Vertical
headrace left bank headrace left bank .,
'C'
13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 ~
-
20
~
~.
..-
\0
\0
5.2 Checking for Vibrations According to Standard Program No.2

It is necessary to carry out complete tests on at least one of the hydro units
installed at a power plant. From among identical machines it is usual to
select, for test purposes, the unit with the worst performance, i.e. the unit
that has suffered some damage earlier or has given rise to misgivings during
transient regimes.
The program of these tests is coordinated by the chief engineer and the
chief despatcher of the power system.
The standard program for tests under transient conditions is described
below. The individual working programs for testing on site for each type of
operating regime (load shedding, self-synchronization, etc.) are prepared on
the basis of the standard program. The working programs consist of specific
• instructions regarding the order in which each of the tests is to be carried out,
changes in the arrangements and operating conditions of the plant dliring
testing of the unit in question, relay settings, etc.
The chief engineer of the power plant nominates the employees respon-
sible for these tests. Manipulation of the hydro unit being tested, issue of
orders as to the method of testing and return of the set to the operating staff
after completion of tests are on his orders and under his guidance.
Stand8rd program No.2
Vibration testing of hydro unit No. of
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ power plant under transient conditions.
approved by
Chief Engineer _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ power plant
Dated_'-- _ 19_ _
I. Aim of tests
Determining the influence of transient operating regimes on the vibrations
and deformations of individual components of the hydro unit.
n. Preparatory work to be completed when hydro unit is stationary
1. Cementing and drying strain gauges, wiring and laying cables and
installing slip ring;
2. Installing and adjusting other measuring and recording equipment
(oscillograph, strain gauges, probes, etc.) as indicated in Table 5.3;
3. Setting up observation posts, providing darkroom facilities for loading
and developing oscillograph films.
In. Operating conditions of unit onder testing
1. Starting the unit and bringing it to nominal speed, nflomlflo/.

2. Increasing and decreasing stator voltage while the automatic field
damper is switched on and off with the generator run on no-load. The num-
ber of times the automatic field damper is switched on and off depends on
the number of pick-ups and amplifiers set up for the test.
3. Accurate synchronization, manual and automatic (four times by each
method).
4. Self-synchronization under steady state conditions with slips of 0, ± 2,
±4 and ±6%.
5. Automatic synchronization during starting of the unit at various rotor
accelerations (from 0.5 to 5 Hz/sec). The rotor acceleration is varied by alter-
ing the wicket gate opening and runner blade setting (for adjustable-blade
turbines) during start-up of the unit.
6. Self-synchronization at slip conditions selected for operation of the
unit when the booster relay of the excitation compounding and correction
• equipment may be switched off.

7. Part load operating conditions at 25, 50, 75 and 100% of nominal load .
8. Load shedding: 25, 50; 75 and lOO% of nominal load.
9. Switching off automatic field damper for 10 to 15 seconds at 10,25 and
50% of the nominal load (asynchronous operation and resynchronization).
10. Asymmetrical loading of generator is allowed up to a phase difference
of 20%.
II. Three-phase short circuiting at the terminals of the generator isolated
from the bus bars with a gradual and continuous rise of current up to the
nominal rating.'
12. Self-synchronization of the generator-transformer block.
IV. Quantities to be measured under testing
(Table 5.3 gives a list of instruments and materials required for carrying
out tests). , -
The following quantities are recorded by the oscillograph during transient
operation of the hydro unit with the help of appropriate strain gauges and
pick-ups:
I. Stator current.
2. Rotor current.
3. Stator voltage.
4: Vibration at the supports of the unit and stator housing and play in
the shaft.
5. Deformation of individual elements of the generator and turbine in-
cluding deformation of the lateral portions of the stator winding, the torque
on the shaft and the axial thrust acting on it.
6. Turning speed of the shaft.
7. Wicket gate opening.
8. Pressure in the flow passage of the turbine (pressure in the spiral casing
and vacuum in the draft tube).
Table 5.3. Table of instruments and materials (as recommended by ORGRES-VNIIE)
needed for tests according to standard test prograDt. No.1
Description Characteristic properties Quantity
2 3
OT-24 type multi-loop oscillograph Sensitivity of vibrators ranging up 1 unit -

for simultaneous recording of 24 to 10- 7 a/mm·m. Natural frequen-
quantities on single film for use cy 400 and 600 Hz
with strain gauge pick-ups
,.
Galvanometers for OT-24 multi·loop Sensitivity: 10-8 a/mm· In. Natural 18 nos.
oscillograph for recording vibra- frequency not exceeding 18 to 20
tions Hz
Vibrators for OT-24 multi-loop Sensitivity of vibrators ranging upto 6 nos.
oscillograph for recording currents 10- 7 a/mm·m. Natural frequency
and voltages 400 and 600 Hz
VEGIK type vibration pick-ups Magnification of 100, 250 and 550. 3 nos.
Range of frequencies measured, l'
to 200 Hz -
VDTs type vibration pick-ups 3 nos.
KOOI type vibration pick-ups 6 nos.
_. IDD·3 type four-channel amplifier "
Maximum sensitivity, 10 kg/em- at 1 unit
1 mm deflection of light ray at
oscillogram mirror
IDD-4 type .six-channel amplifier
made up of semi-conductors
.. 1 unit
Resistor elements Made of constantan, dia 0.025 to 500 nos.

0.030 mm. Base size varying from
5 to 30 mm and resistance varying
from 120 to 200 ohms
Oscillograph paper for OT-24 oscillo- 200 mm wide and each roll length of 20 rolls
graph SO m
Cement to fix strain gauges BF-4, BF-2, 192T 0.5 kg
"Kompound" paste for coating strain "Kompound" 1.0 kg
gauges as protection against mois-
- ture
Megger for testing insulation resist· 100 to 200-M-ohms, 500 V 1 no.
ance of strain gauges
Universal rheostats for recording dis- 200 ohms resistance (circular type) 2 nos.
placements of wicket gates and
setting of runner blades with set of
pulleys (motion ranges from SO to
'1,200 mm)
Pressure pick-ups for sensing mano- For pressure from 1 to SO kg/cml 5 nos.
metric head
Pick-up for measuring turning speed For turning speeds varying from 0 to I unit
2nnomlnal with the light ray of
oscillogram deflecting through
200mm
(COn/d.)
Checking for Vibrations 20~
2 3
Micarla strips for slip ring 0.5 rom thick 1.5 ma

Brass strips for slip ring 0.5 and 0.2 rom thick 0.5 ma
TVRKSh type cable Cross-sectional area 0.5 mm s, two 500 m
core and three core 500 m
MGV AZ type shielded cable Cross-sectional area 0.5 mm s, three 400m
core
"Gom" type hand tachometer Range from 10 to 1,000 rpm 1 no.
Dial indicators Minimum scale division, 0.01 mm 4 sets
Spirit or acetone for strain gauges 0.5 kg·
Tester or ohmmeter For measuring current and resistance 1 unit
Soldering iron (with rosin, tin solder) 12 V and 220 V 2 nos.
Apparatus for drying strain gauges Adopted from a redesign of vacuum 1 unit
cleaner "Dneipr" or any other
• type
Set of strain gauge beams of con- Steel beams of equal rigidity As per
stant rigidity for measuring vibra- require-
tions, displacements ments
Set of instruments (portable) Set of fitter's tools 1 set
Dead weight tester of "Rukhgol'ts" Tester with "Set of dead weights up to 1 set
type for calibrating pressure gauges ·50 kg
and pressure pick-ups
Blank data entry sheets, log books Office stationery As per
and other office material require-
ments
------------------------------~---------
Visual readings of the following quantities are noted from the instruments
on the control panel before and after the transient operation of the unit:
. 1) head acting at the turbine;
2) level of water at the power plant;
3) power output of the generator (both active and reactive power);
4) current and voltage of the generator stator and the rotor;
5) frequency of the current.
V. Minimum time required for testing one bydro unit·
I. Preparatory work (installation and adjustment of measuring instruments) 40 hr

2. Selection of operating points-switching on and off of automatic field
damper .. 6 hr
3. No-load testing (starting, synchronization, etc.) 8 hr
•
4. On load testing of hydro unit (operation under various loading and
unloading conditions) 12 hr
5. Special checks of unit (resynchronization, short circuiting. etc.) .. 12 hr
Total No. of hours for standard test program No.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
VI. Minimum Dumber of observers required for readiDgs·
I. Control panel .. 1
2. Recording on osciUograph and developing oscillograms 4
3. Operator for varying operating conditions of turbine 1
4. Visual observation of instruments in power plant 2
Total.. .. . . .. . 8
Signature:
Program prepared by _
Approved by:
Superintendent Electric Machine Shop _
Superintendent Electrical Laboratory _
Foreman ....;.... _
As a rule observations gathered during standard test program No. 2

require skilled and meticulous processing. This is especially true of the data
for random processes.
The Coriolis function R (1') and the spectral density S (w) must also be
provided for calculation purposes.
The working program for tests under operating conditions is prepared
taking into account the local situation. This program includes a list of all the
quantities that have to be entered in the report prepared for maintenance
work on the unit.
·The minimum time required for testing and the number of observers at each power
plant is determined in accordance with the amount of work to be carried out and other.
local conditions.
Chapter 6
Methods of Tracing and

Eliminating Vibrations
• 6.1 Elimioation of Breakdown Caused by Mechanical Perturbation Forces
After casting the runner is statically balanced by the manufacturer. How-

ever, the runner may become unbalanced when the pits formed due to cavita-
tion and wear of the runner due to suspended load are filled up by welding
during maintenance. In such cases the runner is statically balanced before
assembly. Static balancing is carried out with the help of special devices
which can be fabricated at every power plant.
Three types of arrangements for static balancing of runners are described
below:
a) Balancing hydroturbine runners

Balancing on knife edges. When the mass of the runner along with its shaft
does not exceed 10 tons static balancing is carried out on two knife edges
which are placed exactly horizontal and at the same level. The turbine runner
and shaft are placed on these knife edges as shown in Fig. 6.la.
The knife edges may be made either of steel or of cast iron. Their length
is 5 to 6 times the diameter of the shaft. The width of the supporting surface
of the knife edges (a) (Fig. 6.lh) depends on the mass of the rotor to be
balanced. It is usually between 3 and 5 mm for rotors weighing less than 1 ton;
6 to 8 mni for rotors weighing 2 .to 6 tons and 30 mm for rotors of 8 to
12 tons.
The supporting surfaces of the knife edges must be. thoroughly scraped
and their edges must be rounded.
The distance between the knife edges depends on the length of the shaft.
.Usually one knife edge is located immediately next to the shaft coupling.
20S
Before balancing, dirt and dust must be removed from the runner. If the
gland seal ring and hub body are separate they must be fixed on the runner
before it is balanced. Otherwise excessive vibration of the hydro unit may
occur if they are mounted on the runner after balancing. The shaft surface
must be verified for ovality or unevenness with the help of a dial gauge at the
point where it is supported on the knife edges. If the surface variation is
more than 0.01 mm it should be cleaned and scraped.
If the rotor is unbalanced when it is placed on the knife edges it rolls un-
til the heavier side is underneath. To balance it, balancing mass is mounted
on the lighter side. The weight of the balancing mass and its location must
be such that when the rotor is rotated it is in equilibrium at any position.
Usually for radial-axial turbines with n. > 200 the balancing mass is placed on
the lower rim of the runner where a recess is provided for this purpose. For
•
radial-axial turbines of n. < 200 this mass is placed on the upper rim of the
runner. In the case ofpropeller and adjustable-blade turbines the balancing
mass is usually placed in the upper portion of the runner hub.
After equilibrium conditions are obtained for the rotor on the knife edges
further steps are taken to eliminate residual imbalance due to friction between
the surface of the knife edges and the shaft and the inertia of the rotor. For
this purpose the outer periphery of the rotor is divided into six equal parts
and is marked off with a piece of chalk. The rotor is then adjusted succes-
C2l a b
ui
..=:
CD
100 ,I
A max
e 80
~
'"
C2l -
.~ 60
c
~ 40
--- -- /'
/' M
0
-- ~
.D
'0 20
........... ./' M , '
Amin
.g, 0
'Ii 1 2 3 4, 5 6 7
3: Corresponding number of divisions
on periphery of rotor shaft
C
Fig. 6.1. Static balancing of turbine runner on knife edges:
a-mounting of runner on knife edges; b-cross-section of knife
edges for staticbalanciDg of hydroturbine runner; c-determining
weight of additional balancing mass.
Tracing and Eliminating Vibrations 207
sively six times in such a way that the diametrically opposite markings are
horizontal.
At each of these positions of the rotor, weights of 10 to 30 g are placed at
identical distances from the center of the runner until the rotor is on the point
of rolling on the knife edges. After this the weights are removed and their
mass and the number of the marking where they were placed are recorded.
This process is repeated for each marking. In order to avoid mistakes the
weights must be suspended at those markings which would bring about rota-
tion of the shaft in a particular direction.
4 5
•
Fig. 6.2. Spherical bearing for balancing runner:
, h (PR-GJJ}R
GH •
where JJ-is coefficient of friction at support; G-is weight of
runner; R-is radius where balancing mass P is mounted.
.When all six markings have been weighted with masses such that the rotor
is disturbed from its static position a graph is plotted relating the ·various
masses and the number of the marking (Fig. 6.lc). The heavier side of the
rotor corresponds to the minima of the curve and the lighter side to the
maxima. The gravitational force 'exerted by the additional balancing masses
is obtained from the formula
Q_AmlLlC-Amln
- 2. '
where A mQJC is the ordinate at the maximum of the curve;
A m1n is the ordinate at the minimum of the curve.
The balancing masses are attached at the markings corresponding to the
maximum of the curve.
The mass required for static balancing is firmly attached at the above
position. While attaching the balancing mass one must take into account the
centrifugal force it develops during acceleration of the rotor. After the
balancing mass is attached it must be locked in by a protective sheet so that
it does not interfere with the paraboloid of rotation of water in the cavity.
Balancing on spherical supports. When the weight of the runner is 50 tons
or more it is more convenient to balance it on a spherical support. Such an
arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.2. It consists ofa supporting column 1, a case- .
hardened, ground, steel support 2 for the spherical support 3, setscrew 4 and
collar 5, exactly fitting the bore of the runner.
. Setscrew 4 is used for adjusting the height of the center of mass with res-
pect to the center of gravity of the runner. This distance must be the minimum
possible for optimum sensitivity of balancing. However, in order to provide
for stable equilibrium conditions the center of gravity must lie below the
•
point at which the load is supported .
Balancing is carried out as follows: ., .
Two identical spirit levels are mounted at diaD?etrically opposite points on
the upper rim of the runner hub fixing the inclination of the plane of the
collar in the two perpendicular directions. Then a balancing mass is mounted
on the right side of the runner of such weight that the upper plane of the run-
ner becomes horizontal. The runner is then raised by screw jack 4, thus at-
taining high sensitivity with respect to inclination of the runner caused by the
small balancing mass.
The runner shown in Fig. 6.2 was 5.33 m in
diameter and 3.30 m high and weighed 91 tons.
While balancing this runner the sensitivity
obtained was such that a load of 0.9 kg placed
on the rim caused significant inclination of the
runner from the horizontal.
Once the runner attains equilibrium position
on the spherical supports it is necessary to deter-
mine the residual imbalance due to friction at the
support and inertia of the runner. For this pur-
pose the upper rim of the hub is divided into six
equal parts and a small load is mounted succes-
sively at each of these points until the upper
plane shows no inclination from the horizontal.
The residual imbalance is calculated as described
earlier.
At the Baksansk hydro power plant the
runner of the turbine was balanced with the help
Fig. 6.3. Spherical supports of of a spherical support suspended from hook of
suspension type for balancing the overhead crane. The arrangement consists
runners. of an eyelet J (Fig. 6.3), the cradle 2, located
in the eyebolt and mounted on the spherical ball 3, beam 4 with a cradle for
the spherical ball attached to the eyebolt so the whole arrangement can be
suspended from the crane hook, chamfered disc 5 and a spherical ball
bearing 6.
The runner is mounted on disc 5 by matching the groove in the upper
flange of the runner with that· of the support. The entire arrangement is
then suspended from the overhead crane. The balancing procedure adopted
is similar to what bas been described earlier. The inclination of the upper
plane of tbe runner from the horizontal is verified by two spirit levels.
b) Balancing generator rotor on its bearings

Rotors of vertical generators usually have a comparatively large mass
(several tens of tons) and large dimensions which make it difficult to balance
them on any special balancing arrangement: Imbalance of generator rotors
•
is sometimes noticed during operation, for instance after maintenance, due
to displacement of the rotor poles because of bolts loosening. This requires
balancing of the unit in position, whicb is carried out at the noroial turning
speed. _
The amplitude of vibrations, which is directly proportional to the per-
turbation forces, is the basis oftbe balancing ofbydro units. The slight devi-
ations from this condition are due to maladjustment of the bearings, lubrica-
tion and other factors. During balancing the double amplitude of vibrations is
measured at the upper spider of the generators (for pendant type generators)
or at the lower rim (for umbrella type generators). Vibration measurements
are carried out with eitber a vibrograph or a dial gauge at a point as close to
the center of the spider as possible. The dial gauge must be mounted ona
rigid support independent of the vibrating parts of the unit.
When vibration measurements are carried out with a dial gauge in tbe
turbine room the gauge may be mounted on a foot bracket fixed to the wall
.or on some special rigid support.
Vibrations are measured -in three directions: .two horizontal and one
vertical.
In determining rotor imbalance the direction of vibrations selected is that.
corresponding to the maximum cbange in amplitudes. .-
Often, during balancing of low-speed turbines whose generator rotors
have large axial dimensions, it is necessary to carry out balancing at both
rims (dynamic imbalance). In this case the balancing masses are mounted
both at the upper and at the lower face of the rotor. Balancing is achieved
by measuring the vibrations first at the upper side (upper spider) and then at
tbe lower (lower spider). -I - -
In most cases it is possible to eliminate the vibration of a hydro unit by
fixing a balance weight on one side of the generator rotor.
Balancing by marking the sbaft. Balancing is carried out while the unit is
on no-load without excitation and running at normal speed. For this purpose
a free portion of the shaft is selected and the play is marked off on it with a
colored pencil. This helps in locating the plane of maximum amplitudes of
vibrations. When such markings are made the hand or the pencil holder
should not touch any vibrating component. The colored pencil is brought
close to the rotating shaft until it just makes contact with its surface. The
shorter the length of the marking obtained on the shaft, the smaller the
amount of balancing required for the rotor. Five to ten such markings are
made on the shaft (Fig. 6.4, lines 1-5). While these markings are made on the
shaft, vibration measurements are carried out at the nearest generator sup-
port (spider, bearing). The machine is then stopped and the centers of these
arcs Oines 1'-5') are obtained by dividing the arcs into equal parts. Lines are
then drawn through these points. The centers of the arcs always correspond
to the "heavy" point of the rotor. The balancing mass must be fixed on the
•
opposite side to the center of these markings, taking into account the dis-
placement of the location of the heavy point (usually this displacement for
hydroturbine does not exceed I or 2 rotor pole divisions).
The location of the center of markings A is transferred to a drawing (Fig.
6.50) and the vibration vector 00 is drawn along the radius OA. The length
~f the vector corresponds to the double amplitude of vibrations to some
chosen scale. The test mass P, which is selected from preliminary calculations,
is mounted at point C, which is at 90° to the radius OA measured in the anti-
clockwise direction. The weight of the test mass is selected in such a way that
its centrifugal force does not constitute more than i to 5% of half the weight
of generator rotor for pendant type generato"rs, (the former value for units
with speeds up to 100 rpm and the latter for units with speeds of 500 rpm),
i.e.
ico2,=(0.01 to 0.05) ~,
from which P (0.0 I to 0.05) 2G;J, ,

=
where P is the weight of the test mass, kg;

Gr is the weight of the generator, kg;
co is the angular velocity, I/sec;
, is the radius at which the balancing mass is fixed, m.
After the test mass is fixed firmly on the rotor the unit is brought to its
normal turning speed. The machine is stopped after again measuring vibra-
tions and marking the shaft with a colored pencil as before. The new center
of the markings B is then determined and this in turn is transferred onto the
drawing board as shown in Fig. 6.5a.
The vibration vector Ob is marked off along the radius OB drawn to the
same scale as before, representing the double amplitude of vibrations.
Tracing and Eliminating Vibrations 2]]
The vector Ob is the resultant due to the action of unbalanced mass and
the test mass P.
It can be seen from Fig. 6.5a that in order
to eliminate rotor vibrations it is necessary to
fix a balancing mass such that the vector ab
becomes 0, i.e. vector ab must be rotated
through an angle t5 and its absolute magnitude
must be made equal to that of vector Oa. In
order to achieve this the balancing mass should
be placed at point D on the radius which is at
an angle t5 with respect to OC, the radius of the
test mass, measured in the anticlockwise direc- Fig. 6.4. Balancing of rotor by
tion. The weight of the balancing mass is then marking shaft.
• obtained from the formula

Q =pOa't
ab'2 •
where P is the weight of the test mass, kg;
Oa is the double amplitude of vibrations during first run;
ab is the vector obtained from the triangle Oab;
'1 is the radius at which the test mass is mounted, m;
'2 is the radius at which the balancing mass is mounted, m.
If the vibratidns decrease significantly during the second run the balancing
mass has been chosen correctly.
b
c ~
b C
Fig. 6.S. Graphic construction during balancing by marking shaft:
a-locating imbalance by marking shaft: J-imbalance;2-mark obtained during
first test run; 3-marking during second test run; 4-test mass; S-balancing mass;
b-Iocation of test mass; c-parallelogram of forces.
The errors in determining imbalance may be due to inaccurate transfer of

the markings when their centers are scattered over a wide range.
The heavier side of the rotor can be approximately determined by
observing the rubbing marks on the shaft surface. If the shwt rubs against
the bearing on one side it can be observed by removing the bearing bushes.
The point at the center of the surface where the shaft rubs against the
bearing bush is then determined and the plane of rotor imbalance is drawn
through this point.
_Usually only small rotors of hydro units can be successfully balanced by
this method.
Balancing 'by mounting test mass successively at three different points. The
amplitudes of vibrations at the generator spider are measured during no-load
operation with the unit running at normal speed. The vibration may be meas-
ured by a vibrograph, vibrometer or the usual dial gauge. The dial gauge
pin is placed on the spider. The magnitude of the double amplitude of vibra-
tions is designated by J1.0.
.. The unit is then stopped and a pre-selected mass is mounted at point a.

The Machine is then brought up to its normal speed (Fig. 6.5b).
The amplitude of vibrations at the generator spider is once again measured
with the same instrument and at the same place as during the first run. The
.double amplitude of vibrations obtained during this run is designated J1.a. The
entire operation is repeated with the test mass successively located at points
b and c, for which the double amplitude of vibrations is obtained as J1.b and
J1.c.
So from this series of tests one obtains the amplitudes of vibrations of the
spider .due to an unbalanced force U when nO test mass was attached on the
runner and the resultant forces R a, Rb and R c when the test mass G was plac-
, ed at the three corresponding points a, band c (Fig. 6.6).
According to our earlier assumptions the force causing vibration of the
rotor is directly proportional to the amplitude of vibrations, i.e.
. R a : Rb : R c : U = J1.a : J1.b : J1.c : J1.0.
Figure 6.5c'shows the parallelogram of forces from which it can be seen
that the final point 0 of the imbalance U lies at the center of a circle having a
radius equal to the weight of the test mass (to the chosen scale) and the final I
points a, band c of the resultant forces R a, Rb and R c lie on the circum-.

ference. 9f this circle.
The position of the initial point S of the imbalance vector U is obtained
from its distance from the points a, band c lying on the same circumference
and proportional to the forces R a, Rb and R e•
Thus the line OS gives the magnitude and direction of the imbalance
being determined (to the chosen scale). The problem consists of locating the
point S (Fig. 6.6) whose distance from the points a, band c is proportional
to Rfj: Rb : Reo= J1.a : J1.b: J1.c.
The graphic m,ethod of determining the imbalance is as follows:
The force due to the weight of the test mass G which is successively mount-
ed at points a, band c is drawn to some scale (for instance I kg = 5 mm) along
. Tracing and Eliminating Vibrations 213
the three vectors drawn from the arbitrary point 0 which are at 120°· with
respect to each other. A straight line is then drawn through the points a and
b and perpendiculars are drawn at the points a and b with respect to this line.
The double amplitude of vibrations of the spider fJ.a measured when the test
mass G was mounted at the point a is drawn along these perpendiculars Qn
both sides (for ins.tance 0.01-5.0 mm). The double amplitude of vibrations
of the spider fJ.b recorded when the
test mass was mounted at point b
is drawn along the perpendicular
to the line ab at the point b, as
shown in Fig. 6.6.
Drawing .lines zx and zy
through the points x, y and z thus
--
obtained, the points A and Bare
located on the line ba. A circle is
drawn on AB as the diameter with
the center at 0 1• This circle is the
geometric location of all the points
which from the points a and bare
in the ratio of Jia : Jib. The point
of intersection of the forces R a ,
Rb, which are also in the ratio
Jia : Jib, would also lie. on this
circle.
A similar geometric location o
is obtained along line be for the Fig. 6.6. Graphic determination of
points that are in the ratio Rb : balancing mass.
R e= Jib: fJ.e from points band e.
For this purpose the double amplitudes of vibrations Jib and Jie are drawn
to the desired scale along the perpendiculars drawn at points band e with
respect to line be, as shown in Fig. 6.6. Joining the vertices of the intercepts
Jib and Jie, the points C and D are obtained on be. The points e and d lie on
the circumference of a circle with its center at 02. The third circle with its
center 03 drawn on the line ea serves the purpose of a control circle. The
three circles intersect at the points 8 and 8 I. Both the lines joining 8 with
points a, band e and those joining 8 1 with a, band e are proportional to Jia :
Jib: Jie=Ra, Rb, R e. Thus 80 and 810 provide two solutions for determining
the magnitude and direction of the unbalanced force U. The unbalanced force
U may be directly determined from Fig. 6.6, taking into account the scale
used for drawing the vector diagram.
In order to determine which of the two forces 80 and 8.0 corresponds to
the actual imbalance of the hydro unit rotor the amplitude of vibrations JiO is
compared with one of the three amplitudes Jia, fJ.b and fJ.e measured at the
spider before the test mass was mounted.

Since the amplitudes are proportional to the forces one can establish from
this comparison which solution applies.
The magnitude of unbalanced force U is obtained from the formula
U=SO(orSIO),
m
AI
Place where balancing

mass is mounted
• 0,3
/J,z
p;
...
.!
i 0,4
.'0
-3
a
.i
E 0,5
E
4}.S
.~
';:;
E 0,6
'IS
42.s
'a 40
~ 37.S
C 35
e: 0.7
30
32.6
2}S
2S'
225
20'
's
'0
s
Fig. 6.7. Nomogram for determining location of test mass.
where SO is the unbalanced vector measured from the vector diagram, mm;
m 'is the scale used for the test mass: I kg-ton/mm.
The balancing mass must be mounted on the opposite side of the vector.
Its weight must equal the weight of the test mass if it is mounted at the same
radius. Otherwise it is modified proportionately depending on the radius
at which it is to be mounted.
Balancing with the help of a Domogram of the Elektroslla plant. The nomo-
grams developed by E.Ya. Kazovskii are convenient for determining both
0.0
0.3
0.4
0.5
•
6" 0.6
60 p'amplitude of vibrations 0.7
.., 50 before balancing
0.8
~ 40
~g' 30 0.9
-"2
0·-
25
20 1.0
.!!E
.. Ql 15
u- 1.10
l/)~ 10
§ -6 1.20
0
5 1.30
10
15
20
rf:'
~g'
25
-"c
0·- 30
.!!E
.. a> 35
u-
l/)a>
'g 40
§ 45
50
55
0
0: 55
~g' 50
-';:
0.- 45
.!!E
.. a> 40
u- 35
l/)~
30
§ 25 20
0 10
Fig. 6.8. Nomogram for determining weight of balancing mass.

the location at which the balancing mass is to be mounted and its weight. In
this case it is no longer necessary to draw the vector diagrams already
described. .
All the calculations are carried out from the nomograms shown in Figs.6. 7
and 6.8.
We have test data available from three test runs: Il is the amplitude of
vibrations without test mass; Ill, 1l2, 113 corresponds to smallest, second-
largest and largest amplitudes of vibration measured during the three test
runs.
The points at which the test mass is mounted are designated as A I, A2 and
A3. From the observations obtained during the three test runs the angle t5 is
obtained. It is measuredfrorn radius OAI (at which the amplitudes of vibra-
tions are at a minimum) toward radius OA2 where the amplitudes increase to
•
average values when the test mass is mounted at these two points. The test
mass, therefore, must be mounted at an angle t5 with respect to GAl.
The angle t5 is obtained by joining the lines with the amplitude ratios of
112 : 113 and III : 112 on the nomogram (Fig. 6.7).
.The weight of the balancing mass is determined from Fig. 6.8. From the
points III : Il; 112 : Il; and 113 : Il and from the points on the scale for the angle t5
we obtain three values of the balancing masses PI, P2 and P3 along the scale
k as fractions of the test weight. The actual weight of the balancing mass
located at the same distance from the center as the test mass may be assumed
to be the mean of these three values, i.e.
_PI+P2+P3 p
P- 3 0,
where Po is the weight of the test mass, kg.

If the balancing mass determined in this way does not give satisfactory re-
sults when mounted on the rotor, then the balancing has to be repeated.
The ORGRES method of balancing. The methods described above for find-
ing the heavier side of the rotor are fairly tedious and not that accurate. In
practice, when balancing a rotor it is necessary to. select the location of the
balancing mass, which requires several test runs of the unit, re-arrangement
9f the locations or weights of the balancing mass, etc.
A mor~ convenient method of determining rotor imbalance [18] has been
developed using electrodynamic vibration transducers of the VEGIK, VDTs
and KOOI types and other pick-ups.
The heavy side of the rotor is determined as follows:
A horseshoe magnet is mounted on the shaft coupling as shown in Fig.
6.9a (a magnet from the wattmeter counter was used).
A coil is mounted on a rigid support (bracket) at the level at which the
magnet will pass close to the coil during rotation of the shaft. The gap bet-
ween the magnet and the coil is 5 to 10 mm when the magnet passes it. When
the magnet passes near the coil an emf is induced in it. When the coil is con-
nected to the galvanometer of an oscillograph one obtains a deflection of the
light rayon the oscillogram for each revolution of the shaft.
Along with the recording of the emf induced in the coil on the oscillogram
the horizontal vibrations of the generator spider or the bearing housing are
recorded by a vibration pick-up, as shown in Fig. 6.9b.
As far as possible, the vibration pick-up which is mounted on the foot of
the spider is kept in the same vertical plane as the stationary coil. (This is not
always necessary since a correction factor may be introduced for the angle
between the planes in which the coil and the vibration pick-up lie).
A.
-- Headwaters
Right bank
b
Tailwaters
a
Fig. 6.9. ORGRES method of balancing:
a-method of mounting horseshoe magnet and coil: J-generator shaft; 2-turbine
shaft; 3-copper sheathing; 4-coil; 5-magnet; 6-bracket; b-determining heavy
side of rotor on oscillogram.
After the vibration pick-up is mounted it is necessary to verify the direc-

tion in which the light ray deflects on the oscillogram when the vibration pick-
up housing is displaced along the radius away from the center of the shaft.
This check is carried out by giving a light tap on the seismic mass of the pick-
up. It should be remembered here that the housing of the vibration pick-up _
moves together with the generator spider whereas seismic mass remains
stationary in space ..
While determining phase imbalance an oscillogram is obtained under no-
load conditions without providing excitation for the hydro unit, which is run
at normal speed. Meanwhile the speed of the film is adjusted to about 60 mm
per revolution of the shaft. To determine phase imbalance it is enough if one
oscilldgram of an average length 200 mm is recorded.
The heavy side of the rotor is determined as follows (Fig. 6.9b):
or
«=360 b.
a
Let us assume that the vibration pick-up is located in the same vertical
plane as the coil and that the deflection of the light ray is, for instance, up-
• ward on the vibrogram, corresponding to the displacement of the rotor in the

direction of the pick-up with its rotation in a clockwise direction. Then we see
from Fig. 6.9b that the heavy side of the rotor causes maximum deflection of
the vibration pick-up at the point where the magnet has not yet reached the
coil and lies at an angle corresponding to z poles or cx deg. Consequently
the heavy point of the rotor in the present case lies at z poles ahead in the
direction of rotation, lying in the vertical plane of the magnet.
In this way the pole on the rotor in the vertical plane of which the heavy
point lies is obtained directly. Hence the balancing weight must be mounted
on the opposite side ofthe rotor. The weight of the balancing mass in the first
instance is calculated from the equation given earlier (page 211).
Once the balancing mass is fixed on the rotor the vibrations of the hydro
unit and the location of the weighted point are checked. If the weighted point
is displaced through 180 0 on the oscillogram it means that the weight of the
balancing mass is in excess and must be reduced.
If the weighted point is not displaced with respect to the maximum vibra-
tion point but the maximum deflection of the light ray from the vibration
pick-up decreases it means that the balancing mass has been mounted at the
wrong point and that its weight is inadequate. The final weight of the balanc-
ing mass is determined from the following considerations: /
If the amplitude of vibrations after mounting the first mass of weight PI
kg fell from 11.0 to AI mm the weight required for reducing the amplitude of
vibrations through 1 mm is
PI
- A kg/mm.
A 0- I
Since the residual amplitude is equal to AI mm one must add the following
weight to the balancing mass mounted earlier:
PI
- A At kg.
A 0- I
So in order to reduce vibrations of amplitude Ao one must install a balance

weight P=PI +A PIA AI kg.
. 0- I
The balancing weight necessary is usually cut from sheet steel of 12 to 15
mm thickness and is fixed on the rib of the rotor or on its rim with the help of
bolts of the requisite diameter.
From experience of rotor balancing it has been found that at normal oper-
ating speeds of hydro unit rotors the phase difference between the weighted
point and displacement is close to O. Hence there is no need for any correction
for phase difference in mounting the balance weight [18].
The method described above for locating the heavy point of the rotor of a
hydroturbine has several advantages in comparison with other methods,
namely:
a) it enables one to use apparatus' meant for vibration measurements
(does not require any special apparatus for balancing); -
•
b) the heavy point is located during vibration checks on the hydro unit
running under no-load conditions (does not require, for instance, three differ-
ent runs);
c) the heavy point can be obtained without recourse to complicated gra-
phic constructions;
d) the usual loop oscillographs can be used for recording vibrations
which together with pick-ups of the VEGIK and similar types fix the velocity
of vibrations. In this case one must consider the fact that the maximum dis-
placement of the hydro unit practically coincides with the direction of the
unbalanced forces of the rotor. The rate ofvibrations, being the derivative of
displacement (dxfdt), advances and consequently the direction of unbalanced
force is also displaced by 90° in the direction ofrotation of the rotor.
The choice of any particular method for balancing rotors depends both on
the availability of instruments and equipment and on the experience of the
personnel conducting the operations. However, the last-named method ofbal-
ancing enables one to locate the plane of imbalance with considerable accur-
acy in the course of a single test run. This has been confirmed by balancing
more than 30 rotors by this method.
c) Truing the sbafts of vertical bydro units

Verifying the shaft center line by the fonr-string method. For checking the
centering of the shaft the hydro unit rotor is supported only by the footstep
since the guide bearings are removed. Let us consider a pendant type hydro
unit. A metal cross fabricated from angles of 50 x 50 mm is fixed on the top
of the generator shaft. At the four ends of this cross strings are attached,
hanging in the two mutually perpendicular planes. The strings are not so long
as to touch the turbine cover (Fig. 6.l0a).
The strings are passed through the gap between the pole shoes or spokes
of the rotor and are loaded at the end. Usually steel wires of 0.30 to 0.75
mm thickness are used for this purpose. The weights at the ends of the strings
are between 8 and 12 kg (heavier weight for wires of larger diameter). The
weights are submerged in oil or avtol in containers placed below the strings in
order to avoid oscillation of the string (the oil acts as a damper). The strings
may be fastened to the angle at arbitrary distances from the shaft center
"line.
However, to begin with the strings should be fixed at identical distances in
order to avoid using a large number of distance-measuring instruments.
Hence notches are made on the angles at the point where the strings are fixed
so that their location does not change.
Four horizontal planes of measurement are then selected (Fig. 6.10a) for
taking observations. At each of the selected planes a ring is attached to the
shaft (Fig. 6. I la). The outer surface of these rings is well machined.
•
The first plane is chosen at the upper face of the generator shaft (just
below the cross), the plane 1I above the generator coupling, the plane III
below the turbine coupling and the plane IV above the turbine bearing. At
each point the distance between the shaft and the strings is measured with the
help of an arrangement consisting of a rod with a fork at one end and a mi-
crometer head at the other, as shown in Fig. 6.11b (the least count of the
micrometer being 0.01 mm).
Fig. 6.10. Centering hydro unit using four-string method:

a-locations of measuring planes I, 11, III and TV; b-Iocation of strings during
centering: I-steel angles for fixing strings; 2-strings; 3-hydro unit shaft;
4-bucket of oil in which weight at end of string is submerged; 5-wooden blocks.
-'
When sufficient space is not available on the shaft for mounting rings or
when the shaft diameter is large, it is more convenient to use an arrangement
consisting of a vee-block mounted on a rod, as shown in Fig. 6.11c for
measurements.
• ~~Jj. C
d
Fig. 6.11. Attachments for centering bydro units:

a-ring mounted on shaft; b-rod ·witb fork at one end and micrometer bead at
other: I-rod; 2-micrometer head; 3-screw; 4-fork; c-vee-supports: I-rod;
2-micrometer head; 3-vee-block mounted on the shaft; d-electric wiring diagram
for centering of hydro units: I-cross made up of angles; 2-insulation; 3-ammeter;
4-distance-measuring arrangement; 5-shaft of hydro unit;
6-string; 7-transformer.
For greater accuracy and sensitivity in measuring the distance between

the string and the shaft the measuring rods described above are connected to
an electric circuit (Fig.6.llb) to which power is supplied either from a 12V
transformer or from dry cells. The circuit includes a lamp, an electric bell or
an ammeter. When the end of the micrometer head touches the string the
ammeter pointer deflects (the electric lamp glows or the bell rings).
Measurements are carried out as follows:
The measuring rod is placed with the fork firmly pressed against the shaft
in the particular plane. The micrometer head is rotated until a spark jumps
between the string and the measuring rod. The position of the micrometer
head is located with an accuracy of 0.01 mm and then the reading is recorded
)
(Table 6.1).
In this method the diameter of the shaft is not taken into account. The'
actual distances from the strings to the shaft are also not necessary. It is
enough if one obtains the readings of the micrometer heads as shown in
Table 6.1. Of course, the same measuring arrangement must be used for all
measurements at a particular ring.
Before calculating the deflection of the shaft from the vertical the meas-
urements are verified for accuracy and in case of error they are repeated.
,.
and in the direction of the right bank (RB) and left bank (LB) is
- (a2- c2)-(al-cl). k' -k 10
k 11- 2 ' 1 1 - I1T'
Table 6.1
----------------------------------------
Place I Plane II Plane III Place IV
------
u
-------
u
------
u
------
Direction in :J :J :J
Cl
:J
~
";
~
relation to which the ";
~<II
Cl
<J > 8C > 8
string is located
~ fa
.lol .lol .lol .lol
~ ~ S ~ l:f
:~ .~
~
.~ .c
Q 0 Q U 0 Q 0
----------------------------------------
Headwaters bl b. b. b.
b1 +d1 b.+d. b.+d. b.+d.
Tailwaters d1 d. d. d.
Beginning of °1 0. 0. 0.
machine hall of 0 1 +c1 a.+c. o.+c. °4+ C•
power plant
(right bank)
End of machine C1 c. C. c.
hall of power b1-d1 b.-d. b.-d. b.-d.
plant (left bank)
Difference between a1-c1 a.-c. a.-c. a.-c.
measurements
----------------------------------------
The direction in which the shaft is inclined is determined from /u and ku.
In general the inclination of the shaft at any point on it will be given by
J"_(b,-d,)-(bl-d.) .
11- 2 '
k , = (al-c,);(al-CI).
Positive values of / correspond to the inclination of the shaft from the

vertical toward the tailwaters and positive values of k correspond to inclina-
tion of the shaft from the vertical toward the left bank.
The inclination of the turbine shaft (Fig. 6.12) is similarly obtained, using
the measurement data of plane IV.
R8, L8 HW,· TW
b,
oS
Cz
II
C
III
Fig. 6.12. Inclination of hydro unit shaft from vertical.
The maximum deviation of the shaft from the vertical and the direction
of the plane of inclination are determined from graphical addition of the
vectors / and k for each plane.
The absolute inclination of the shaft in any given plane would be equal to:
F,= -IU;j2+(k;)2 .
The absolute inclination is determined for each horizontal plane.
The allowable inclination of the shaft from the vertical is obtained from
the ratio
FI
t51=7;' ,
where l, is the length of the shaft between two planes of measurement. •
The quantity 6, must not exceed 0.02 mm per meter length ofthe shaft.
The shaft inclination is eliminated by scraping the bearing surface of the
collar or by introducing a thin wedge-shaped washer between the collar and
the thrust disc of the bearing as a temporary measure. The maximum thick-
ness of the washer (Fig. 6.130) is obtained from the formula
Flld"
x=T'
where FI/ is the absolute inclination of the generator shaft in plane II; /0 is the
distance between the plane in which the thrust pads lie and plane II; d" is the
outer diameter of the collar.
The washers are made from Watman paper, tr~cing paper or other soft
materials which are not fragile. The washers are introduced in regular steps
as shown in Fig. 6.13b, with each step not exceeding 0.1 m m . .
--
If the thrust bearing pads are supported on. bolts the inclination of the
shaft may be eliminated by adjusting the height of these bolts [104].
o
...J
a b
Fig. 6.13. Method of introducing layers of washers in form of steps:
l-hub; 2-washer; 3-disc; 4~shims.
In this case the height through which the thrust pads are to be raised is
obtained from the formula
Fudug
x=--/-,
where dseg is the mean pitch circle diameter of the segment bolts.
The plane of maximum inclination of the generator shaft and consequent-
ly the number of the segment that requires maximum adjustment for height
is determined from the direction of the resultant Fl l consisting of components
h1 and k;1 (Fig. 6.14). The height adjustment 9f the remaining segments is
dbtained graphically, as shown in Fig. 6.15.
In order to adjust the height of the thrust segments the rotor of the hydro
unit is raised on jacks. After the bolts have been adjusted the rotor is lowered
onto the thrust pads and the alignment of the shaft is once again checked by
the four-string method.
The final adjustment of the segments is carried out after assembly of the
~ HW
,~qE~
0~9Q>0 ~-+-~
~. ki,.~
~ F II 0 U~ 1t4~&~,
•
,;.
• <!J 7 6 ~~!
;~g:= ~ 0
I I
I
--
.!!:C .j )(N 'I
TW c ~ ;III )(
~~ .... a:;;:.,---'i=..""""""__" "
Fig. 6.14. Determining location of PilCh circle diameter
maximum height adjustment of of segment bolts
thrust segments for elimination of Fig. 6.15. Determining height adjustment
shaft inclination. of individual segments.
guide bearings. The aim of this adjustment is to obtain uniform distribution

of the load on the thrust pads due to the weight of rotating parts.
This adjustment is best obtained by using strain gauge apparatus.
However, it may not be possible to have this arrangement everywhere since
apart from the equipment, qualified personnel are also necessary to operate it.
The dial gauge method of adjusting the load on thrust pads has found
considerable application in recent times.
This method is as follows (Fig 6.16):
A clamp 2 is attached to the outer
side of each segment with a bolt. Below
the dial gauge 6 a ring 5 is attached to the
thrust disc 3 with a bolt 4. The dial gauge
is fixed on ring 5 and its pin touches clamp
2. When the generator rotor is raised on
jacks the positions of the segments are all
measured by the dial gauge. Thereafter the
generator rotor is lowered onto the thrust Fig. 6.16. Dial gauge attachment for
pads and the load is evenly distributed bet- checking load on thrust bearing
segments:
ween the segments with the help of bolt 7
l-segment; 2-clamp; 3-disc; 4-
(the deformation of the thrust disc is bolt; 5-ring; 6--dial gauge; 7-
calibrated earlier on a power press). supporting bolt.
Although this method of adjusting the load on the thrust pads is not abso-
lutely accurate it can equalize the loads on the segments within ± 15% of the -
average. This method can be used only when the lubricating oil is drained
from the thrust bearing. Adjustment of the thrust segments at the Kakhovsk
power plant using this method showed that the load distribution on the seg-
ments after dial gauge adjustment varied between 14.2 and 19.2 tons, whereas
prior to adjustment it ranged from 1.5 to 53 tons.
Determining the misalignment of shafts at the flange coupling. The meas-
urements carried out at the four planes (Table 6.1) enable us to determine
the misalignment of the shaft at the flanged coupling.
It can be seen from Fig. 6.12 that the inclination or the shaft in plane 4
consists of two components Jfn' and AklV in two different directions due to
the inclination of the generator shaft and the misalignment at the flang~ coupl-
• ing. Their components along the x and y axes are equal to: Jx]V and JYIV.
Thus one may write that
!lv=Jfn·+Jxlv; krv=Aklv+Jyw,
where JXlY is the inclination of the shaft resulting from misalignment at
the coupling in the direction of the headwaters-tailwaters in
plane IV;
AYIY is the inclination of the shaft resulting from misalignment at the
flange coupling in the direction of the right bank-left bank in
plane IV.
Obviously,
r .L - , . L
AJlv=fIIT; JkIV=k IIT ,
0_ 0 0
where 10 and L are the corresponding distances from the plane of the segments
to sections II and IV.
Finally one may obtain:
, J" L .. L
AXIV=frv-JII 10; JYlv=k rv -k/1 ~.
The absolute value of the turbine shaft displacement in plane IV would be

equal to:
.0, = ..[Axjv + Anv .
The permissible deviation of the shaft due to misalignment at the coupling
according to [123] would be
2H
o,:S:;O.02-
D'11 '
where H is the distance from the turbine flange to plane IV;
Dil is the diameter of the turbine and generator shaft coupling.
The misalignment ofthe coupling is eliminated by scraping the shaft sur-
faces or by introducing a wedge between the flanges. The maximum thickness

of this washer would be equal to (Fig. 6.17):
X=
at---yr-'
Dfl
It should be remembered that placing a temporary wedge between the

flanges should be avoided as far as possible since the coupling may loosen after
some time due to the washer being compressed during operation of the hydro
unit.
Checking supporting plane of the thrust collar for vertical alignment, using
a dial gauge. This check is carried out after the turbine and generator shafts
are uncoupled and the lower generator bearing is dismantled (bearing liner).
The upper generator bearing is left intact and is not dismantled.
In order to measure the inclination of the shaft two dial gauges are
•
mounted in the same vertical plane on stationary supports. The dial gauge
pins are brought into contact with the lateral surface D
of the shaft. One of the dial gauges is placed at the 0' B
upper generator bearing and the other at the lower. cL..,.:::::::;F=:::::::JA.
The circumference of the shaft at the point where the
dial gauge pin makes contact with it is divided into 12
equal parts. All identical numbers must lie on the
same vertical. The numbering is carried out in" the
. i ~ ~·haft axis
~i \
direction opposite to that of the rotation of the shaft.
The divisions with the corresponding numbers are
marked with chalk on the shaft. The dial gauge scale
is brought to 0 and the smaller pointer of the dial A.
gauge is brought to the middle of its scale by adjusting
the position of the dial gauge. After this the genera-
tor rotor is revolved through one division at a time Fig. 6.17. Method of
determining thickness
and the dial gauge indication is recorded. If the shaft of shim to be fixed bet-
is inclined toward the dial gauge the reading is taken ween shaft coupling.
as a + value and vice versa.
The data obtained from measurements is recorded in Table 6.2.
When the shaft completes one rotation the pointers must come back to 0 if
the dial gauges are not disturbed. Otherwise the measurements have to be
repeated.
The run-out of the shaft is determined from the data obtained from meas- .
urements in the following way:
The reading on the upper dial gauge is subtracted from that on the lower
one (b-a). taking care to use the proper signs for all shaft rotations.
If after several complete revolutions of the shaft the dial gauges do not
revert to 0 and the readings (b-a) for the initial points differ by more than
0.02 mm this difference is divided into 12 equal parts.
This quantity is then subtracted from the dial gauge readings obtained at
diametrically opposite points, Le. 0-180°; 30-210°; 60-240°; 90-270°; 120-
300°; 160-330°, for each rotation. These differences are run-outs of the shaft
in the plane of the lower dial gauge (total deviation) in different directions.
The direction of the maximum run-out of the shaft is determined from these
data. The shaft run-out is due to its axis not being perpendicular to the plane
of the thrust collar. As a temporary measure shims may be placed between the
supporting collar and the thTust disc of the bearing to reduce shaft run-out.
The thickness of the shims (Fig. 6. I 7) is obtained from the similarity of
the triangles AOB and A'eB' i.e. t5/D = AB/I where, D is the diameter of the
thrust collar, mm; t5 is the thickness of the shim, mm; AB is half the value of
maximum shaft run-out, mm I is the distance between the plane in which the
dial gauge is located and the plane of the thrust bearing.
•
From here the thickness of the shim is obtained as
D L1 D
t5=AB-=- -
- I 2 I '
where L1 is the maximum run-out of the shaft at the lower dial gauge obtained
from measurements.
Table 6.2
. N0.0f No. of divisions and angle

Lo cation _
of dial revolu- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
gauge tions - - - - - - 0 - - - - -0 - - - - - - - - - - - - -0 - - - - - 0- - - 0
o 30° 60 90° 120 150° 180° 210° 240° 270 300° 330 360
----------------------------------------
At upper 1
.
al a2 alz at
bearing 2
3
. .
a l a2
al az
. a.l
a lz
a lz
al
At lower 1 bl bz b12 bl
bearing 2 b; b; b~2 b'I
3 b"I b"Z b~z b'I
----------------------------------------
If the packing material is not as thick as desired several shims may be
used, selecting them in the same way as shown in Fig. 6.13b.
According to data given in [104] it may be assumed that the inclination of
the plane of the thrust bearing with respect to the shaft may be assumed to
be eliminated if the inclination with respect to the generator shaft in plane II
per meter length of the shaft, for various hydro units with different turning
speeds, is
up to 250 rpm 0.03 mm
Verifying tbe centering of bydro unit sbaft using dial gauges. The covers of
all guide bearings except the upper generator bearing are removed. If the
generator bearing is of the segment type it is mounted with zero gap.
For verifying the centering of the hydro unit shaft eight dial gauges are
mounted in two vertical planes at the following locations along the height
of the shaft (Fig. 6.18):
at the upper extension of the generator shaft·;
on the lateral surface of the shaft at the generator bearing;
at the end of the generator shaft and on the lateral surface of the shaft at
the turbine bearing.
• -
~
4
6 3
7 .. II .
8 1 ~
I Scale
0.10 mm
t--J
5 4
I
3
_ 60/5
4 +---t--ll-III
7 2 7
8,
-~eJ-I .~·5
TW
.*'
6 5
7 : 3 IV
1.8 , .4
8. ,3
,. 2- 8 , 7 2
I-lW
b 8 1
Fig. 6.18. Location of dial gauges for A B
alignment of shaft of 58 MW hydro unit: Fig. 6.19. Vector diagram of shaft inclina-
I-shaft extension; 2-upper generator tions at different sections (see Fig. 6.18):
bearing; 3-flanged coupling; 4-turbine B and A-Before and after elimination
bearing: 1], 111, hlI, IIV dial gauge of shaft run-out; I-IV-planes of
indicators. measurement.
·Often the shaft extension is centered separately. In that case measurements are taken
only on six dial gauges.
The circumference of the shaft is divided into eight equal parts and the
shaft is rotated through 360°. Measurements are taken at all eight dial gauges
for each of the eight positions of the shaft. These observations are recorded,
as shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Measuring points
Measuring location
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Shaft extension
•
Upper generator bearing
Flange on generator shaft
Guide bearing of turbine
Vector diagrams are constructed for the shaft inclination at each section
for each diametral direction from which the direction and magnitude of shaft
run-out is determined at any given section (Fig. 6.19). The procedure is re-
peated after elimination of shaft run-out.
d) Centering borizontal units

Horizontal hydro units usually have two or three bearings. The flanged
coupling between the generator and turbine shafts may be either rigid or
flexible.
Centering of horizontal units is carried out in order to remove misalign-
ment of the shafts at the flanged coupling and eliminate displacement between
the axes of the turbine and generator shafts. The misalignment as well as_
displacement could, in general, be both in the \:,ertical and in the horizontal
planes.
Centering of rotors at the sbaft coupling. Centering of the shafts of hori-
zontal units at the coupling is carried out with the help of a special clamp
(yoke) and feeler and level gauges (the least count should not be more than
0.5 mm per meter length of the shaft).
Centering of the shafts at the coupling is carried out as follows:
A special type of clamp (Fig. 6.20) is fixed to one of the flanged couplings.
The gap between the clamp and the flange and those between the flanges
themselves are measured by feeler gauge at four selected points at 90° to one
another. The turbine and the generator rotor are together rotated through
900 with the help of the overhead crane or a pulley block. When the measure-
ments have been completed at all four points the generator rotor is turned
through 1800 and the measurements are repeated at all four points. When
the rotors are centered by this method the difference in the measurements of
the gap between the flanges in the horizontal plane must not exceed 0.02 to
0.03 rom. The difference in the gap measured on the lateral surface of the .
flange in the same plane on two opposite sides must not exceed 0.07 to -
0.10 mm, since the flanges are machined with an accuracy to 0.05 mm.
Due to curvature of the shaft the gap between the flanges (when they are
horizontal) in the vertical plane must be
greater at the top and smaller at the bottom.
Centering of the shafts is carried out by
inserting shims of the required thickness
below the pedestal or the guide bearing bush.
•
The alignment of the shaft iJl the vertical
plane is carried out by successive measure-
ments' of levels at all shaft surfaces with the Fig. 6.20. Centering horizontal
shafts at flanged coupling:.
upper halves of the bearing bushes removed J -turbine shaft; 2-generator
and with the shaft in one particular position.. shaft.
The gap in the guide bearings plays an im-
portant part in the smooth operation of horizontal hydro units.
Measurement of the gap hetween the shaft and the bush at the top is car·
ried out by taking three lead impressions (two at the sides and one in the
center) at each bearing. To obtain this impression a lead wire of 0.5 to 1.0
mm is placed between the shaft and the bush. The. upper cover and the
bearing liner are fixed by tightening the bolts, after which the cover and the
bush are removed and the thickness of the lead impression is measured with
a micrometer.
Apart from this the camber of the bush, i.e. the gap bet~een the shaft
and the bush at its ends, is also measured by feeler gauges. The necessary gap
(camber) from each end must be equal to 0.002 (or 0.2%) of the .shaft
diameter.
The normal and the maximum allowable.gaps at the top between the bush
and the shaft are shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4
Gap at periphery
Diameter of shaft, mm
normal maximum allowable
----------------------~-----------------
from 80-120 0.080 0.160
" 120-180 0.100 0.195
180-250 0.120 0.225
250-360 0,140 0.250
----------------------------------------
,
e) Preventing seizure of rotating parts

In case of seizure of rotating parts the turbine must be stopped and re-
alignment must be carried out (covers, labyrinths, oil splash rings, etc.) or the
point where seizure occurs must be scraped.
Table 6.5 shows the values of the normal and maximum allowable gaps
in guide bearings of vertical hydro units. These gaps must be periodically
checked and if they exceed the maximum allowable values (Table 6.4) they
must be adjusted or the bearings must be repaired (reconditioned).
Table 6.5
--~~;---:~~~~j~~i~~i:---~~;---G~~t;~~~~~-
diameter, -normal maximum diameter, - - - - - - -;a~~u:-
mm allowable mm normal allowable
--------------------
2OOf'' ' '« g.'''' Turbine guide bearing
•
"",ift/J 300}
250 0.14 0.21
350
300 0.25 0.35
350
:} 0.17 0.25
:} 0.30 0.40
500}
500,
:J 0.35 0.45 : 0.20 - 0.31
650
7001 65O}
700 0.23 0.35
750J
800
0.40 0.55
750
850
:} 0.26 0.41
l~} 0.45 0.65 1000 0.30 0.45

---------- --- ---------------------------
The gaps in the bearings are verified with a feeler gauge at four diametral
locations on the circumference of the bearing liner. In taking these measure-
ments one should see that there is no oil groove or joint in the liner at this
point. The length of the feeler gauges used for measurement is 250 to 300 mm.
Normally the radialgap in the labyrinth seals of turbine shafts is assumed
to be O.oolD, where D is the diameter at the gap.
Independent mounting of the thrust bearing collar on the shaft with some
. clearance cannot be recommended because in many cases it gives rise to ex-
cessive vibration of the hydro unit. The collar is firmly mounted on the shaft
by making it in two parts and fixing it in such a way that there is no gap left
between the collar and the shaft (Fig. 6.21). The ring is made of bronze,
which does not adhere to the shaft as happens when it is made of steel. At
the same time it provides for every dismantling of the collar during
maintenance.
In order to achieve better centering of the thrust collar and the shaft the
Atelier des Charmil1es (Switzerland) firm made use of a bronze wedge below
the thrust ring, as shown in Fig. 6.22.
Press fil bushes

in footstep supports
Fig. 6.22. Centering wedge for thrust eollar:
•
I-wedge (bronze); 2-collar; 3-frietion
Fig. 6.21. Assembly of thrust collar. disc; 4--generator shaft.
f) Improving the operational performance of rubber guide bearings

An inadequate supply of water for lubrication of the rubber bearings of
turbines sometimes leads to an increase in the run-out of the shaft.
Usually the quantity of water Q necessary for bearing lubrication is cal-
culated from the formula [114]:
mm D
-... .- -
Q=kHd3,1/sec 1400 3 .~ 'p2~ ~
1200 4 ......
where H is the head at which water
1000
is supplied to the bearing,
m;
800
l.. ... ~ ~
600
d is the diameter of the tur- 400
IVIl\
bine shaft, m; 200 !I
a
k is a coefficient ranging 2468101214161820221!sec
from 1 to 2. Fig. 6.23. Flow rate of water, Q for lubri-
Figure 6.23 shows this relation- cation and cooling of rubber bearings of
ship for k= 1 and H= 10 m, with a turbines as function of turbine shaft
broken line. diameter D:
a-based on operational data; b-accord-
Generalizing the data obtained ing to formula for k=1 and H=10 m
from the operation ofa number of standard water head; l-Rubinsk power
hydro units at different power plant, atp= 1.4 kg/em l ; 2-V.I. Lenin Volga
plants, it has been possible to ob- power plant, at p=1.5 kg/em l ; 3-Kakho-
tain the actual flow rates of water vsk power plant, at p=2 kg/emS; 4-Dne-
provsk power plant, at p= 1.6 to.2 kg/em I;
- for lubrication of rubber bearings. 5-Kegumsk power plant, at p=0.9 to
The curve based on these points 1.2 kg/em l ; 6-Cbir-Yurtsk power plant,
is shown by a fuIlline in Fig. 6.23. p-pressure of water.
It may be noted that with the flow

rates of water maintained as indi-
cated at each of these plants the
operation of these bearings conti-
-
c 7'
·0
CL.
>t
CD
nues to be quite satisfactory.
6.2 Preventing Maladjustment

I Caused by Hydraulic
Perturbation Forces
.i3l/i ~
- N
a) Preventing rotor lift
Results obtained from rotor
_.
,.
)( lift checks on a 9 MW unit operat-
N
~ 30 ing at a head of 200 m are shown
c:i c:i in Fig. 6.24.
I I
In these tests it was established
that:
I. the pressure below the lower
jX- x -
rim of the runner, h 2 is consider-
ably greater than the pressure
'-/
/ ",- ~-
above the upper rim, hi (Fig.
6.24a);
f .z:.,., .2
2. at small loads positive pres-
sure exists at the periphery of the
't
":
.. 7
I draft tube and vacuum occurs only
when load exceeds 6 MW. Vacuum
.z:'" "\ exists at the center of the draft
..,N- o -I N
I
t'
I
tube, which increases with an in-
crease in the load (Fig. 6.24b);
3. the deflection of the load-
bearing spider is less than the
• static deflection due to the weight
f .z:
N
.z: of the rotating parts over the entire
I - range of loading. This shows that
N
\
,,F
....,
a hydraulic force acts on the runner
in the upward direction (Fig.
6.24c). _
E
u .z: When the load is approximately
...Cii,... UI III • .., N - 0
6 MW the hydraulic forces are just
about equal to the weight of the
rotor and any further reduction of
the load leads to rotor lift up to 15
mm. During the initial stages of lift
the rotor executes vertical oscillations and thereafter smoothly lifts right up
to its bearings (oil splash ring of the turbine bearing rests against the bearing
bush).
The rotor remains in this position until it is isolated from the grid. When
the speed of the rotor comes down due to gradual closure of the wicket gates
- hydraulic forces diminish'and the deflection- of the spider increases. During
braking of the runner the spider is once again relieved to some extent. It has
been observed that a similar rotor lift phenomenon occurs during the start-up
of the units except that it is in reverse order.
Rotor lift was eliminated by loading the upper rim of the runner by block-
ing up four of the eight pressure-equalizing holes. These holes were blocked
by ramming wooden plugs into them and welding circular pieces of sheet
metal at the lower face. Mter this the pressure above the runner increased to
some extent and rotor lift was no longer observed. The phenomenon of rotor
lift occurs in many high-head radial-axial hydroturbines. In constructing new
hydraulic turbines there should be provision for pressure equalization not
only at the upper rim but also at the lower by fitting two to four pipes located
symmetrically with respect to the turbine axis and connected to the draft tube
through control valves. This sort of arrangement, which regulates axial
thrust, makes the opera,tion of the thrust bearing easier.
In order to avoid rotor lift in adjustable-blade turbines during start-up
the blade setting (reduction of the angle) is usually selected on the basis of
test data obtained during starting and opening of the wicket gates. In addi-
tion the time taken to bring the unit up to synchronous speed is increased (by
increasing the stiffness of the switch-off mechanism of the feedback system in
the range of wicket gate openings from 0 to that of no-load).
In certain adjustaQle-blade hydroturbines rotor lift is observed when the
unit goes over into the synchronous condenser regime after closure of the
wick.et gates. Ten seconds after the closure of the wicket gates of one 15 MW
turbine a steady rise in the vertical vibration of the rotor appeared with a fre-
quency of 0.8Hz, lasting about 30 to 40 sec. The rotor lift reached 16 mm.
, ,The vibrations and rotor lift ceased when air was let in below the turbine
cover through the vacuum breaking valve.
b) Preventing water hammer in the draft tube

One of the methods of preventing water hammer in the draft tube. consists
of delivering atmospheric or compressed air into it. The air is delivered in
such a way that it goes into the central part of the tube or is sucked in below
the runner where a vacuum develops.
Delivery of air to the periphery of the draft tube often fails to yield the
desired results since in the range of wicket gate openings associated with
water hammer a positive pressure exists at the periphery and the air is not
drawn in. Delivery of air under pressure to the periphery of the draft tube has
resulted in an increase in the vibrations of a hydro unit, obviously due to a

break in the continuity of the flow.
The air must be delivered to the cavity below the runner either through
special tubes when there are pressure-equalizing holes in the latter as shown in
Fig. 6.25, or with the help of tubes passing through the hollow turbine shaft
and bent at right angles facing
the direction of rotation of the
shaft, as shown in Fig. 6.26.
In the first case the quantity
of air delivered is controlled by
a valve placed on the delivery
pipe and in the second it is
determined by running several
tests with interchangeable orifi-
•
ces in the tubes.
Supply of air below the
cover of a 65 MW turbine
operating at 37.5 m head and
.. ClO
-al
82.5 rpm shown in Fig. 6.25
was achieved through two pipes
125 mm in diameter and pres-
sure-equalizing holes in the
runner. Maximum water ham-
mer in this turbine was found to
occur at 40 to 60% opening of
the wicket gates. Water ham-
mer disappeared after air sup-
ply was provided to the unit. .
The pressures measured at
. _ _ . __ _J
Fig. 6.25. Delivery of air to draft tube through
the center of the draft tube
showed that when air was in-
turbine cover of old unit at Dneprovsk troduced below the runner the
power plant. vacuum dropped at all loads
(Fig. 6.27a) and the turbine
began to operate far more smoothly.
Figure 6.26 shows the flange coupling of an II MW turbine operating at
169 m head and a flow rate of 8 m3/sec.
Here the supply of air was through two pipes 25 mm in diameter bent at
right angles and facing the direction of rotation. Two holes of the same dia-
meter were drilled in the turbine flange. Apart from the difference between
the pressure existing in the hollow turbine shaft and that below the runner the
velocity head is also utilized during rotation to increase the quantity of air
delivered through the pipes to the hollow shaft. The air then passes through
the holes in the cone of the runner and enters the central part of the draft
tube. Orifices are screwed into the ends of these pipes. The diameter of these
orifices is selected on the basis of minimum vibrations of the unit and mini-
mum water hammer.
The diameter of the orifice may be approximately calculated from the
following empirical formula:
AD,
d= 4.r-'
v hoz2
where A = 0.008 for delivery of air through hollow shaft with bent pipes (Fig.
6.26);
A =0.05 for delivery of air through turbine cover (Fig. 6.25) or the end
of the hollow shaft;
d is the diameter of orifice, mm;
•
D, is the diameter of runner, mm;
ho is the vacuum below the runner at the center of the draft tube at
loads at which vibrations are high, m. std. water;
z is the number of orifices (pipes) for delivery of air.
End view et A
t-Path of air flow

, below runner
Fig. 6.26. Delivery of air to draft tube through hollow turbine
shaft at Kanakersk power plant:
I-generator shaft; 2-bJank washer; 3-pilot tube..
The formula is based on the following considerations: _
Assuming that the specific weight of air is constant (yo=constant) and
neglecting the losses along the length of the axial passage (pipe), the flow rate
of air through an orifice of diameter d may be obtained as:
Q=kz: d2V2gJ~ +ho ,

where k is the coefficient of discharge;
Ito is the vacuum below the runner;
v=nf!on is the relative velocity of air flow at the orifice when it is located at .
diameter D and the shaft rpm is n.

On the other hand, if the velocity of air in the draft tube is neglected the
quantity of air L1 V passing into the space below the runner gives rise to an in-
crease in pressure L1h=ho-h r • This increase in pressure will remain constant
if the delivery of air below the runner remains constant, taking into account
that some of this air is lost with the water flow.
v nD; Fro-h..
L1,=a- - -
4 "ho'
where a 7t~; is the volume of the cavity formed due to the vortex below the
runner;
Dr is the diameter of the runner;
a is an empirical coefficient having the dimension oflength;
" is the polytropic index;
hr is the final vacuum below the runner after introduction of air.
Assuming that L1V must be equal to the flow rate Q of air entering through
the orifice, we have:..
n
k Z4 d 2.r-
'Y 2g
Jv-2- - n
D2ho-hr
2g +ho=a;r r "ho •
from which
d=~ . aD:(ho-h r )
. .r-Jv
z"hok'Y 2g
2
-+ho
2g
If it is assumed (in accordance with our experiments) that h r =0.5 ho, then
't'
wn mg
A
=
J a·0.5
':'" ~ 2g ,
'
we finally obtain d= 4JDr ,where the term v2/2g has been omitted.
. hoz 2
Figure 6.27b shows the results of tests on the above turbine with orifices
of different diameters screwed into the pipes. As can be seen from the Figure,
the orifice of 7 mm appears to be the best.
Severe vibrations of the unit and penstock were observed in a hydrotur-
bine of 18 MW operating at 38.5 m head at 6 to 8 MW load.
When air was supplied through the hollow shaft of a turbine using a
10 mm diameter orifice it was found that the vibrations diminished (Fig.
6.27c). Similar results were obtained on other turbines. At the same time it
must be noted that too large an injection of air not only aggravates the vibra-
tions but also reduces the power output of the turbine. Apart from this, deli-
very of air below the runner alters the efficiency of the turbine. The efficiency
slightly increases when the load

is in the lower range (less than
60% of nominal) (Fig. 6.28),
'whereas at nominal and maxi·
~ E
mum loads it falls. E
Tests carried out on a large ...
It)
number of turbines with and

without delivery of air showed
that turbine efficiency may fall
by 3 to 5% at maximum load.
At one power plant having
three turbines of 20 MW, each
manufactured by the firm
Nohab, delivery of air below
--
the draft tube helped to cut the
~
vibrations of the unit consider- '0 e
E
ably at low loads, but led to a ell
fall in efficiency at high loads.
Taking into account the
period for which these units
operated at high loads, the effi·
ciency calculations of this
power plant showed that the
0(
N
Q E oN
,J 0 0
10
loss in power generation was ~ e o ... o
nearly 650,000 kWh per year.
~ 0 o
It was felt that it would be
more advantageous to make the
delivery of air entirely automa-
tic, i.e. air would be delivered
into the turbine at low loads,
not exceeding the critical (the
load at which the efficiency of
the turbine diminished with the
introduction of air).
During full-scale checks on
radial-axial hydroturbines con-
ducted by ORGRES it was o "--~~8=--~--:!g
discovered that in most cases N ~
the vacuum at the center of the 6H 10 ww 'wnn~II"

draft tube is a continuously in-
creasing function of the wicket
gate opening and the load on
the hydroturbine (Fig. 6.29a).
So it was suggested that the delivery of air below the turbine runner be
made automatic through a valve whose opening would be governed by the
vacuum at the center of the draft tube.
MW N _ ..t;:---: 90
70 % "80
60
\. ~?' /
50
!• 2
II 70
% •
40 I 60
9 0 '1
80 1
V o~ 7~ .........: ~
::::;
30 CD > 6 6 ,~.,
3;J 4 ::: ~ 50 ~
c_
~.!! 4
~
20 uU
A"
/i -qj 2
K
•
10
o i
20 40
a
60
Q~O
00 c>
g ~-2
ao%,a:~
:;; =
2.5 5 7.5 10
Load on ganerator, MW
~ ......
12.5 15 17.5
--
20
a:: CD b
Fig. 6.28. Variationin efficiency of unit with delivery of air into draft tube:
a-unit of 65 MW; h-,-unit of 20 MW: l~fficiency with introduction of air; 2-
efficiency witQout introduction of air; 3-power delivered with introduction of air;
4-power delivered without introduction of air.
This valve can be of various types. It may be located directly below the
runner (Fig. 6.29b) or at the entrance of the hole drilled in the shaft (Bange) of
the turbine for delivery of air below the runner (Fig. 6.30).
The position of the spring and its size are determined in conformity with
the location of the valve and the law governing the variation in vacuum at the
center of the draft tube.
b
Fig. 6.29. Ball valve in cone of turbine runner:
a-graph showing pressure below runner: l-at periphery; 2-at center of draft
tube; b-Iocation of valve: l-eentral hole drilled in shaft; 2-cone of runner; 3-
runner; 4-washer; 5-rubber-covered valve made of wood or hollow metal; 6-
cylinder with ports; 7-spring.
The construction of the delivery valve described above is simple and pro-
vides for elimination of vibrations of the hydro unit at low loads. It increases
the power generated by preventing the reduction of turbine efficiency in the
high-load region. Apart from this, the valve also helps in reducing the effect
of reverse water hammer on the turbine during unloading. When the water
backs up during unloading the valve closes and air is trapped below the
runner to form a cushion. Severe water hammer and noise are frequently ob-
. served in adjustable-blade turbines both in the low load region (correspond-
ing to approximately 20 to 25% of the nominal, which usually occurs when
the governor setting is not optimal), and at high loads. It is advantageous to
introduce air into the central part of the
draft tube in this case too. At one power
plant water hammer was successfully re-
..
duced by delivering compressed air (receiv-
er pressure 7 atm.) through the vacuum-
breaking valve located on the turbine
cover.,
The air passing along with the water
through the runner fills the space below it
and cushions shock.
Cases have been reported- in which it 8 7 8 6
was shown that vibrations were eliminated Fig. 6.30. Ball valve located in hole
by supplying air under' pressure through drilled in turbine shaft:
one of the :flow metering tubes located l-<entral passage in shaft; 2-radial
near the upper ring of the turbine stator. holes; 3-turbine shaft; ,4-spring;
5-washer; 6-rubber-covered ball
As already described, severe vibration valve; 7-<Up; 8-valve seat. '
of the unit occurs in radial-axial hydro-
turbines at certain loads due to shedding of vortices from the trailing edges of
the runner blades along with a sharp increase in the frequency of pressure
pulsations below the runner.
In such cases vibration of the unit can be reduced [144] by changing the
shape of the trailing edges of the runner blades (Fig. 2.20).
When the shape of the runner hub is not well designed (cone with convex
surface, straig~t hub, short hub) it gives rise to conditions conducive to
separation of the boundary layer from the surface of the cone and formation
of vortices. For one 15 MW turbine of 2,600 mm runner diameter it was
suggested that the runner hub should have a concave form. When the surface
of the cone is concave in form the :flow in the meridional plane has a tendency
to stick to the concave surface due to centrifugal force and thusthe probabi-
lity of flow separation diminishes. A cone of this type having a radius of
curvature R (Fig. 6.31a) was installed on the turbine and gave good results.·
·The cone was installed through the draft tube without dismantling the turbine.
I. The load range over which severe vibrations (above permissible limit)
used to occur with the original straight hub cone contracted sharply, i.e.
where severe vibrations were ob.served to occur between 6 and 12 MW load
with the original arrangement they were confined to loads ranging from 8 to
10.5 MW after the concave-shaped cone was installed.
5
4
A/A 2
/1' ...
1/ 1;\
/"\. V ~2 ,K
I
1
1/ v I
\ \ /
~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
"'-
a Power delivered at generator bus·bars. P. MW
-
b
Fig. 6.31. Vibrations of hydro unit with concave-shaped hub cone
installed on runner:
a-concave-shaped hub cone: I-runner; 2-cone; b-effect of concave-
shaped hub cone in vibration of unit: I-original cone; 2--concave extended
cone; A.-amplitude of vibrations during rio load.
2. The maximum amplitude of vibrations A remained unchanged. How-
ever, the amplitude of vibrations in the rest of the range of operation fell by
half (Fig. 6.3Ib).
3. The maximum power output of the unit after this cone was installed
increased by 3 to 4%.
The maximum amplitude of vibrations can also be reduced by delivering
air through this hub cone. Unfortunately tests with delivery of air through
the cone could not be conducted due to operational difficulties.
Fontaine [145, 146] devised a special type of hub cone with holes in it.
The radial-axial turbine runners of the firm Neyrpic (France) are provided
with these hub cones. Fontaine based the design of these hub cones on the
following: The region of maximum vacuum 1 at the runner is located at its
upper rim near the leading edges (Fig. 6.32a). Vortices are formed in this
zone, giving rise to voids and flow separation. These vortices after moving
along with the flow for some· distance coalesce,· giving rise to water hammer
below the runner. In order to make the flow uniform in zone 1 the new type
of cone suggested (Fig. 6.32b) has several rows of holes 10 to 20 mm in
diameter.
Since the pressure in the lower part of the cone is higher than in zone I,
the water rises inside it and flows out through these holes, filling the voids in
zone 1.
The internal distributor cone with holes drilled in it is welded to the
bottom of the hub cone. The purpose of this cone is to divide the water flow-
ing into the hub cone from below,
Tracing and ElimiTiating Vibrations 243
As a result, the flow inside the hub cone is close to an air-water mixture,
which is helpful in quickly filling up the space inside the hub cone and then
emptying it through the holes in the top.
According to Fontaine this hub
cone ensures smooth operation of the
turbine and improves its cavitation
properties.
A hub cone of similar construc-
tion installed on a 14 MW turbine
operating at 60 m head practically
eliminated severe vibration of the a
turbine and the penstock piping.
From the graph in Figs. 6.33a and
D
b it can be clearly seen that vibra-
-
tion of the penstock pipe fell and
efficiency of the unit increased after
this cone was installed.
c) Elimination of bydraulic imbalance

In most cases the hydraulic im-
balance of radial-axial hydroturbines
is caused by eccentric machining or
. improper installation of the labyrinth
rings at the lower rim of the runner. b
A contributing factor is the unidirec- Fig. 6.32. Elimination of pressure pulsations
tional force exerted on the runner below runner with help of hub cone
because of asymmetrical pressure devised by Fontaine:
distribution along the periphery of a-region of vacuum formation during flow
through runner: J-region of maximum
the runner (poor fabrication of the vacuum; 2-region of vortex formation;
spiral casing, nonuniform opening b-hub cone suggested by Fontaine.
mm 2A %
I 86 In
0.4 II 84 I
1 1 !
0.3 82 .... "'"
".; ~
I f=',0 HZrl- 80 In
0.2 78 P'Y
I ~
'./ 76 Iii.,..
0.1 2 ~ 74 .", V'
72 ~
o ao p
1 2 J 4 5 6 7 8· 7°4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13MW
a b
Fig. 6.33. Variation of vibrations of penstock piping and efficiency of
turbine after hub cone with holes was installed on runner:
a-<iouble amplitud., of vibrations 2A as function of wicket gate opening;
b-efficiency as function of generator power output P: J and 2-before
. and after cone was installed.
of the wicket gates, etc.). At certain loads this leads to interference between
the runner and the labyrinth seals and vibrations rapidly increase.
In all cases the centering of the labyrinth seal rings and the rim must be
checked and modified if necessary by machining on a lathe or by replacing
the seal.
Vibrations and interference between rotating and stationary parts caused
by forces acting on the runner were investigated in four units of 20 MW
operating at a head of 300 ro, manufactured by J.M. Voith. Due to severe
vibrations these units could not take their full load. In order to eliminate this
defect it was suggested that four plugs in the lower cover (these plugs were
provided to control the gap in the lower seal of the runner) should be remov-
ed. After they were removed and the pressure below the lower rim altered,
Air from compressor
at 6 kglcm 2
Fig. 6.35. Delivery of air to lower

Fig. 6.34. Lowering pressure below runner rim of runner:
to reduce vibrations: I-runner; 2-guide vanes of wicket gate;
I-drilled 25 mm dia hole; 2-]· dia tube; 3-stator column; 4-pipe for delivery
3-valve; 4-union; 5-]· dia elbow. of air; 5-elamps.
full load was possible without severe vibration of the hydro units. It was
proposed to discharge water to the draft tube through a 25 mm hole drilled
in the gland seal (Fig. 6.34). Later it was found that the rotor was displaced
to one side due to unequal wicket gate openings. In another case excessive
vibrations were observed in a 10.2 MW radial-axial turbine operating at 36 m
head manufactured by the firm Nohab. The cause of these vibrations was the
eccentric machining of the lower rim carried out by the manufacturer to re-
move metal from the heavy side of the runner during static balancing. The
frequency of vibrations corresponded to the turning speed. The amplitude
increased with an increase in load on the turbine. It was proposed by N.P.

Polushkin that compressed air be introduced at the outer periphery of the
lower rim to eliminate these vibrations (Fig. 6.35).
When this method was checked out experimentally it was found that there
was a significant improvement in the vibration conditions 'of the turbine
(Table 6.6).
Table 6.6
Load. MW
Shaft run-out (play) during
operation, mm. 0.1 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0
Without introduction of compressed

air 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 . 0.85 0.9
With delivery of compressed. air at
lower rim 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.12 0.1 0.13
• d) Adjustment of governor setting for adjustable-blade torbines

In most turbines there is an increase in vibrations if the· governor setting
is not correct and deviates from the optimum. A method of adjusting the
governor setting was proposed and developed by the author [16] in 1945.
Verification of the governor setting by the method of minimum vibrations
and full-scale testing of the unit with discharge measurement using turbine
flow meters produced fairly consistent results on several hydroturbines.
Figure 6.300 shows the vibration characteristics of a 28 MW unit at vari-
ous blade settings rp of the runner.
A comparison of values of governor settings obtained in full-scale tests
by the minimum vibrations method is shown in Fig. 6.36b. It can be seen
that for a give~ opening of the wicket gates the divergence between the set-
tings of the runner blades does not exceed I to 2°, i.e. the results practically
coincide. The amplitude of vibrations of the spider observed at one power
plant is given in Fig. 6.37 (rp=f(s». It shows that the amplitude of vibrations
increases when the governor setting deviates from the optimum.
In order to obtain reliable results in governor setting by the minimum
vibrations method one must carry out the following:
1. The vibrations must be measured by a recording vibrograph which can
amplify the amplitude not less than 300 times. Among the available instru-
ments those most suitable for these measurements are the VEGIK, VDTs and
KOOI type electro-dynamic vibrographs.
2: The vibrographs are mounted on the spider and on the turbine bearing
cover; They record vibrations in the three directions, i.e. one vertical and
two horizontal. Vibrographs should not be mounted near foundation bolts.
3. Measurements are taken at constant setting rp of the runner blades
with variation only in the wicket gate openings (determining the propeller
characteristics of the turbine). Propeller characteristics are obtained for 5 to
6 blade settings rp, increasing through S°. For each of these angles 5 to 6
wicket gate openings are selected.
Obtaining vibration characteristics at constant wicket gate openings and
varying blade settings is ruled out because this may completely change the
nature of the vibrations during transition from one angle to another (due to
the change in the moment of unbalanced masses).
4. A graph is plotted between the amplitude of vibrations and the open-
ing of the wicket gates for a constant blade setting for all the components of
vibrations. The minimum vibration point on the curve with the steepest
gradient is selected.
150
Microns 2A
.. 126
100
15
50 -r-~j'"
~
l
~;~
-
k
1\\
\\ r
70,--,-........,,-........,;----,--..,
" aD
601---+--+----If--'~t.,...__1
2
\ &../ / ~ ~~~~~
~B'-
/I
25
k-'C
~o 30
~
o
aq 20L....-J~-I._......L_.....L.-...I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80S 30 40 50 60 70 80
a Blade selling 01 runner blades
expressed in scale division. 'l'
b
Fig. 6.36. DetenniDing governor setting by method of minimum vibrations:
a-vertical vibrations of turbine cover; b-governor setting obtained by method
of minimum vibrations and by method of absolute efficiency: i-by method of
absolute efficiency; 2-with respect to vertical vibrations of turbine cover; 3-
with respect to vibrations of governor spider.
S. As far as possible the head at the turbine, especially the draft height,
must be maintained constant during these checks. A head variation of ± 0.5 m
has no significant influence on the test results (when the head is between
18 and 29 m). The method described above for determirting the optimum
governor setting is very simple. It does not require expensive full-scale tests
of hydro units, is easily followed by the operating personnel and above all
gives a fairly accurate relationship between rp and s.
6. Vibrations caused by rotor imbalance or misalignment of the shaft
have no influence on the test results since the quantity being measured is the
minimum magnitude of vibrations for a particular operating condition.
Vi.brations due to rotor imbalance or shaft misalignment remain unchanged
over the entire load range for a constant speed of rotation.
A simplified method has been worked out for determining the optimum
governor setting on the basis of the generalized results of full-scale tests on
hydro units. This method, called the "on-load method", consists of deter-
mining the relationship between the wicket gate opening s and the power out-
put p. of the generator (Fig. 6.38) for a constant setting rp of the runner
blades. In this case the relationship P=fl (s) must include the maximum out-
putPmaJ<'
Degrees 2A=O.065
20 '"
\ 6t--t--t--t+~H-+'Hl+t--I
,.
12t--t--t-+#H't-t'-H't+-...
(;
;
Q; '" =conSl
c
8.c ·c~.~c
o .. :::l
-g;g'O AI
OW' I
... '1=12 (5)
Fig. 6.37. Vibration characteristics of !ld- I
5
justable-blade turbines showing lines of Opening of wickel gates
constant amplitude of vertical
vibrations 2A: Fig. 6.38. Dependence P=/I(S) and 'I=/:(s)
Line l-optimum governor setting for adjustable-blade turbines.
based on full-scale tests.
From Fig. 6.38, which shows the variation in efficiency of the unit as a
function of wicket gate opening, 1/ =h (s), we find that maximum efficiency
corresponds to power output Po. Attempts were made to determine the re-
lationship mo=PO/PmaJ< during full-scale tests on several hydro units.
Apart from this, the ratio .of power outputs at points A and B on the
curve 1/=/2 (s) where the efficiency is 0.5% less than 1/maJe gives two additional
coefficients, i.e.
ml=Pl/PmaJ< and m2=P2/PmaJ<'

Obviously if one knows the coefficient rno it is possible to determine the
power output that corresponds to a given blade setting of the runner for
maximum efficiency of the unit:
Po=moPmaJ<'
It is easy to obtain P';;'!I{S) during normal operation by making use of
the usual plant wattmeter; l'max can be obtained from this relationship. By
running a series of tests on the hydro unit, i.e. by determining P =11 (s) for
various blade settings rp and heads at the power plant, all the optimal governor
setting relationship may be obtained in terms of mo. Essentially t,he problem

becomes one of making a proper choice of the coefficient mo. -
Some authorities (Gerber [162], Polushkin [89]) suggest that the coefficient
mo should be obtained from the similarity relationships of model turbines.
0.920 - Tests carried out by the author showed
~(X) that there was considerable discrepancy
in the governor setting relationships when
the coefficient mo was derived from model
0.915 f turbine curves.
, I In view of this the data from full-scale
tests conducted at various power plants
I
I
"J such as the Kakhovsk plant (runner PL·
0.910 m 548), the Kegumsk plant (runner PL-54l),
0'" ",NICC!
~ ~ ~ ci ci _... the Rybinsk and U glich plants (runner
PL.91) and the V.I. Lenin Volga power
Fig. 6.39. Probability distribution
of coefficient m for various
plant (runner PL-587); etc. were subjected
blade settings.' to statistical analysis.
Assuming normal probability distribu-
tion, the graph shown in Fig. 6.39 was drawn. From this it can be seen that
the results of full-scale tests are grouped in the vicinity of· the following
values of the coefficient:
rnl =0.88; mo=0.93 and rn2=0.96.
Calculations show that the coefficients rn are stable for aU blade settings
of the runner and all hydrostatic heads. For each propeller regime one may
obtain the power output at which the efficiency of the unit is at its maximum:
Po=0.93 P max•
However, if the coetpcient rno IS assumed constant for all blade settings
we obtain a curve representing the maximum value of 'I for different angles.
Then the most advantageous governor set· 9:
ting would be represented by the tangent to ~
the propeller curve '1=f3(P). Hence at low ~
loads the optimal governor relationship ~
requires a smaller wicket gate opening and a
at maximum loads the wicket gate opening "0
is somewhat greater (Fig. 6.40). .§
To obtain the governor relationship as. i
close as possible to the optimum the ~ H =consl.
following values are recommended for the £ L - ,.
coefficient rno (Table 6.7). Opening of wicket gates. S

h d Fig. 6.40. Comparison of governor
The data given in Table 6.7 are grap e setting relationship obtained by
in Fig. 6.41. The governor relationships "on.load" melhod (2) with the
obtained by the above method are found to optimum (1).
,Tracing and Eliminating Vibrations 249
Table 6.7
Blade setting, degrees -10 -5 o 5 10 15 20 25

Coefficient rno 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98
----------------------------------------
ensure smooth operation of turbines with efficiency close to the optimum at
all operating conditions. This method is especially useful when carrying out
governor adjustments during the commissioning of hydro units after mainte-
nance. It is helpful in making quick adjustments in the governor setting during
start-up of the unit and thus reduces energy losses in the turbine. Often after
0.97
0.95
mo ~
...--
~
0.93
------5
---
~ ~
0.91
•
-10 -5 0 10 15 20 Degrees
Fig. 6.41. Recommended values of coefficient rn as function of 'P.
maintenance hydro units operate for several years without proper adjustment
of the governing system. This continues until full-scale power tests are car-
ried out on the unit. As a result the discharge in the river may not be effectively
utilized for several years.
e) Improving tbe performance of thrust bearings

As we saw in Chapter 2, the presence of large quantities of air in the oil
delivered to the thrust bearing gives rise to a change in the thickness of the oil
film during operation of the thrust bearing. To improve the performance of
the thrust bearing and reduce the amount of the air taken in with the oil PMS-
200-A anti-foam additive developed by the VNIINP was used in turbine type
R0211- VM-410. This additive was first used in the thrust bearings of hydro
units on this author's recommendation. The quantity of PMS-200-A additive
mixed with the lubricating oil of the thrust bearing was 0.005% of the volume
of oil in the sump, i.e. 50 g of additive for every ton of oil. .The additive was
poured into the thrust bearing sump while the unit was in operation. First the
required quantity of additive was mixed with filtered oil in a bucket. The
mixture was stirred for 10 min. This mixture was then poured into the thrust
bearing sump as a continuous stream over a period of 40 to 50 min (the oil and
additive mix may also be added in small instalments).
It is advisable to morutor the temperature of the oil and thrust pads, the
depth of the foam and the presence of air bubbles as well as the vibrations of
the supporting blocks ofthe unit and if possible. the thickness of the oil film
between the thrust disc and the pads before and after introducing the addi-
tive. With the use of PMS-200-A additive the foam entirely disappeared from
the oil surface and the number of air bubbles in the oil diminished appreci-
ably within 20 min of adding it to the oil in the thrust bearing (during this
period the additive introduced was 0.003% of the oil in the sump). Air bub~
bles appeared only just below the surface. The amplitude of vibrations of the
hydro unit was cut by half and the unit operated smoothly after the additive
was introduced into the lubricating oil.
Use of PMS-200-A additive has been justified by tests on other machine
and mechanisms [24]. It has been found from experience that the lubricating
properties of oils improve when PMS-200-A additive is mixed with them. It
forms no precipitates and retains its properties over considerable running
periods. All this shows that it is advisable to use PMS·200·A additive or some
other anti-foam agent with the lubricating oils of thrust bearings in the pro-
portion of 0.003 to. 0.005% of the volume of oil in the sump.
f) Changing peripheral edges of the runner blades of
- adjustable-blade hydroturbiDes
The work of renewing the peripheral edges of runner blades of adjustable-
blade hydroturbines was first undertaken by the VNIIGidromash Institute
during the operation of one of the power plants on the Moscow canal. The
steel lining of the turbine housing at this plant was found to be damaged after
six years of operation. The damaged portion was 350 mm wide. It was locat-
ed symmetrically with respect to the axis of rotation of the blades. After this
damage, when some plates were stripped, the runner housing was pitted due.
to cavitation erosion. The depth of the pits was as much as 10 to 12 mm.
After a new lining was installed it was observed that at half the height of the
vertical axis the plates had developed small pits I mm in depth after 6,352
hours of operation. Some of them, distributed all around the periphery, were
3 mm deep after 11,741 hours of operation.· Cavitation damage was also ob-
served on the rear of the runner blades [72].
During the subsequent major maintenance of the hydro unit the periphe-
ral edges of the plates were reconstructed on site. The peripheral edges were
renewed along the whole length of the blades from the pressure side. The
edges were rounded off with a radius equal to half the thickness of the blade
profile (Fig. 6.42). The radius of the edge varied since the thickness of the
profile varied along its chord. Care was taken to see that there was no diffu-
R =h ser zone at the seal gaps which, according to.
2 laboratory tests [130], promotes cavitation.
At the same time the lining ·of the turbine
housing was renewed. Inspection of the new
lining after 7,896 hours of operation showed
that there were no traces of damage. Only
Fig. 6.42 Rounding upper edge of
after 10,000 hours of turbine operation it was
blade profile at periphery of
adjustable-blade turbine as pro- found that small cavitation pits 0.1 mm in
posed by K.K. Sbal'nev [130]. depth had appeared at the center of the
turbine housing over a band 100 mm in width.

It is known from laboratory tests that when the shape of the peripheral
edges of blade profiles is altered the discharge through the seal gap increases
by 6 to 10%. However, this has hardly any effect on the overall efficiency of
the turbine.
Cavitation caused by flow through the seal gaps not only affects the tur-
bine housing but also the blades. Fig. 6.43 shows the rear of a blade of the
No. 2 turbine at the Kaunassk power' plant
10,743 running hours after commissioning.
The depth of cavitation damage was as
much as 6 to 10 mm over a band 2 to 5 mm wide
along the length of the blades. The total area
damaged was nearly 3,800 cm 2 • The head at the
power plant was 15 m and the diameter of the
-
runner was 5 m. The turbine was of the PL661-
VB-500, type (Kaplan turbine).
Protection against such damage is ensured
by installing a shield plate at the periphery of the .
blade profile from below.
The shape of the shield provided on a turbine Fig. 6.43. Cavitation damage
with a 3,540 mm diameter runner is shown in on rear of runner blade of
Fig. 6.44. The shield plate overhangs the blades .turbine PL-661·VB-500:
i-blade (rear side); 2-zone
by 40 mn;t, which is 1.2 to 1.5 times the thickness of cavitation damage.
of the blade profile at the periphery. Four
turbines with protective shields on the blades were working satisfactorily after
more than 50,000 hours of operation up to the last inspection (unit-I was in
operation for 51,899 hours on January I, 1965) and no traces of cavitation
damage were observed on the blades or on the turbine housing and liners.
The vibrations of these units were within
. permissible limits. These units operated
.at a head of 12 m.
A . runner with protective shields
fitted on the periphery of the blade pro-
2 file manufactured by the firm J.M. Voith
is shown in Fig. 6.45.
. . .
Fig. 6.44. Sbieldlo protect runnerl
. blades against seal gap cavitation: g) Preventing vibrations in penstock piping
i-leading edge; 2-trailing edge. Vibrations of penstock pipes occur when:
I) .the frequency of perturbation
forces is close to or coincides with their natural frequencies of vibrations (part
of the pipe, its shell);
2) the frequency of perturbation forces coinCides with that of pressure
propagation or is close to or a multiple of the latter;
252 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP"
3) the mass flow rate is not properly controlled by the wicket gates (due
to inaccurate adjustment of the speed governor) or periodic vibrations of in-
dividual guide vanes are set up due to backlash in the linkage system of the
- Fig. 6.45. Runner 3,600 mm in diameter with protective shield

for blades, manufactured by I.M. Voith.
regulating mechanism. The perturbation forces are the variable hydraulic for-
ces which appear in turbines, e.g. periodic variations in pressure in the runner
housing, draft tube, penstock piping, etc.
If resonance arises the amplitude of vibrations rapidly increases and may
reach dangerous proportions for the safety of penstock pipes. If the frequen-
cies are close to one another, then more often than not one observes beats
with a periodically increasing and
decreasing amplitude of vibrations.
In such cases the periodicity of vibra-
:::::~~~~:;;:t~.=:!~=-::.~=-::!.- tions (beats) may extend from one-
tenth of a second to several minutes.
Elimination of vibrations of pen-
stock pipes is usually achieved by
Fig. 6.46. Vortex trail shed from eliminating. the perturbation forces
butterfly value. in. the turbine by one of the methods
described earlier.
There have been cases where it was found that the penstock pipes were not
resting on the intermediate supports due to settlement of the latter. This led to
a decrease in the natural frequency of vibrations of that particular portion of
the penstock which then went into resonance with the pressure pulsations in
the hydroturbine.
The operating staff must regularly inspect penstock supports for settle-
ment and if necessary take steps to provide a proper contact between the pen-
stock pipes and the individual supports. G.Kh. Tkhinvaleli [I 18] has describ-
ed a case in which settlement of the support occurred only on one side and the
penstock pipe was subjected to torsional vibrations. .
Vibration of penstock pipes due to improper matching of guide vanes in
. the wicket gate and runner blades was described by Den-Hertog (34]. The pro-
blem was solved by installing a new runner with a different number of runner
blades.
Severe vibration of the penstock pipe caused by air leakage may be illus-
trated by what occurred at one small hydro power plant. Leakage of air into
the penstock pipes occurred at the intake (at large flow rates) when the)evel of
water fluctuated there, causing pressure pulsations· and water hammer in the
-
pipes. This severely limited the power output of the plant. When the level of
water in the intake basin was raised to the design specification these unpleas-
ant phenomena entirely disappeared.
Vibration of the upper part of the penstock may be considerably influenc-
ed by the butterfly valve if it is located close to the open end. At one power
plant, the vibration of the upper shell of the penstock (after the anchor sup-
port number 1 joined to thethrottle station) increased when the load was rais-
ed from 0.8 N mu to N mu . Frequency increased from 1.76 to 2.2 Hz. Checks
for perturbation forces showed that the vibration of the penstock shell was
caused by the vortex trail shed by the butterfly valve "disc (Fig. 6.46). Ob-
viously, at a load ofO.8Nmu this trail reached the open end of the penstock, .
causing pressure pulsations in the flow and vibration of the penstock shell. It
should be noted that the butterfly valve was located only 3 diameters away
from the open end of the penstock. The frequency of vortex shedding, ob-
tained by calculation, was found to be close to the measured frequency of vib-
rations of the shell, i.e. 1.78 Hz for a load of 0.8 N mQ% and 2.5 Hz at NmtU:.
Proper adjustment and stable operation of the hydroturbine speed gover-
nor is of considerable importance to reliable functioning of the penstock
pipes, particularly at load shedding.
The governing process must as far as possible be a smooth one without
vibration of the regulating elements at rotational frequencies. During load
shedding a properly adjusted speed governor must provide for the following:
1) the increase in rotational frequency and rise in pressure in the spiral
casing during load shedding should not exceed the values guaranteed by the
manufacturer. The increase in speed usually observed at load shedding,
expressed as a percentage of the nominal speed, is:
During load sbedding 25 50 100 .
For open radial-axial turbines 4 8 20
For enclosed radial-ax.ial turbines 6 12 30
For adjustable-blade turbines 7 15 35
254 Vibration ofHydro· Units in HPP
An increase in rotational frequency above 40% of the nominal is not re-

commended if it is not guaranteed by the manufacturer. At several power
plants the excessive vibrations that occurred during this phase led to damage
of the labyrinth seals and the guide bearings. With adjustable-blade turbines
the vacuum below the runner should not exceed 8 m. std. water;
2) after load shedding the components of the regulating system should
have no vibrations at rotational frequency. The governing process must as
far as possible be aperiodic. The turning speed and the operation of the regu-
lating mechanisms during load shedding must be smooth and without oscilla-
tions so that they approach the no-load condition with a minimum of vibra-
.tions.
The governing process for transition to the stable no-load condition after
load shedding should not take more than 30 to 40 sec for radial-axial turbines
and 50 to 60 sec for adjustable-blade and Pelton wheel turbines when the en-
-
tire load is shed by.the unit. For an instantaneous load change the relative
variation in the frequency of rotation is obtained from the approximate
formula
LIn . 182 N , Tef
-=.
nn G1J2 n~ ,
where LIn is the change of speed during load shedding; during increase of load
LIn = nn - nmin;
nn is the normal turning speed of the turbine before change of load;
N , is the power delivered at the turbine shaft, kW;
Te is the time of closure (opening) of the wicket gates, sec;
. GD2 is the torque on the turbine shaft, tons.m 2;
. fis a coefficient which takes into account the effect of changes in the
head operating on the turbine due to water hammer.
For turbines of the open type f = I ~ During load shedding and no-load
operationsf= I.l to 1.15: .
During an increase in load calculations are carried out disregarding no-
load conditions since they do not obtain.
If the increase in pressure due to water hammer is less than 60% and the
increase in turning speed is less than 50% the coefficient f is obtained from
the graph developed by the LMZ (Fig. 6.47) as a function of the penstock
pipe characteristic:
XLv
(1=-.
gHoTe
where L and v are the length and velocity at various sections of the penstock
pipe;
Ho is the head at the turbine;
XLv is obtained separa'tely for the penstock pipe. spiral casing and
draft tube. .
The formula for determining ,dnln shows that the change in the turning
speed is also influenced by the increase in pressure in the penstock pipe
during load shedding;
In adjusting the speed governor the closure time T c must be set in such a
way that it provides for regulation at guaranteed speeds.
The speed governor must provide for stable operation of the unit both
during no-load conditions and when it operates under an isolated load if the
system envisages such operating conditions.
Levin and Parzany [151] described a case of vibration of the speed govern-
ing system at the Vianden storage type power plant brought about by the
improper relationship between the load on the system PH and the power out-
put at the regulated frequency PD' They found by test that at PH/Pv = 5
governing could become unstable whereas at PHIPv= 40 the system was stable
and was not affected by the lag in the speed governor system.
As a matter of fact. unstable regulation led to fluctuations in. power out-
.. put (at the Vianden power plant the fluctuations in power output were ± 50
MW) and pressure in the incoming and outgoing penstock pipes.. Due to the
1.8 f
1.41---1---1---=.... =-+--+--..,
1.0 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Fig. 6.47. Curve showing coefficient f
which takes into account influence of Fig. 6.48. Piston valve with damper:
water hammer on increase in speed I-valve; 2-constriction; 3-damping
of rotor. piston.
approximation of some frequencies of power output and pressure fluctuations

hydraulic resonance occurred in the delivery tunnel and this could cause vi-
bration of the penstock. However. further checks showed that the cause of the
fluctuations in the power system and the penstocks was unstable governing.
The authors recommended that during unstable operating conditions of
ihe power system:
I. some units be isolated from the governing regime;
2. the oil dash pots (dampers) of the speed regulator should be brought
into o p e r a t i o n ; '
3. the gain in the speed regulator system should be reduced.
Obviously the parameters of speed regulators must be ascertained from
tests carried out for similar unstable conditions developing during the opera-
tion of power plants.
One must note two other phenomena that sometimes appear during the
operation of speed regulators. These are vibration of the pilot valve and
accumulation of air in the oil pipelines to the runner for control of the runner
blades of adjustable-blade turbines. Both of these phenomena lead to consi-

derable vibration of the oil pipelines and components of the speed-regulating
system and have to be eliminated.
One of the most efficient methods of eliminating vibration of the pilot
valves is by damping. This is achieved by providing an additional piston on
the pilot valve shaft with a throttling orifice (Fig. 6.48). The diameter of the
orifice is selected in such a way that it provides for rapid operation of the
speed regulator under normal load conditions but simultaneously damps out
high-frequency parasitic vibrations of the pilot valve.
Accumulation of air in the oil pipeline of the blade control system occurs
in the upper part, usually at a point near the governor. This is eliminated by
providing an air vent on the oil pipelines near the governor which automati-
cally vents the air before it can accumulate.
-
6.3 Elimination of Maladjustments in the
Electrical Part of the Generator
Short circuiting of the coils in the rotor winding or damage causing in-
creased vibrations due to loss of symmetry of magnetic induction along the
periphery of the rotor cannot be eliminated by balancing the rotor. Balanc-
ing cannot compensate for magnetic asymmetry, which depends on the
operating conditions of the generator. In such cases it is necessary to repair
the generator in consultation with the manufacturer.
If the air gap between the rotor poles and the stator is not uniform one
must check all around t~e periphery. According to the Elektrosila Kirov
plan the maximum allowable deviation in the air gap between rotor and
stator for salient pole machines is 10 to 15% of the mean air gap. If the varia-
tion in air gap is considerable it may be adjusted either by centering the rotor
and stator or, if necessary, by adjusting the fastening bolts of the poles.
6.4 Elimination of Resonance Phenomena in Hydro Units
If it is impossible to eliminate perturbation forces entirely or change the

frequency of vibration the natural frequency of vibration of some parts of the
hydro unit has to be altered to avoid resonance.
Usually the natural frequency of vibration of hydro unit components is
changed by modifying the mass of the vibrating parts, installing intermediate
supports or changing the rigidity of construction, etc.
Severe vibration of the excitor housing and governor were observed dur-
ing the start-up ofa 10.5 MW hydro unit operating at 14.5 m head. Approa-
ching synchronous speed, the double amplitude of horizontal vibrations
reached 200 microns and above (Fig. 6.490). It was then decided to increase
the rigidity of the excitor body by welding eight ribs of 25 mm thick sheet
Microns 2A
2001----,-j---1~---_l
1501-----'--1----1--+1-----1
100t---,H-+-t'-t-+t---;
b
-
aL~=~,0~O~~::::;,:;5:;o~:rp:.m!.n!..J
c \.
a
Fig. 6.49. Variation in natural frequency of vibrations:
a-vibrations of hydro unit: I-horizontal vibrations of lower generator spider in
directions of TW·HW; /I-horizontal vibrations of upper generator spider in direc-
tion TW-HW; /II-horizontal vibrations of upper generator spider in direction
RB-LB; IV-vertical vibrations of upper generator spider in direction RB-LB;
V-horizontal vibrations of governor in direction TW.HW; VI-horizontal vibra-
tions of governor in direction RB-LB;b-instaJlation of additional ribs to strengthen
excitor body: I-'-Cxcitor; 2-ribs; c-increasing rigidity of upper generator spider:
I-spider; 2-additional transverse beams; TW-HW-tailwater-headwater; RB-LB-
right bank-left bank.
steel (Fig. 6.49b) to it. After this modification the vibrl!otions fell tol 00 mi-
crons. For a large power output generator the upper spider may have to be
strengthened if it is not rigid enough by adding two transverse beams, as has
been done at ~ne power plant (Fig. 6.49c). Elimination of the resonant vibra-
tions of oil pipelines, levers and other parts of the unit is often achieved by
installing additional intermediate supports or clamps.
6.5 Observations, for Detecting Vibrations of

Hydro Unit during Operation
Systematic observation of the vibration conditions of hydro units helps

the operating staff of the plant to detect maladjustments of the hydro unit.
Along with this, measurement of vibrations before and after maintenance
helps in determining the quality of maintenance (centering, assembly,
balancing).
Table 6.8 shows some of the causes of vibrations frequently met with and
methods adopted to eliminate them.
I
Table 6.8 . tv
VI
00
Operating conditions Nature of Possible cause of Method of eliminating cause of
of unit vibrations vibrations vibrations -.:::
5:-
(I)
I No-load operation
(2)
I Vibrations increase with

(3)
I Generator rotor or tur-

(4)
I Unit must be dynamically balanced.

-§'
~
without excitation increasing speed of bine runner is not During subsequent maintenance tur- ~
rotor, directly propor- balanced. Excitor rotor bine runner must be balanced on $
tional to square of speed which is directly mounted special balancing rigs. Excitor £}
c
on generator sbaft may rotor should be properly centered
not be properly centered §=
~.
---------------------~---_._-----------------------------------
II No-load operation n Increase in vibrations n Short circuit of coils of II Site of short circuit must be ascer- S·
with excitation with increasing current rotor winding tained by an oscillograph which re-
cords current in conductor while ~
traversing each pole. Damage must
be repaired
'"
Continuous decrease in Significant variation in Air gap between rotor and stator
vibrations with decrease air gap between stator should be checked with unit station-
in voltage at stator and rotor ary and displacement of rotor
terminals should be ascertained after putting
unit into operation. Air gap should be
adjusted to obtain uniform value all
around periphery
Vibrations cease in- Rotor mounted eccentri- Allowable variation in air gap from
stantaneously when cally .on shaft average value is 10 to I S%. If devia-
automll:tic field damper tion from mean value is significant
switches off excitation gap should be adjusted by centering
rotor and stator or, if necessary, bolt-
ed joints of poles may be suitably
adjusted
------------------~--------------------------------------------
•
I
----------~-------------------------r~---------------- ---------
(1) (2) (3) (4)
---------------------------------------------------------------
III Operation with nI Oscillations of sbaft at In Interference between III Labyrinth seal clearance must be
and without load some particular opening stationary and rotating increased so that interference bet-
on unit (for high- of wicket gates irrespec- parts, for instance ween stationary and rotating parts is
head radial-axial tive of speed or load on between runner, rotating eliminated. Normally gap in labyrinth
turbineS) unit ring, etc. and housing seal should be 0.001 D where D is
Amplitude of vibrations due to small labyrinth diameter at seal gap. If inte{ference is
may increase for few clearance from other causes they must be traced
seconds or continue for and eliminated (for instance, by
several hours recentering, etc.)
IV Operation with IV Run-out of shaft and IV Improper alignment of IV Unit should be centered. Height of .
and without load vibration of unit irres- generator and turbine _ key should be checked with dial .
on unit pective of turning speed. shafts. Wrong height gauge by placing it on surface plate
It is sometimes found adjustment of circular and it should be finished to desired
that shaft run-out dimi- key at footstep size' ~
nishes with increase in ....r::i
load S·
oq
t:>
V Operation with V Amplitude of vibration V Asymmetrical positioning V Salient parts which are placed asym- E.
and without load increases in direct proof salient parts at rim of . metrically should be either removed ~
on unit portion to turning speed runner (ribs, balancing or covered with sheet to provide §.
and load masses, etc.) streamlined surface S·
./ Oogging of flow passages
of runner or wicket gates .
Runner and wicket gates should be
cleaned and debris cleared
-
t:>
S·
Oq
(with clay, debris, stones,
~
-
etc.)
Eccentric mounting of Eccentricity of seal ring should be i::
labyrinth seal ring ascertained. If necessary ring should ~.
be replaced or machined to eliminate
eccentricity N
\.II
(Contd.) \0
,
IV
0\
(I) (2) (3) (4) o
----------------------~---------.------------------------------
Loosening of bolted Bolted joints should be checked for 51
joints (bearing housing, tigbtness ...i:l
spider, etc.) g"
VI Unit on no-load VI Vibrations become severe VI Turning speed is some' VI During start-up and stopping of unit ~
at some particular speed . multiple of critical speed this speed must be passed through ~
quickly ~
c
Natural frequency of structure
should be altered
[
""S"
VII Unit operating 'VII Vibrations increase with VII Magnetic asymmetry: VII a) Center properly
on load increase in load
a) incorrect centering of b) Eliminate misalignment at flange ~
thrust or journal coupling by introducing insert or
bearing by machining faces of coupling.
b) misaligDment of sh~fts c) Ensure proper mounting of foot-

at flange coupling step on shaft
c) footstep loosely d) Provide for identical flow areas at

mounted on shaft exit sections in runner
d) outlet sections of run- e) Either increase length of hub con~

ner flow passages or make it concave
have different areas
e) small height of run-

ner hub cone
,
(I) (2) (3) (4)
------------------------------~--------------------------------
VIII Unit operating on VIII Vibrations suddenly in- VIII Cavitation occurs due to VIII Avoid loading unit at levels at which
load crease over narrow range change in draft height, excessive vibrations occur
of loads and are accom- poor profiles of runner Provide arrangements for injecti~n of
panied by severe water blades or voriex filament air below runner
hammer in draft tube shed by runner blades Modify shape of trailing edges of
runner blades
IX Unit operating IX Vibrations increase at IX Generator characteristics IX Check governor characteristics and.
on load certain loads (fot adjust- not properly matched to suitably modify to obtain smooth
able-blade turbines) available head operation of unit and maximum
efficiency
---------------~---,----------------------------------
----------
X Operation with X Increasing shaft run-out X. Excessive clearance X Adjust clearance between shaft and
and without load . at all operating conditions between shaft and bear- liner in accordance with guidelines ~
t:l
on unit ing liner provided by manufacturer <'>
~'
-----~----------------------------~---~-------------~-
---------
§
t:l.
~
§,
~'
I::l
~.
-.:::
s:
a
s"
;:s
""
N
--
0\
Checking for vibrations at power plants must be carried out:

i. after assembly;
2. before and after major repairs;
3. when there is a significanUncrease in vibrations;
4. periodically, not less than once in three months.
The vibrations of the unit are measured at:
I) all supports of the upper generator spider (for generators of the
pendant type), as close to the center as possible;
2) lower generator spider near the bearing housing;
3) the housing of the turbine bearing.
Vibrations are measured in all three directions at the following operating
conditions of the unit:
1. at no-load conditions without excitation and with normal excitation
(the unit is synchronized in the grid);
2. at loads on the generator equal to 25, 50 and 75% of the total and at
the maximum design load.
The data obtained by measurement along with particulars as to the loca-
tion at which they were taken, the instruments used and the names of the
personnel conducting the tests are shown on the data sheet which is later
attached to the major turbine overhaul report card. These report cards show
the condition of the hydro unit with respect to vibrations both when the tur-
bine was working under normal operating condition (period between over-
hauls) and before and after a major overhaul.
If any component of the hydro unit develops increased vibrations, vibra-
tion checks must be carried out according to program number 1 (Chapter 5,
5.1) to ascertain the cause of the vibrations and evolve methods of eliminat-
ing them.
While measuring vibrations it is
necessary to take into account the varia-
tion in the amplitude of vibrations
along the length of the supports. Maxi-
mum amplitude is observed to occur at
points farthest from the place where the
supports are bolted to the foundation.
Fig. 6.50 shows the variation in the
amplitude of vibration~ of a generator,
usually observed in practice in the hori-
zontal and vertical directions.
For continuous or periodic checking
Fig. 6.50. Distribution of amplitude of amplitudes of vibrations of hydro
of components of vibrations along
height and width of hydro unit:
units one may make use of the vibro-
I-diagram of horizontal vibrations; graph developed by VNIIE [8] which was
2-diagrarn of vertical vibrations. successfully used "in the tests recently
conducted on the hydro units at the Krasnoyarsk power plant. The vibro-
graph has an automatic balancing arrangement for the pendulum.
Characteristics 01 the /Jibrograph
Operating range of frequencies ..............•........... ; . . . .. from 1 to 300 Hz

Error (amplitude):
In the range of frequencies from I to 3 Hz. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. not more than 10%
In the range of frequencies above 3 Hz.. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . not more than 5%
Range of vibration displacement measurement
from 5 to 2,000 microns '" . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. at accelerations
not exceeding 7 g
Range of operating temperatures
where vibration pick-up is mounted........... from+5to+75°C
Mass of pick-up. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 kg
Size of pick-up , . '" ,. . .•. . . . .•. . 165)( 70)( 70 mm
..
The vibration pick-up may be mounted OD stable
attachments for measuring vibrations in the
horizontal and vertical directions•
_Thevibrograph has an indicating instrument so the amplitudes of vibra-

tions being measured can be read off and it may also be connected to an
oscillograph to record instantaneous values of vibrations.
6.6 Norms of Vibrations in Hydro Units
Evaluation of the vibrations of hydro units is one of the most important

routines at power plants both at the commissioning of equipment after an
overhaul and during day-to-day operation. Sometimes the plant may be
operating under difficult conditions and it may be necessary to decide whether
operation,of the hydro units can be continued in view of the increased vibra-
tions noticed at the supports.
Each type of machine has its own peculiarities and one must not apply
the permissible norms of one machine to another. For instance, the vibration
standards of steam turbines cannot be used for hydraulic machines or vice
versa.
The present standards regarding the vibration of machines have been
framed on the basis of personal experience gained during fabrication and
adjustment at manufacturers' plants, etc. Sometimes the m'anufacturers have
tried to indicate the maximum amplitudes of vibration when delivering the
unit to the customer. Some such units had to be redesigned because the
vibrations had reached dangerous values.
Some authorities take the velocity or acceleration of vibrations as the
fundamental criterion for vibration standards. Assuming that the vibrations
are harmonic, the allowable amplitudes of vibrations are assumed to be the
reciprocal of the rotational frequency or its square. However, even if this is

true to some extent for a particular series of a given model having a com-
paratively small range of nominal turning speeds n, the amplitudes of vibra-
tions permissible for one machine based on these criteria cannot be applied to
other machines incorporating considerable differences in construction and
range of turning speeds. No doubt for low-speed hydro units the allowable
amplitude of vibrations can be somewhat greater than for high-speed units.
On the other hand, when standards for vibrationli are developed the decisive
factors are not only speed and acceleration but also the mechanical stresses
acting on the main components due to dynamic deformation (vibrations) and
the fatigue characteristics of the materials obtained on dynamic test stands.
ORGRES [12] was the first organization to develop vibration standards
for hydro units based on these conditions. The revised standards along with
corrections are based on the following:
1. Standards of amplitudes of vibrations of various hydro unit compo-
•
nents are fixed on the basis of stresses, in the main components and parts of
hydro units calculated with reference to vibration resistance and of empirical
determination of the level of vibrations and deformations in operating hydro
units.
2. To some extent, acceleration is taken into account. For very low-speed
units the level of allowable amplitude of vibrations has been raised.
3. The design development and operation of unique machines in terms of
power output and size made it necessary to take into account the relative
strength of the components. Attempts to fabricate units with smaller outlay
of metal, widespread adoption of welding techniques and other new, precise
methods of calculation inevitably led to a fall in the relative strength of the
individual elements ofJarge-size hydro units. Hence if a particular amplitude
of vibration, i.e. additional deformation of construction, gives rise to stresses
which are within the permissible limits for large hydro units the stresses in-
duced in small-size machines due to these absolute deformations may be too
high.· In many cases this may lead to excessive strains.
For standardizing purposes the strength of the structure is expressed in
terms of the characteristic diameter of the turbine (the nominal diameter of
the runner) .
. The choice of the runner diameter as the characteristic quantity is entirely
arbitrary. One could as well have framed the standards in terms of the rotor
or the generator diameter. A comparison of the· diameters of the turbine
runner and the generator rotor for a number of hydro units has shown that
these dimensions are directly proportional.
4. Instrument checks of vibrations and deformations of some components
were carried out on more than 70 hydro units at various operating conditions
and the findings were analyzed.
All the computations were carried out for different. machine sizes. For
/
medium-size units (with runner diameters up to 5 m) the maximum allowable

amplitude of vibrations was found to be 50 Hz (Table 6.9).
Table 6.9
Turning
Magnitude of double amplitude of vibrations-, min
speed, rpm
Excenent Good Satisfactory Poor
62.5 0.0 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.10 0.10 to 0.16 >0.16

150 0.0 to 0.04 0.04 to 0.09 0.09 to 0.14 >0.14
187 0.0 to 0.04 0.04 to 0.09 0.09 to 0.14 >0.14
214 0.0 to 0.03 0.03 to 0.08 0.08 to 0.13 >0.13
250 0.0 to 0.03 0.03 to 0.08 0.08 to 0.13 >0.13
300 0.0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.07 0.07 to 0.12 >0.12
375 0.0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.06 0.06 to 0.11 >0.11
500 0.0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.10 >0.10
600 0.0 to 0.02 0.02 to 0.04 0.04 to 0.09 >0.09
750 0.0 to 0.01 0.01 to 0.03 om to 0.08 >0.08
1,000 0.0 to 0.01 0.01 to om 0.03 to 0.07 >0.07
The double amplitudes of vibration shown in the Table are for horizontal
and vertical hydro units for all three directions, i.e. one vertical and two
horizontal.
The distinction between "good" and "excellent" vibrations is based on the
operational experience of hydro units. The operation of hydro units falling
•
under the head "excellent" has been found to be reliable without any abnor-
mal conditions developing during the course of several years. "Good" de-
notes reliaple operation but an increase in vibrations with the passage of time
has been observed at several units. Cases of increase in vibrations during
operation were found to be more frequent in tne units designated "satisfac-
tory." They require constant attention and monitoring of the vibration con-
ditions of the unit. Operation of the units designated "poor" demands steps
to trace and eliininate the cause of vibrations. The following empirical equa-
tion (which takes into account the relative strength of the structure) is recom-
mended fOf determining the al1c;>wable amplitudes of vibration of units having
runner diameters other than 5 m:
where 2A is the double amplitude of vibrations to be calculated for a unit

having runner diameter = D, m;
2As is the double amplitude of vibrations of unit with a runner diame-
ter of 5 m (according to Table 6.9).
The nomogram shown in Fig. 6.51 has been constructed on the basis of
I
N
0\
0\
~
"1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. I ...~
~~,\,~~, ~ ~ ~~
~~~~ . I 1 §.
~ \. ~ "~t':::: ~K~{// ~
'",
~
~I\\I\-"\t"', t---~Ir"," ~ II~ C$J
I
'" ~~f': ~
\ ~B
~~q, ~""~~'" "'- '0- .1<t,
""-.I~
l:}
~.
I:>
~ f""-....:r---.....r-...~ §:
~
.~" '"=" ,,~r--... ~A,~ I r-... ~_

0.....
q,,~
\ ",,'" i':;'
S 'r' .... ~I"- ~'-
r---.::.........
r-..-
-"
~ ""'TI~" r"i.I II~
0,
r S";"~IQ'y
• ,
_
--
~.
S·
o \\...' r--:. N - ~
~1".:""""'N.... r-.. r--_ 6:Jr"
-. >- 'i:l
--r--......... -
r:"::......
'" ~....
""- ,i t---. 't--.... I I r GoodIJ
~
0.06 . ,
~,0< ~
< ........ "1-..., 0lf4 I
~
~?1 I i
-2A
II
0.02 mm
"1
I I
IIj
fExcellentj
'T I
- 2 3
I
4
I
5 6 7
Runner diaO)eter. m
8 9 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
ShaH speed. rDm
800 900100C)
Fig. 6.51. Nomogram for determining allowable vibrations of hydro units.

this formula. Vibrations of foundations have been assumed to be equal to O.

The following two examples illustrate the use of this nomogram:
Example 1. A unit with a 3.5 m diameter runner and 187.5 rpm has a
double amplitude of vibrations 2A=O.08 mm. It is required to determine the
standard conditions to which the vibrations of this hydro unit correspond.
For the given diameter of 3.5 m a vertical is constructed on the left half
of the graph to intersect the line of amplitude 2A =0.08 mm (point AI). A
horizontal line is drawn from point A I toward the right to intersect the verti-
cal corresponding to the given turning speed. The point A2 so obtained corres-
ponds to the zone "satisfactory."
Example 2. It is required to determine the maximum. permissible vibra-
tions for a hydro unit operating at 214 rpm and having a runner 4.5 m in
diameter.
,.
For the given turning speed a vertical is drawn on the right half of the
graph to intersect the curve bounding the "satisfactory" zone (point Bl).
Next a horizontal line is drawn toward the left to intersect the vertical corres-
ponding to the diameter of the runner. Point B2 so obtained corresponds
to 2A=0.128 mm.
The nomogram (Fig. 6.51) is applicable for vibrations in all three direc-
tions (one vertical and two horizontal) of hydro unit components, namely the
upper generator spider, the lower generator spider, turbine cover (turbine
bearing housing), etc. under steady state conditions.
At many power plants observations are regularly carried out (daily) for
run-out of turbine and generator shafts. A change in the run-out ofthe shaft
is an indication of bearing wear, 'which leads to poor vibration conditions of
the unit.
The following value is recommended for the allowable run-out of shafts
(total throw): .
t5 = iJ +2A ma• mm.
where L1 is the' maximum allowable gap (on the diameter) in the guide bearing'
of the turbine as shown in Table 6.5 (in the case of rubber bearings this gap
is taken to be that of the generator bearing); 2A m a.¥ is the allowable double
amplitude of vibrations of the hydro unit support. obtained from nomogram
shown in Fig. 6.51.
A critical analysis of the experience gained during operation of hydro
units showed that the standards suggested ensure normal operation of the
units without being too rigid.
The technical level of fabrication and assembly of hydro units. the avail-
ability of the latest vibration measuring instruments and the experience
gathered during operation now enable us to keep the vibrations of hydro
units in the "good" zone without any great effort. When hydro units are put
into operation the vibrations of all major components must correspond
268 Vibrati~m of Hydro Units in HPP
to these norms. The norms for vibrations shown in GOST 5616-63 and
§ 25.35 PTE have become outmoded and must be revised, taking into account
the present state of technical development of hydroturbine construction.
The· vibration condition of hydro units is determined from the greatest
double amplitude of vibrations that occurs during loads ranging from no-
load conditions to maximum power output. If the vibrations become exces-
sive only at some particular loads on the unit, due to cavitation or water
hammer in the turbine, then the unit should not be operated at such loads.
The mean square value of the amplitudes is used for evaluating vibrations
when they are of a random nature.
6.7 Determining the Average Time between Major

Overhauls according to Vibration Conditions of the Unit
,.
The characteristics and the coefficients for reliable operation of hydro
units shown in [23] enable us to estimate the length of time for which hydro
units may operate reliably based on the data gathered during operation of
these units over a fairly long period. Such an estimate may also be based on
the operational data of similar equipment at other power plants which have
been in operation for several years before the pla~t in question is commis-
sioned. However, it would be desirable to predict the reliability parameters
of the new equipment independently in terms of its "wear" characteristics.
These characteristics may be assumed to be the vibration parameters of the
unit to be commissioned, wear of the gland seal ring of radial-axial hydro-
turbines, absolute and relative efficiencies and other such parameters. Vibra-
tions are one of the performance criteria of the unit (cavitation properties of
the turbine, existence of resonance in individual elements of the structure,
rigidity of component, etc.). Apart from this, the vibration parameters of
the unit obtained at start-up also indicate the quality of the assembly work
(centering of the unit, balancing of rotors, etc.).
. It has been observed on the basis of generalized operational experience
that the vibrations of a unit increase with the passage of time. This is due to
continuous wear of the guide bearings, slackening of various bolted joints
(foundation bolts of the generator stator, fastening bolts of the spider, bearing
bushes, etc.) on the one hand, and cavitation and erosion damage to the
runner and flow passage of the turbine on the other. This to some extent dis-
rupts the balancing of the hydro unit rotor.
As a result, in the course of time the vibrations of the unit reach the maxi-
mum permissible limits and the unit has to be taken out for maintenance.
The following method of estimating the average time between overhauls
is suggested by the author on the basis of the vibration conditions of the
unit.
Assuming that the change in the double amplitude of vibrations of the
...
hydro unit supports (run-out of the shaft) follows the law (Fig. 6.52):
2A m==2Ao eCTav ,
where 2A ma... is the maximum allowable amplitude of vibrations;
2Ao is the measured double amplitude of vibrations when the unit
was first commissioned or when it was restarted after mainte-
nance;
T is the average time of operation of the unit between overhauls;
Q1J
C is the parameter characterizing the rate of increase of amplitudes

of vibrations.
5
1
~ "-2
•
3
01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Amplitude ratio. 2A mnJ2A o
Fig. 6.53. Average operation time of unit between
Fig. 6.52. Increase of vibrations

overhauls .as A
:4
function of ratio 22 az for guide
o
of hydro unit during bearings of turbines made of various materials:
operation. l-babbit; 2-rubber; 3-lignefol (wood-impregnated
laminate).
In general C=kv 2 ,
where k is a coefficient and v is the average tangential velocity of the rotating
pair.
Taking the logarithm of the above expression; we have
In 2A av =ln 2Ao+ CTCIZI'
from which
The coefficient C may be obtairied from observation of the unit during

operation. This is done by measuring the amplitude of vibrations 2A I during
normal operation of the unit.
The vibrations of the unit are again measured after several months (say
six to eight months) and coefficient C is obtained as:
In 2A2
C=~I,
t
where 2A I is the double amplitude of vibrations obtained from the first
measurement;
2Ai is that obtained from the second measurement (the measurements
must be carried out at' the same location and using the same
equipment as for the determination of 2 AI);
t is the total time the unit was in operation between the first and
second measurements.
Based on operational experience, the following value may be recommend-
ed for the coefficient C (for guide bearings of turbines with babbit liners):
1
C=0.45·1O-4, h'
- Knowing the double amplitude of vibrations of a hydro unit support

(spider, turbine cover) and the coefficient C, one may estimate the time for
which a unit will operate between overhauls from the formula
In 2A ma"
2Ao
T a·=0.45 x 10-4 ' h,
or
T... =2.22 x 1()41n 2~:J< , h.
Converting the above expression in terms of logarithm to the base 10, we

obtain (for guide bearings of turbines with babbit liners):
TaP :::::l5.lOx ]()4loglo (2t;;) ,h.

The maximum allowable value of the double amplitude of vibrations is select-
ed from the nomogram shown in Fig. 6.5] at the upper boundary of the
"satisfactory" zone.
The allowable double amplitude of vibrations 2A ma J< is obtained on the
basis of the given nominal diameter of the turbine runner and its rpm.
For guide bearings of turbines whose liners are made either of rubber or
of wood plastic (wood-impregnated laminate) one may use the following
formulas:
/ for rubber liners,
for liners of wood plastic,
T/JI1~3.6 x 104log l o Ct:.¥) , h.
One must be cautious in applying these two formulas because the parti-
cular operating conditions of the bearings and )imited data may not allow
T to be determined with any degree of assurance regarding accuracy.
(J1J
The graph shown in Fig. 6.53 for Tao as a function of

on these equations.
e/;;.¥)
However, these formulas may be used for a preliminary estimate of T QIJ'
is based
6.8 Health Standards for VibradoD and Noise Level in Working Areas
•
Vibrations of hydro units are transmitted to the foundations, Boors and
walls of the machine hall and the roofs of the various ancillary buildings of
the installation during operation. Excessive vibrations lead to unfavorable
consequences. For instance, there have been cases where due to triggering
off of relays (protective devices) the generators were tripped from the grid be-
cause of excessive vibration of the automatic control panel on which these
relays were mounted. Apart from this, excessive vibrations adversely affect
the human organism. These circumstances, therefore, require a periodic
check on the vibration conditions of hydro units and the plant as a whole.
The rules framed by the Chief State Health Inspector of the USSR-Pro-
visional health regulations and standards for limiting the vibrations of a work-
ing area [82l~are in force at all
existing
industrial undertakings as well as those N 1.6
under construction. These norms are ~
~
aimed at forestalling the occupational s
diseases of workers subject to vibrations.- .CoI_.1.0
These standards relate to both verti~1 and .51c
horizontal vibrations of a continuous ';
nature occurring during working hours". ~ 0.6
Col
Col
", Intermediate values may be obtained by «
linear interpolation of the tabulated data.
If a worker is exposed to vibrations for
o.......~~~~~-:ol:~
5 10 15 20 25 30
not more than 15% of a working shift then Frequency. Hz
the maximum allowable amplitudes, velo- Fig. 6.54. Effect of acceleration of
cities and accelerations may be raised vibrations on operating personnel:
further but not more than three times. l-vibrations dangerous to health;
2-severe vibrations giving rise to
Table 6.10 gives the permissible ampli- uneasy feeling; J-disturbing vibra-
tudes, velocities and accelerations of tions; 4-vibrations that can 5e
vibrations of the working area and clearly felt.
Table 6.11 shows the effect of vibrations on people.

Foreign literature [27] shows graphically the accelerations of vibration
for frequencies from I to 30 Hz and the effect on people (Fig. 6.54) in terms
of different gradations. Research conducted in the field of space medicine
has shown that the mean square value of acceleration is limited to 0.25 g.
The operating personnel of various areas in the power plant are simul-
taneously subjected to several harmful factors such as vibrations, noise and
high temperatures near the hydro units.
Table 6.10
Allowable values
Frequency of -----------------------~-------
vibrations, Velocity of Acceleration of
Hz Amplitude, mm vibrating motion, vibrating motion,
cmlsec cm/sec-
.. 1-3
3-S
S-8
8-IS
IS-30
30-S0
. S0-7S
0.6-0.4
0.4-0. IS
0.IS-O.0S
0.OS,...o.03
0.03-0.009
0.009-0.007
0.007-O.00S .
1.12-0.76
0.76-0.46
0.46-0.2S
0.2S-O.28
0.28-0.16
0.16-0.22
0.22-0.23
22-14
14-1S
IS-1J
13-27
27-32
32-70
70-112
7S-100 0.OOS-O.003 0.23-0.19 112-120
Table 6.11
Nature of effect of vibrations Maximum acceleration Maximum velocity,

on human beings romlsec a mm/sec
I. Imperceptible 10 0.16
2. Slightly felt 40 0.64
3. Felt appreciably 12S 2.0
4. Severely felt (disturbing) 400 6.4
S. Injurious over a long period of time 1,000 16
6. Definitely injurious above 1,000 above 16
----------~--------------------------~--
The effect of noise as a function of its intensity may be estimated from

Fig. 6.55 and theaUowable working time under these conditions as a function
of the ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 6.56 [27].
The effect of noise is evaluated from the characteristic spectrum of the
noise level of a source in terms of the selected frequency intervals. The octave
is usually chosen as the standard interval.
The noise level is estimated from the geometrical mean of the frequency
given by the formula J..v = {fif",
whereJi are the low frequencies in the octave interval;
fh are the high frequencies in the octave interval.

The mean geometrical frequencies in the octave band are s~own below:
Bounding frequencies of
the octave band, Hz .. ; .... .45-90 90-180 180-355 355-710
Geometrical mean
frequencies, Hz .............. 63 125 250 500
Bounding frequencies of
the octave band, Hz .. ".... 710-1,400 1,400-2,800 2,800-5,600 5,600-11,200
Geometrical mean
frequencies, Hz ............. 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
Noise is divided into two types: I) tonal; 2) impulse.

The noise generated by steam turbines, hydraulic turbines, generators,
blowers, etc. falls in the category of tonal noise, whereas the noise originating
from reciprocating compressors, internal combustion engines, pneumatic
.. chisels, hammers, etc. falls in the second category.
..Q
'tl
g
140
120
100
1
~
III
~6
l-
e
.51
;;
6
'0 80
2 8,3
c 3 o
'0 50 t-
4 '0 2
:: 40 " I"'-....
I--
6 'tl
.g
---
'w 1
20
Ft;
-
Q>
; 0 ~
g 20
1000
'--
10000 20000 o2~O~3'=0--:'401:--:51:'0----:51:'0-"':"70
100
Frequency. Hz Temperature. tOe
Fig. 6.55. Noise level: Fig. 6.56. Allowable time person may
I-threshold of health hazard; 2-underground stay in working area when subjected to
"metro" station at time when train passes; J- effect of temperature:
medium industrial undertaking; 4-noise in I-maltimum allowable; 2-maltimum
rooms of institute; 5-average noise level in resi· allowable when working with high
dential buildings; 6-at a distance of 1.5 m. concentration.
The allowable levels of tonal and impulse noise in decibels for various
objects is shown in Table 6.12.
Depending on the nature and duration of the noise, corrections are appli-
ed to the mean geometrical noise level in accordance with those shown in
Table 6.13.
Noise reduces productivity, increases the number of errors during opera~
tion, affects the health of the operating personnel, etc. Hence one must com-
bat the injurious effect of noise in every possible way in order to reduce it to
permissible levels.
Since noise at hydro power plants is mainly due to the vibration of the
units one must take proper steps to reduce the vibration of equipment.
Table 6.12
Mean geometrical frequency of octave bands, Hz

No. Kind of environment
63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
1. Operating theaters, mansions, 55 44 35 29 25 22 20 18

doctor's consulting room,
residential rooms.
2. Rest areas of small districts and 63 52 45 39 35 32 30 28
adjacent residential quarters
and areas.
3. Offices, design bureaus, rooms 71 61 54 49 45 42 40 38
of designers and computer
programmers and laboratories
without noise sou~ces.
4. Telephone and radiotele- 75 60 59 '54 52 47 45 43
phone rooms, load despatcher's
-
room and central control room.
5. Precision assembly areas, fac- 79 70 63 58 55 52 50 49
to~ offices, health centers and
canteens. ' -
6. Laboratories and bUildings re- 83 74 68 63 60 57 55 53
quiring direct speech com-
munication and telephones.
7. Same as above but without 91 83 77 73 70 68 66 64
direct speech communication.
8. Work areas in factories. 99 92 86 82 80 78 76 74
Nole: The values shown in this Table may be increased but not by more than 3 db:
for one item from several octave bands.
Table 6.13
Total time of continuous and Correction, db.

discontinuous action of
noise during one shift, h Wide band noise Tonal or impulse noise ,
4-8 o -5
2-4 +5 o
1-2 +10 , +5
0.5-1 +15 +10
0.25 and less +25 +20
The frequency of the perturbation forces must not coincide with the
natural frequency of vibrations of the structures, components, mechanisms.
etc. The greater the difference between these frequencies. the lower the noise
originating from these structures.
The noise level at the locations of noise sources may be attenuated by us-
ing various types of sound proofing material. The walls. flooring. passages.
etc. are covered with these materials.
It is found that sound barriers, especially glass partitions between the

machine hall and the working area of the operating personnel, etc. are very
useful. These partitions are most effective for protection against medium- and
high-frequency vibrations. The long wave vibrations are comparable with the
dimensions of the partitions and hence are not absorbed. Various suggestions
for reducing the effect of noise on the operating personnel are listed in [411.
-
Chapter 7
.Results of Checks on Blade

.Vibrations of Hydro Units·
- The findings of experimental checks are helpful in assessing both the

qualitative and the quantitative effects of perturbation forces on hydro units
under various operating conditions. The principal technical data of the hydro
units tested are given in [114].
a) Periodic processes
The following parameters were determined during the tests:
I. The double amplitude of vibrations, i.e. the total peak-to-peak swing
of oscillations (for periodic oscillations); the maximum double peaks of vibra-
tions in transient processes.
2. The frequency of vibrations.
3. Vibrational acceleration, which is determined by the formula
. 2A 2A (4n 2 f'Z\
J=2 (J)2. 10- 6 = .2 -'.10- 6 mfsec2,
where 2A is the double amplitude of vibrations in microns;
(J) is the angular frequency, 1/sec;
f is the frequency of vibrations, Hz.

The vibration level corresponding to the maximum acceleration is:
£=20 log.f j ,db.

2.3.10- 4
-This chapter deals primarily with some vibration checks on hydro units carried out
by the author in the ORGRES or in coDaboratioD with the VNIIE (Principal investigator,
Yu.M. El'kind) and the Leningrad branch of the Hydroproject Institute (Principal investi-
gator, A.P. Murzin). .
276
Results of Checks on Blade Vibrations 277
Vibration checks were carried out under different operating conditions

encountered during normal running of a power plant. Vibrations were
measured on the stator, spider, turbine cover, foundation or other elements
of the hydro unit block.
Level of
waler in
tailrace"
- Fig. 7.1. Cross-sectional view of flow passage of hydro unit

showing where pressures were measured:
I to Vll-measuring sections.
4. Vibrations and pressure fluctuations at various sections in the flow

passage of the hydro unit. For aperiodic processes the maximum limits of
pressure variations (for a given set of operating conditions)" of the unit were
determined by oscillograms.
The entire flow passage was divided into several sections (see Fig. 7.1).
namely:
I-the spiral casing before the wicket gates;
II-the turbine chamber after the wicket gates;
III-the turbine chamber before the runner;
IV-the turbine chamber in the region of the runner (at the level of the
axis of the runner blades);
V-the entrance section of the draft tube;
VI-the entrance to the diffusor of the draft tube;
V IJ-the exit section of the draft tube.
The vibrations were measured in the following directions:
for hydro units: vertical, horizontal-tangential and horizontal-radial;
for structures: vertical, horizontal, parallel to the direction of flow of
water through the power plant; horizontal, perpendicular to the direction of
flow of water.
The vibration pick-ups were located identically on all the hydro units
tested. These locations were as follows:
generator stator: the"vibration pick-ups were installed at the central por-
tion of the stator housing;
278 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP·
the load-bearing spider: on the spider beam near the bearing housing or
the oil sump of the thrust bearing (Fig.
7.2);
b) Random processes
The oscillograms were processes on a
BESM-4 type electronic computer.
Initially the osciIIograms were trans-
fered to punched cards with the help of
the special F006 apparatus (made by the
Vibropribor plant, Kishenev).
The number of points to be punched
was chosen according to the length of
oscillogram selected for processing. This
apparatus enabled points to be obtained
through every 0.5 mm. The length of the
oscillogram was so chosen as to obtain 500
-
points on the punched cards.
Fig. 7.2. VEGIK vibration pick-up The apparatus computed the ordinates
for measuring horizontal vibrations of the curve from an arbitrary datum.
of lower generator spider turbine
The following parameters were deter-
cover: as close as possible to the
turbine housing. mined from the punched card data fed to
the electronic computer:· mathematical
expectancy, variance, root mean square deviation, variation coefficient, mini-
mum and maximum ordinates of the curve representing the process with
respect to the arbitrary datum, density function and distribution function on
the ordinate (xma;c-Xmlll)'
Similar parameters were determined when only the maximum ordinates
of the curve from the datum line were calculated. The probability of exceed-
ing a given amplitude of vibrations is determined from the difference
I-ibm (x).
Later the correlating function, the correlating coefficient and the spectral
density of the process were determined.
Let us consider some typical examples of the behavior of hydro units
under various operating conditions.
7.1 Vibration of Hydro Units
Steady state conditions

No-load operation with and without excitation. Usually mechanical pertur-
bation forces such as rotor imbalance, defects in the alignment of the shaft,
etc. are brought to light during no-load operation without excitation.
In this case the horizontal components of vibrations have excessive ampli-
tudes. The shape of the curve is close to sinusoidal (Fig. 7.4). The frequency
of the horizontal component cOJ::responds to the turning speed whereas the
amplitude is directly proportional to the square of the turning speed.
Fig. 7.3. VEGIK vibration pick-up installed to measure
-
vertical vibrations of turbine cover.
It is possible to reduce the horizontal components of vibrations (Fig. 7.4)

by balancing the rotors (if it becomes necessary).
Maximum vibrations occur at the load-bearing spider. Table 7.1 shows
the extent to which amplitudes of horizontal vibrations can be reduced by
balancing the turbine and generator rotors on their own bearings.
Table 7.1
Double amplitude of Radius at Total weight Weight Of

vibration~, microns which balanc- of balanc- baIancing
Power plant ing mass ing mass, mass per unit
before after is located, kg amplitude,
balancing balancing mm kg/micron
Skhodnensk 200 60 1300 50 0.31
Skhodnensk 160 40 1300 45 0.38
Dubossarsk 70 40 1120 40 1.33
Aktepinsk 180 60 1200 80 0.66
Aktepinsk 80 35 1200 35. 0.77
Khramsk I 220 40 1020 10 0.055
Khramsk I 80 25 1020 25.8 0.47
Belorechensk 95 40 1400 75 1.36
Belorechensk 120 70 1400 55 1.10 .
Note: I. The double amplitudes of vibrations here relate to the radial component of
vibrations of the load-bearing generator spider at the level of the journal bearing.
2. In each case the balancing masses were attached to the spokes of the rotor. The
effective center of gravity of the weights was located at the center line of the shaft.
It is also interesting to note the results obtained from tests carried out for
the eccentricity of the centers of gravity of generator rotors· (mm) during
balancing of rotors at a number of power plants.
Skhodnensk,radial-axial turbine '" 0.5
Aktepinsk, radial-axial turbine '" ; " 1.0
Belorechensk, radial-axial turbine , , 1.2 to 1.4
Dubossark, adjustable-blade turbine ; 1.0
Kegumsk, adjustable-blade turbine 1.0
Khramsk, Pelton wheel turbine ; 1.0
These data relate to the condition of the units before balancing. The
maximum eccentricity was 1.5 mm. After the rotors were balanced the
eccentricity did not exceed 0.2 mm.
The maximum eccentricity is useful in determining the horizontal compo-
nent of the perturbation force acting on the hydro unit foundation through
the guide bearing with a frequency equal to that of the turning speed.
- A
11,0.1 sec
I"\.
\/VVA/VVV'-
~2~=~15~m~lIl
2 A=0.02 mm (Zl
2 A=0.06 mm (HJ )
2 A=0,03 mm (H u )
a b
2 A=O.01 mm (Z)
2 A=0.19 mm (H.J. l
~ZJ
01 Shalt
fV\I\Nv\ 2 A=0.27 mm (Hal ~~~

~ A=0.01 (HJ.)
vVVr!W C d
/2 A=O (HU l
Fig. 7.4. Vibrations of upper and lower generator spiders: a-upper spider
before balancing; b-upper spider after balancing; c-Iower spider before
balancing; d-Iower spider after balancing; z-vertical vibrations;
H1.-borizontal vibrations along length of machine hall;
Hn-horizontal vibrations transverse to macbin~ hall.
Defects in the electrical part of the generator are brought out when the
excitation is varied with the unit running on no-load. Fig. 7.5 illustrates the
vibrations of a unit with and without excitation of the generator. As can be
seen from the Figure, the nature of the vibrations of this unit altered when
the excitation was withdrawn. In other hydro units the withdrawal of excita-
tion did not produce any change in the nature of the vibrations. In such
cases attention must be paid to the electrical perturbation forces.
1 revolution 01 shaft
Without
,-excitation
Fig. 7.5. Change in vibrations of hydro unit when excitation of

generator is withdrawn (umbrelIa type generator). Air gap of
-
generator was asymmetrical:
I-horizontal vibrations of load-bearing spider; 2-vertical vibrations of
load-bearing spider; 3-horizontal-radial vibrations of stator; 4-horizon-
tal tangential vibrations of stator. -
On-load operation. The nature of the vibration of hydro units operating

under various load conditions is quite complex since the perturbation forces
are superimposed on one another. However, at different operating conditions
one perturbation force often predominates over the rest. This governs the
nature of the vibrations at each operating condition.
Figure 7.6 shows the vibrogram of one hydro unit run with various loads
imposed on the generator. As can be seen, the vibrations became excessive
when the load on the unit was 6,000 kW. The low-frequency component of
the hydraulic perturbation forces was responsible for this condition. When
the load on the generator was further increased the vibrations diminished.
In the case of adjustable~bladeturbines operating on load, vibrations with
blade frequency superposed on vibrations with angular frequency of rotation
are characteristic.
The frequency of vibrations of hydro units operating under load is charac-
terized by the appearance of a component at 100 Hz on the stator and a
component at 50 Hz on the load-bearing spider.
Figures 7.7 and 7.8 show the results obtained from vibration tests con-
ducted on the _hydro units of the Kakhovsk power plant when operating
under normal load conditions.
Figure 7.7 shows the maximum double amplitude of vibrations as a func-
tion of the change in load on the unit. It may be observed that the maximum
level of vibrations is attained when the load is less than 15,000 kW, which
happens to be characteristic of hydro units with adjustable-blade turbines.
Fig. 7.8 shows the distribution of the double amplitude of vibrations at the
supports of the hydro unit.
~. ~~
~ ~
~~ ~
N\fv\
JV\M
~~~
_2 ~~_ ,,7
~ ~
~~~
B
1 revolution of shaft 1 revolution of shaft 1 revolution of shafl
-
a b c
Fig. 7.6. Change in vibrations of a hydro unit baving radial-axial
turbine operating with head of 36 m:
a-load equal to 2,000 kW; b-load equal to 6,000 kW; c-Ioad equal to
12,000 kW: l-vertical vibrations of upper generator spider; 2-horizon-
tal-radial vibrations or upper generator spider; 3-horizontal-tangential
vibrations of upper generator spider; 4-vertical vibrations of shell of
penstock piping; 5-horizontal-radial vibrations or lower generator spider;
6-vertical vibrations of lower generator spider; 7-vertical vibrations of
turbine bearing; 8-horizontal·radial vibrations of turbine bearing.
This Figure also shows the range of permissible vibrations derived from
Fig. 6.51. It can be seen that at a load of 16,000 kW the vibrations of the
turbine-bearing housing fall in the "satisfactory" category. At all other load
conditions the vibrations of the hydro unit components are found to fall in
the categories "good" and "excellent." The amplitude of vibrations of the
components ofthe hydro unit measured during routine checks carried out bet-
ween maintenance stoppages should be plotted on similar graphs. These
enable one to evaluate the change in vibrations of the units with the passage
of time.
Figure 7.9 shows the printout from the BESM-4 electronic computer with
the vibration curve as input. ~he curve represents the horizontal vibrations
of the load-bearing spider of unit No.3 at the Farkhadsk power plant. The
power output of the unit was 34.5 MW. The turning speed of the shaft was
107.14 rpm. The vibration curve was obtained for a 35% opening of the
wicket gates (10 MW load).
The number of points covering an intercept of 5 seconds was taken to be
500, i.e. the interval between points was 0.01 seconds. The ordinates of the
curve x (t) were measured from an arbitrary datum line AB (Fig. 7.9b) and
were transferred to the punched cards.
Computations showed the following:
I) The root mean square deviation of the amplitude of vibrations was
. equal to 30 microns at a maximum amplitude of 75 microns.
0.2
mm 2Ao
0.1
V~ ""- Lx iF
0 IV
o
a .
0.2
mm 2Ao
~~
0.1
o
mm 2A
V
~
"
..... I'-o........A
b
0
- ....x
o c
~
"
V- ~
-
0.2
0.1
I 6,' '\
r\.
I.----"r-
• ~
o
tl 10
"'" I •
20
o "
30 40 MW
p
C
Fig. 7.7. Change in vibrations of hydro unit at Kakhovsk
power plant as function of load on generator:
a-vertical vibrations of load-bearing spider; b-horizontal vibrations of turbine
cover; c-vertical vibrations of turbine cov~r; x - x -unit No.1; 0 - O-unit
No.2; 0 - 0 -unit No.4; l:i - l:i -unit No.5; 0 - 0 -unit No.6.
;.;.;;.;;.;..;.,,+o-;;;.:;.;;~+S...8_li_SI8Clorv
a b
Fig. 7.8. Variation in maximum amplitude of vibrations of sup-

ports of hydro unit at Kakhovsk power plant under various
load conditions: -
a-horizontal-radial vibrations; b-vertical vibrations.
2) The histogram of the amplitude distribution in the interval (xmax - Xmin)

is shown in Fig. 7.9c. It can be seen that the maximum value of the distribu-
tion curve lies 20 microns below the mean line of the process.
3) The histogram and the integral of the probability distribution of maxi-
mum amplitudes calculated with reference to the arbitrary datum are shown
in Fig. 7.9a for the interval (x, max-X, min), which has been divided into 13
parts. From the Figure it can be seen that there are two characteristic
maxima. The first maximum (lower) lies 20 microns below the line m, (x) of
the process and the second maximum (upper) lies 20 microns above the line
depicting m, (x) .
4) The curve representing the correlating function is shown in Fig. 7.9d.
The time at which the first zero'of the function is obtained is To = 0.145 sec.
The curve R (T) reveals the components having a frequency of nearly 3.3 Hz,
close to double the rotational frequency, and those having frequencies of
~fu. .
Vibration checks carried out at the Bukhtarminsk power plant on a hydro
unit with a diagonal turbine [3S] showed the following:
-
I) When the unit was tested on no-load without excitation the vibration
of the turbine cover in the vertical direction had a double amplitude of
2A, = 35 microns; The frequency of vibrations was equal to that of the turn-
ing speed (2.5 Hz). The double amplitude of vibrations of the generator spjder
in this case was 2A s = 6 microns.
2) Under steady load conditions for loads from 20 to 75 MW the ampli-
tude ofturbine cover vibrations in the vertical directions was 2A, = II microns
and in the radial direction 2A = 28 microns. These vibrations were at the
rotational frequency. At this time the amplitude of vibrations of the
generator spider 2A s was less than 40 microns in the radial direction, with a
frequency of 2.5 Hz. At frequencies of Sand 35 Hz the amplitude of vibra-
tions of the spider did not exceed 10 microns.
These measurements were carried out at optimum setting of the speed
governor. It was observed that when the opening of the wicket gates or the
blade setting deviated from the corresponding optimum values vibrations
sharply increased. Even when the blade setting deviated by as little as 1 to 2°
from the optimum the vibrations of the unit increased by 1.5 to 2 times or
even more.
The following are the maximum values of double amplitudes of vibrations
recorded during checks on the hydro units of the Saratovsk power plant:
generator spider-110 microns, thurst bearing supports-SO microns, turbine
cover-90 microns. These checks were conducted by the Scientific Research
Sector of the Hydroproject Institute. The range of load variations was 16 to
62 MW at heads varying from 9 to 12 m. .
It was observed that the vibrations were at their lowest when the unit
operated at loads varying from 26 to 35 MW.The double amplitudes of
I
;(
-e C! CIl! <t! ~ "! j X
~-oooo
Wm(X)
Wm(X) t/l m (Xl W(Xj
0.03 0.02 0.01 c
e wlXI
~:~
a
A I
o
t xi !
b
,g L ! tO o 0.01
C
0.02 0.03
~
~
R(r)/Ro(r) 1 2 3 4 5 sec
<i.61t---t--~-,---r---.---,--.....,.----,--r--~--r---.---r---,---, ~
0.4H---t--+--+---t---+--+---t-----t--t---t--+---t---t---+--j ~
0.2HN-ft-+--+---+---+--+rt7t=-:-Ir--t---t--+---t--:-7-t-'-----+--j Q
0t-~;-\P~~;,r.;.~fO'~uuo~~~~:---rr-:-"f::-;::jo~~-:;-~--;~~ ""
"' -0.2L..-_~L-~_...L__ _'__ ___L.._----L_--'-_--'_ _ _...L__-'-_ ___'__ _..=J
d
L _ _ " " " _ _ - - : -..........
*
§'"
t::t:J
Fig. 7.9. Horizontal-radial vibrations of load-bearing spider of unit No.3 at Farkhadsk SO
power plant operating at load of 10 MW: ~
a-density function rpm (X) and distribution of maximum amplitude displacements W,j,(x) measured from arbitrary ~
datum; b-curve representing process x (t)-horizontal-radial vibrations of load-bearing spider with wicket gate ~
opening a=3S%; c-density function and displacement distribution; d-correlating function. §'"
'"
IV
00
VI
vibrations in this case were: generator spider-40 microns, thrust bearing sup-
ports-30 microns; turbine lid-30 microns. An increase in vibrations was
observed in the load range of 0 to 16 MW (peak values were found to occur at
loads between 6 and 9 MW). The double amplitudes of these vibrations were:
thrust ·bearing supports-l 70 to 220 microns, turbine cover-l 35 microns.
The greatest accelerations of vibrations observed were as.follows: genera-
tor spider-O.l m/sec 2, thrust bearing supports-O.35 m/sec 2, turbine cover-
1.0 m/sec 2• These accelerations correspond to the components of vibrations
that have a frequency of 30 Hz.
During cavitation conditions the high-frequency components of vibra-
tions increase sharply (Fig. 7.10).
When a hydro unit operates as a synchronous condenser with the runner
out of the water its operation is quite smooth if there are no abnormalities
in the mechanical balancing of the rotors or defects in the electrical parts.
-
Fig. 7.10. Vibrations of 33 MW hydro unit:
a:-operation without cavitation; b:-operation under cavitation conditions: i-ver-
tical vibrations of load-bearing spider; 2-horizontal-radial vibrations of load-bearing
spider; 3-horizontaJ-radial vibrations of turbine bearing; 4-radial vibrations of
draft tube shell; 5-pressure fluctuations in draft tube; 6-vertica1 vibrations of
turbine bearing; 7-frequency of alternating current, SO Hz.
However, it may be noted that in many· cases the runner blades may be
periodically under water or may slice the surfaceleading to an increase in the
amplitude of vibrations of the hydro unit. This situation may occur either
when the change in the cross-sectional area of the draft tube is inadequate or
when there is a considerable amount of air leakage and fluctuations in the
water level in the tailrace.
Figure 7.11 shows the oscillogram of vibrations of a hydro unit at the

Kakhovsk power plant operating as a synchronous condenser with the tur-
bine runner immersed in water as well as out of it.
When the hydro unit runner is submerged the amplitude of vibrations, on
the average, is 2 to 2.5 times greater than when the turbine housing is drained
of all water.
Figure 7.12 shows the results of measurements in coordinates (f, 2A)
carried out for the double amplitude Of vibrations of various components of
the unit expressed as a function offunder steady state operating conditions.·
Due to the scatter of these points in field f, 2 it was not possible to
demarcate any typical zones pertaining to a particular type of turbine such
as PL (adjustable-blade), RO (radial-axial), etc. Nor was it possible to
delineate zones of different types of vibrations (vertical, horizontal).
1
.........-." .......,6,.' 4l'" .,.
.. ~
~
_.~.,4.
..."".... ~
_
8 b
Fig. 7.Il. Vibrations of hydro unit at Kakhovsk plant operating
as a synchronous condenser:
a-runner submerged in water; h-runner out of water: I-vertical vibra-
tions of turbine cover; 2-horizontal (radial) vibrations of upper genera-
tor spider; 3-horizontal (radial) vibrations of lower generator spider; 4-
vertical vibrations of lower generator spider; 5-horizontal (radial)
vibrations of turbine housing.
Figure 7.12 shows the lines of constant acceieration of vibrations which

are also expressed in terms of corresponding decibels.
It may be ascertaimid from the graph that the greatest acceleration of
vibrations measured during tests does not exceed 1 g or, in terms of decibels,
90 db. .
Statistical treatment· of the data enables us to establish the following
-The points shown in Figs. 7.12,7.25 and 7.29 have been taken from Tables 27 through
36 of the first edition of this book aiong with additional data obtained from later studies.
I
Frequency. vib{sec N
00
00
30
10
B ~
7
6
5
[
... §"
3
~
2 $
~
<:l
Fig. 7.12. Vibrations of hy- ~

dro units expressed in terms ...::::
of double amplitudes 2A as S·
function of frequencies f
under steady state condi-
=;'ii
tions:
-. _. - ·-vertical vibra-
tions; x - x - x -hori-
zontal-radial vibrations;
/':;. - /':;. - /':;.-horizontal-
tangential vibrations.
Frequency. vib{sec
(for steady state conditions):

1) The maximum repetition of frequencies of vibrations occurs in the
range of 20 to 40 db (embracing 31.4% of the points). Similarly the maxi-
mum number of points lie within a range of 10 to 80 microns of the double
amplitude. Of these 30.2% lie in the range of IO to 40 microns and 25.2% in
the range of 40 to 80 microns. When amplitudes up to 100 microns are
considered 78.5% of the points are in-
cluded in this zone.
2501~~~~~~~~~~~
2) The frequency distribution is Microns 2A
as follows: 10 Hz-76%. IO to 50 200
Hz-l 1.6%. 50 to 100 Hz-7.2% and
frequencies above lao Hz-5.2%.
Figures 7.13 through 7.15 show
the principal frequencies of the per-
turbation forces for various types of
hydro units. These Figures show the
..
double amplitude of vibrations plott- Ratio 01 frequency of vibratione
ed against the ratio f / fngmintJi under to rotationel frequency f v If n
steady state conditions. Fig. 7.13. Spectrum o(principal frequencies
of vibrations of hydro units under steady
Transient operating conditions state conditions (adjustable-blade turbines).
As stated earlier, the start-up of
a hydro unit is accompanied by several phenomena. These are:
I. Increase in deflection of the load-bearing spider (for vertical turbines)
in the vertical plane due to increase in the axial hydraulic force on the runner
when the wicket gates are opened to the value corresponding to that of no-
load operation (Fig. 7.16).
2. Appearance of variable frictional forces in the footstep (thrust collar)
Microns 2,6;
600
400
300
200
100
80
60 .
40
30 .
20
'I'nom
N N'"
_ 0.., N
0
0.5
,
CO; ,.:
7.96 -
N
14
Fig. 7.14. Spectrum of principal frequencies of vibrations of hydro
units under steady state conditions (radial-axial turbines).
and bearings at the instant of starting the unit. ...

Essentially this leads to an increase in the tangential component of vibra-
tions of the spider (Fig. 7.16).
According to tests conducted by the VNIIE on hydro units of the One-
provsk power plant the amplitudes of vibrations at the spider reached 670
30
MicronslA
20
10
1111
microns at a frequency of SO Hz with a damping time of 0.8 sec.
. I
0 .1 T
_ COClOC:O .. a:> CD N •
.aD.~
_ ... N
aD.DM
<0."
8.49.61617.9 30.4
Ralio 01 frequency of vibrations
to. rOlational frequency t" If n
-
Fig. 7.1S. Spectrum of principal frequencies of vibrations of
hydro units under steady state conditions (pelton wheel turbines).
.3. Increase in the radial component of vibrations of the load-bearing

spider and the turbine bearing with increasing turning speed due to residual
imbalance of the turbine and generator rotors.
4. In adjustable-blade turbines, during start-up the runner blades begin
turning on their axes (transition to automatic speed regulation). The flow
around the proffies of the runner
blades during this phase is so poor
that it leads to increased vibrations.
During the start-up of Pelton
wheel turbines, when the rotor is
being brought to its normal speed,
resonance conditions may develop at
which the frequency of vibrations
set up due to the action of the jet
on the buckets' coincides with the
natural frequency of torsional vibra~
tions of the shaft (Fig. 7.17).
Usually a hydro unit is switched
Fig. 7.16. Oscillogram taken during start-up into the grid either by precise manual
of hydro unit VGS-525/114-40. Vibrations synchronization or by self-synchroni-
of upper spider of generator: zation.
l-borizontal-tangential; 2-vertical; 3-
horizontal radial: A-increase in deflec-
The switching of a hydro unit into
lion of spider; B-relaxation oscillations at the grid by the method of self.synch-
the commencement of rotation of rotor. ronization is illustrated by the osciI-
logram shown in Fig. 7.18. It is characteristic of the umbrella type of gene-

rators that the forces from the stator are transmitted to the foundations. In
this case the load-bearing spider is subjected to a load which is smaller (Fig.
7.180) than that in the case of pendant-type generators (Fig. 7.18b).
I I I
Frequency 36 Hz
o 2 en 3 n 4 5 6 7 8 .9 10 11
Time, sec
Fig. 7.17. Oscillogram obtained during start-up of Pelton wheel turbine:
M,...--torque on turbine shaft; z-vertical vibrations of generator stator; Ht-tangen-
tial vibrations of generator stator; H,-radial vibrations of generator stator; Qr-
displacement of turbine baffle; Oo-opening of jet nozzles; n-speed
of turbine shaft.
-,
The amplitudes of vibrations increase during switching in of the unit.
The vibrations are damped out during self-synchronization.
The maximum amplitudes obtained from measurements reach SOO microns
- at the spider and generator stator.

Figure 7.19 shows the printout from the BESM-4 computer for the hori-
zontal-tangential vibrations of the load-bearing spider of the No. 1 unit at the
Tkibul'sk power plant during self-synchronization.
The proce~s x(t) is shown in Fig. '7.19b. Fig. 7.19a shows the distribution
and density functions of maximum amplitudes with reference to an arbitrary
datum AB. Fig. 7.19c shows these same quantities for displacements. Fig.
7.19d shows the correlating function of the process. The graph shows com-
ponents of vibrations having a rotational frequency of 10 Hz. The first zero
value of the function occurs at To = 0.14 sec.
The tangential components of vibrations at the spider and stator attain
their largest magnitudes during load rejection. In this case the amplitudes of
tangential vibrations exceed those occurring during self-synchronization. Fig.
7.20 shows an oscillogram of vibrations for the initial moment of load
rejection.
The· frequency of the damped tangential vibrations corresponds to the
natural frequency of torsional vibrations of the stator considered as a cylind-
rical shell fixed at its lower rim.
The variation in axial hydraulic force acting on the shaft of the hydro unit
is shown in Fig. 7.2]0. These tests were conducted on a hydro unit of 5S MW
operating at a head of 17.8 m. The turbine was an adjustable-blade one.
The load rejected during tests was 27 MW.
It can be seen from the oscillogram that during the process of load shed-
ding the axial load changes from - 600, acting in a downward direction before
load reduction to + 560 tons acting upward after the load is reduced. After
,
IV
~
"<:::
~
).
1 revolution of shaft
J: ~ 1 A
lib
L.. I.
1 0.1 sec
~... ...--- ~ -eL ....
§.
~
$
~
c
~
~.
,S·
;.....----:
32.7 microns T =0.02 sect 11.9 microns T=0.52 sec ~
""0
Circuit breaker switched on a
b
\'
Instant when OCB is switched
in during self-SVnchronization
Fig. 7.18. Oscillogram obtained during self-synchronization of hydro units:
a-osciJlograph obtained during switching of hydro unit into grid by self-synchronization: power output of genera-
tor, 20,000 kW; umbrella-type generator with adjustable-blade turbine: I-rpm counter; 2-radial vibrations of
lower spider; J-tangential vibrations of lower spider; 4-vertical vibrations of spider; 5-tangential vibrations of
generator stator; 6-radial vibrations of generator stator; b-oscillograph obtained during switching of 40 MW hydro
unit iDto grid by self-synchronization: pendant-type generator with Pelton wheel turbine: I-vertical vibrations of
lower bearing housing; 2-horizontal-radial vibrations of lower bearing; J-tangeDtiai vibrations of lower bearing;
4-vertical vibrations of generator spider; 5-radial vibrations of spider.
I
.-
)( .-
EO o )(
~..; '-$:
4lm(X)'
c\J(X)
WmiX)
'---I-.l
...... ... ...o ...0
CXl co ~
00 0
N 0 CXlCO
00
00 0
~
0
! ! ! , !
, W(X)
, ,
a c: )(
<II
c:
~ ><
N
q
0
~
q
0
co
0
0 0
CXl
0 ... ... ...
0
0
N
0
~
0
co
.- CXl
0 0
.-
E
'~I
u
E
)(
E ·E
o
o X
J C
"u
A i oo(N
~
~
B
,
1.0 'I
~
I N I ,
R(r)/Ro(r)
0.8 0 1.0 2.0 2.1
b ....:::-
0.6
0.4 \ A.
~
\} ;\
0.2
, 0.2 0.5
A
II ... !/" ..... .-1.. l\. L.h'\
Q
111
....~
~
o 0.1 \ j \ 0.3 0.41'\. 0.6 0.7 0.8 ......- ~.!&... I rvv 1.3 1.4 sec
-0.
,
<;:)
~ ;:
-0.
\ 0\ Y ~
-0. 5 \11 V Q"
!}
ro= 0.140 sec d
Fig. 7.19. Horizontal-tangential vibrations of load-bearing spider of No. I unit at 51
Tkibul'sk power plant during self-synchronization:
a-density and distribution functions of maximum amplitudes with reference to arbitrary datum line; b-curve
representing process x(t)-horizontal-tangential vibrations of load-bearing spider; c-density function and
-
I:;
~.
displacement distribution; d-correlating function. IV

'0
W
294 Vibration 0/ Hydro Units in HPP
load shedding, when the unit was running on no load, the axial hydraulic
force was approximately equal to 82 tons.
In order to process the curve of the function x(t) on the BESM-4 comput-
er, 718 ordinates were chosen. These were measured from the arbitrarily select-
ed datum line AB. These ordinates were then transferred to pu~ched cards.
1
::
~ I: i1: ~ ~ .'C:='4-L
~- ~;; iii'
. Iii
2Yt11NN1~!:1Nf, ==========
W++t§fFii§
1
0.1 sec
Fig. 7.20. Oscillogram recorded during rejection of nominal load of 37.5 MW from
generator of Khramsk power plant-I: l-torque on turbine shaft; 2-stator current;
-
3-rotational frequency (speed); 4-vertical vibrations of stator housing; 5-dis-
placement of deflector needle; 6-tangential vibrations of stator housing; 7-radial
vibrations of stator housing; 8-rotor current; 9-vertical vibrations of supporting
spider; lO-radial vibrations of s\lpporting spider.
Figure 7.21b shows the histogram and the displacement density function
with respect to the lineAR. Fig. 7.21c shows these curves once again for the
maximum displacements of the process with respect to AB. It can be seen
from the Figure that the density function is close to that of the law of normal
distribution. .
The correlating function 6f the process is shown in Fig. 7.21d spanning
24 seconds of the process. The first zero of the function R (1') occurs at
1'0=6.48 sec.
According to the data given in [38J, when a 74 MW load was shed by the
hydro unit of the Bukhtarminsk power plant, which has a diagonal turbine,
the vertical vibrations observed at the turbine cover had a double amplitude
2A equal to 185 microns and the amplitude of the radial vibrations was 2A
equal to 370 microns (frequency equal to that of the turning speed at maxi-
mum amplitude). The maximum amplitudes of vibrations of the generator
spider were: in the vertical direction 2A = 205 microns, in the radial direction
2A = 105 microns.
Transient electrical processes. These processes are often met with during
operation of a hydro unit. Transient processes such as short circuiting,
asynchronous operation, etc. bring about severe vibration of the stator and
spider of the generator which adversely affect the strength and rigidity of the
hydro unit. The vibrations recorded under these operating conditions are
given below.
I
~B
40 50 60 70 ~O 90 100 110 sec
a
. R{t)/RO{t)
-
--,
~
......... ~
~
W(X)
.....
.., ",
.,...., ic::
r Q
':"(~) 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22. 23 sec ~
b
..... , . . . . . ,
0
I , ,
c-. q- co co ... N -0.2
00000'" .
....... .,., Q
o
- "'~
-0.4
"'I'--... V
~-0.6 ....... JI.
",
'"
"'e-
0 .8
"$. d
§
~
~
~
c
-
N"""CDCO-N
C!C!C!C!0r: ~
0000 0
Fig. 7.21. Variation in axial hydraulic force on shaft of turbine I'LSIO (adjustable-blade turbine) during rejection ofload of 27.8 MW:
o'
~
a-process x(t), variation inaxial-bydraulic force; b-density and displacement distribution functions over '"
interval (xm"",-Xmin); c-density function and distribution of maxima of process measured witb respect to I'-J
\0
arbitrary datum line; d~orrelating function of process. loA
The most severe operating conditions for hydro units are those occurring
during start-up when the rotor is accelerated. Under these conditions the
forces appearing are those due to imbalance of the rotating mass and hydrau-
lic forces. The former principally affect the horizontal component of vibra-
tions and the latter, which are transmitted to the runner, affect the vertical
vibrations of the unit.
Load 18.07 MW Short circuit on

Sl8n·up of unil Self -synchronization
5=65\\;. 'l'~ +6· 110 kV line
':.
kg/em 2
~.
kg/e",Z kgje",2
~ 10 10 I I I
'C
...,,- 12.6 kg/e",21!\
.
§
~
;; 10
0
10 10
0
10 l
-io'"
.5 TT
::- ~~II
kg/e",Z kg/f:lIIZ
..
! I I
c: 0 10 13 kg/e",
1-
,: ~
E 1./ I_I- JT.
i... 0 0
0 10 10
10
en
!
20 '"
'. ':.
kg/e",Z kg/c",Z kg/c",Z kg/c",Z
'C '"c: 10 10
0 0 0
~
Ii 10 10 10 10
';
0
""
~. 10.
8.
'"
~
20
H)
...:.
kll/e",Z
L..
io'"
kg/c",Z
10
17 kg/e",Z
10
kg/c",Z
10
10
If
.... rr I
20.5 kg/e",Z
\ I
:mmm '. ':. ':Emm

·r
II
;;
kg/c",Z kg/e",Z kg/em 2 kg/c",Z
iE
!
= o 2 4 6 8 10 lZ
10
00.2 0.8 I 1.4
10
00.2 0.6 1 1.4
10
00.2 0.8 1 1.4 18
Ti",•. sec Time. sec Time. lee Tim •. sec
Fig. 7.22. Vibration in stresses in components of bulb-type hydro unit at Kievsk power plant under
For instance, at the Gor'kovsk power plant the vertical vibrations of the
turbine cover during start-up acceleration reached 750 microns as against 75
microns during normal operating conditions.
Such periodic vibrations in the rigid turbine cover invariably result in
Unit withdrawn from

Load shedding Asynchronous operalion synchronism wilh grid
kg{cm 2
WI""'"'
kg:cm 2 kg l cm 2
30
I 1=141015 Hz. 20 I
•
20 20
10
0 ~
....
N
E
u
'"-I
10
0
10
20
o
10
10
20 I
~~ ~F
I
r-r-!-
30 I 30
kg!cm 2 kg{cm2.
0 N kg/cm 2 00
I I I I 300 III I I I
10 E 150
',:=.'4.7 Hz .!:!. I I I 1=1410 IS Hz
......'" 'jog0011'' ' '"'

20 f- 100
IS~SO
II
30
-
I
~:
40r- l,;'
SO f- lOa
60r-
I....
i;'" 100 200 IIIf I
70 f- I I
80
ISO
I [" ~~~ [1'1 I
kg'cm 2
10
. E
kg/cm 2
10
kglcm 2
20
1/1-14101SHz
.!:!. III I
...'" 10
~
0 ID 0 0
I"
10
10
r 10 20
I 1'1 I
kglcm 2 kglcm 2 kglcm2.

150
~~".,",'
300
::'- I I I 1=141015Hz 200 Ilt-14101SHz
100
.~~tO~.:
1 I
15~so
401-
30 I- 11" T"J.
20 31 krlCI~1 I 100 1111 I
10 I I I 100 200 I
0 150 300
kg/cm 2
1ijf'"""'
kg/cm 2 kg/cm Z
20
'&I
1-1410 15 ~
10
0 II I II
10 . 10 10 I
20 I 20
o 2 4 , 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time. sec Time. lee TIme, sec
various operating conditions (O--correspoDds to stress level before change of operating conditions).
298 Vibration oj Hydro Units in HPP
Slart-up of unir I Sel'...aynchroniulion I LOld 18.07 MW

5=651.9=+5' I Short circuit on
110 kV Ilnl
5. . ~J
~~~ I~a
'(
10 ~g
'l: 9,
. ';'"
j)P 80
70 60
'-17
5I
9-' -t-
f
°"'60
~,...
.1 f
. L 10
50 V ,' 60 50 . 50f-'1- • L
040 50 040 040 ".or- 0
"'
c' 30 5,... 40 .5_ 30 30
.... -10 20 ,.... 30 20 20
'10'0 -10
10 20 9'-r- 10
0 i"'" V
,
10 0 0
-20 '20 'l(J
-
0
Jm. sid. wI'er m. SId. Wltef', m. sid waler m. std. water
i
~ .. 13.00 1.00
E ;;
<; ~
~;
I 1.00 1,00
'" J
~,;
o ;;
~~12,OO .. 0.00
;~ I .! 0 0 1/ I'
5"i '1.00~ ; 1.0
1,00
Ii: C"'.!"S ..00
o ..
--
-
m. !!ltd. water m. ltd. wlter m. ltd. water m. std. water
9.00
~
c
c c
~ ~
~ . 8.00 li
;; 3.00
-J"c ~ 1.00 1.00
.8~ 2.00
~
7.00
QP'
:i;
~
0.0 '0 I-r- h ~
-
~'"
'I E ~ E~
6.00
......
~-
~
'j 5.00
j
.
'" 1.0 1.00
1.00 1-1-:-
0
N"';
1-1- ,t'iiii " ~
"'"
m. std waler m, s.. d. water m. ltd water m. sid. water --
f I ~
~
c
c 4.0 I ~ 1.00 1.0C
E J
",,,; 1,00
2 ~
E;o ci ;;
~ 1/ II"
300
I
,... ",J
G':!-o
0;
0.0
~ ;- I-
0
r- ;;
0
"
" I i
.~ 2.00 1,001- E J_t-+-' t-'- -1.0 -1.00r- E ;;
ci: 1.00
ll>
l- ,,; ~-t-+-' r- r-~ J'
••••••••
0
-'--
0'; mm I
-"
c .. 1.00 , 1 00r-r- ,,~
E'":
I
' . I-r- li 3
I'~:;;~
I- ~ ~l
I I
8§ "E ~~ I I
~o
a.; Ol-~ I-~
II
+ f-H
I
~>
Q'<: .... ~
II
o 2. 6 10 12 o 0.2 0.6 1.4 00,2 06 1 1.4 o 0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8
Tlm~, sec Time. sec Time. sec Time. seC
Fig. 7.23. Variations in pressure and other parameters in the flow passage of the
Load sheddIng
I oA.svnchronous opera loOn. 12 MW
I U,ul wilhdrswn from
synchronism wllh grid
-i
'0 -f';: '-; ~n
n',1
"" %
17il80
~ \If:
% ~D
15lJ80
,
10
60 70 '0
fQ
....... I\. """c 14050'
60
, 4{J II •• SO .......
.... 1\....... ""'" ) ~
050
.- ,-.
(p"
0
fO
10
gO
.... 120 JO
s
,... 1""0,"-
/1IHO
11 !J
, . ::::..-. -
10 1/ IIOlO 10
I ,2: - .... '10
0 10 010
90 0 80 0 '20
~ater
14IJfJ
m. sId. wale. m. sId. wale. -
I
6IJfl I I I I
.6m. sId. waler· I ~-
I/~
,J I2PO
.... "PO ~~ I- 12.] mj 't tilerl-
"PO
/
l/
/i 11.~
- 'aDO
I I
1.6m. sId. wale.
--- tJPJ
m. SId. wale,
.... m. std. w,ler
;
m. sId. wale,
a:o
-
-1PO
I I
3.1 m. sId. wale, I' Ii 1.69 m. lid. wiler
ItPO 1 WIJ
I
0
, - ~ .- ....
-
'/ 1/ IQtXl !OD 1\ I"
100 e
\ / i' ~II \
.::; '.DO
2.DO
" .. I\. II
8PO 6.DO
n:t:""iiCf'Wa I er m. sId walel m. std. wale' -

I I I 4.00
I Ii I I I I I I I I
-1.00 r 2.6m. sid, wa 8' .95m"sld. wall' 1'\
2PO - l - I I I I I
1.Q() .05m. sid. waler
0
./ I.CO
, I
1/ I'. ~ 1.1 m. ltd. water
-IJ)O \
\ /
'lJO
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0
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---
mm
0
. .:...- mm
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-
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..... I I -. . --
'C! aJO ....., ;/ ..
, ,. -..
--I -.. 'C~ 1--
roo I",
~
....... 1.00 !/
..... "S ....., 1-;-
1'\ 0 ..
.. 1 .... """ ..~
llJO
f'J' f -- 0
~"
.....
0 ..
.c
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I"
0 .. 1-....
.c 1-....
1
o 6 8 o o
Time. sec
10 6 8 10
'" J4 18
Time. sec
"tl.c 5 8 10
Time. lie
bulb turbine hydro unit at Kievsk power plant under various operating conditiops.
300 Vibration of Hydro Units in HPj'
severe stresses in the material which may reach the upper limit. Under normal
load conditions these stresses are 7.5 to 10 times smaller. During experimen-
tal checks on the No.3 hydro unit at the Kievsk power plant, A.M. Smirnov
(ORGRES) [103J obtained some interesting data regarding vibrations and
stresses under various conditions of operation. The hydro unit of this plant
was of the horizontal bulb type. Figs. 7.22 through 7.24 show the vibrations
under various operating conditions, the stresses in the individual components
of the unit monitored through strain gauge pick-ups and the nature of vari-
ation in the pressure in the flow passage of the turbine. Wherever frequency
variation of the process is shown in these Figures the curve representing the
process has been 'arbitrarily sketched in. However, the overall time taken by
these variations has been correctly represented.
. The operating conditions of the unit were as follows: start-up acceleration,
self-synchronization, on-load operation at 18.07 and 16.5 MW, short circuit-
ing of the llO kV line, load shedding (18.9 MW), asynchronous operation
and withdrawal of the unit synchronism.
It may be observed from these Figures that the peak values of the para-
meters in question occur during load shedding and transient electrical
process.
•
. Thus the maximum double amplitude of vibrations during rejection of
18.9 MW load was 800 microns in the longitudinal direction at the thrust
collar. The transverse vibrations of the turbine bearing had a double ampli-
tude of 300 microns. Meantime the vertical vibration of the turbine bearing
was found to be 180 microns. The maximum change in the stresses.in the
stator columns during load shedding was 80 kgfcm 2 •
The double amplitude of stress variations in the stator columns, equal to
800 kgfcm 2, occurred when the unit was withdrawn from synchronism.
The natural frequency of the bulb unit was found to be between 14 and
15 Hz.
Figure 7.25 shows maximum values of the double amplitudes of vibrations .
recorded during transient operation of various types of hydro units. The
double amplitude is represented on the ordinate and the frequency on the
abscissa of these graphs. Lines of constant vibrational acceleration are also
shown in this Figure along with the corresponding values in decibels.
It can be seen from this Figure that the maximum value of acceleration
of vibrations during transient conditions does not exceed 2 g or 95 db in
terms of noise level.
A statistical analysis of all the points in the Figure enables one to estab-
lish the following distribution:
1) in terms of noise level:
up to 20 db-14.9%; from 20 to 40 db-20.6%; from 40 to 60 db-24.8%;
from 60 to 80 db-27.2%; from 80 to 95 db-12.5%. Thus 87.5% of the
points are located below the 80 db noise level.
Lood
Sel'-synchroniza.ion 18.5 MW On·line
.hon circuit
Short circuit on
110 kV line
Load drop 18.91 MW.
TlI=16s8C
;;":.§'.M'Clono •
M
c r. oM,cronOl1lll
n . . M'clon ~~ '~14.5H~
~H
~~~.
0 IJ 0 0 ~ o~'''e'E~~~~f:r1
"'-5
Microns ;cr ns Mlc .. ic one Mic' "I
- IlOIIH-++H+-lIJ'a1I-++-IH-++-II<t1t7t-H-++H-I11IXJ'H-++H-++H-i liWlH+-Hf=l;-f-;.L-.l-t-i
a.. lr-1-++':,;:;..14,.5 sep,
I 1
'~.§ IIlIJH-+-+-t-jf-+-1 f .000-+-++--hH-II!(JfJH-+-++-+-,H I tJOH-+-+-+-H-I--+-+-11 .tl1Hr-+-,H-+-+-r.H H-I
~.!
n J Pt""f''H--t==1f''+-~ I p ~ ~~~~~Ell IJH-H-+-R-~+-J 1J1!+1~~'" ~
i: -5 jI:l1l--f-H-+++-I J 1II11--f-H-+++-i IIXJH-+++-t-1HIIllUl-+-H-+++-+-H-I "
H-++t-i-+-i I
~ 0 I'-~-f-++++-+-i 11llUl-+-+-HH-+-i 21l'1--++++-+-H lail!ll-+++-+-HH-++-lI<-llII-+-+++*JHH-+--f
C -
• Microns Microns Microns Micran. ~ronl ~1tTt:Il-rIHt-tr-,

,~ ~ Im1l--t-1H-+++-i 1.\?I1I-t-1H-+++-lIa.l~H-+-++-+-";'IIII--++-+-H-+-++-+-1 ,~ Hz
.a ';: m.~-+-+-+-H-II1li!t-t-++++-J-t "WI-++-iH-+-H I ",..-1HH-+-t.-H-+-H ,11J .. "'~
'''.i IJpltOll'lloPVJ'M~wt
~;; IJII1~~~:j;;;J;;H 1JI-"l=lllH.::looIIM+¥H iJ'.....
'02
.-
~-5
C 0
o
..J
- :!0 "
~.§
.2;-
'"G 1lG
.Microns
0
-'" ..
.;;• :sC
c-
G-
o::
0
_.§'MicB,ons.
M'clon
III ..
-65.8
.;c,on .'CIO/. M~icrons
ca !DO ,,1tJIJ lID
,~';~p 0 'IJ IJ IJ
~.a:a
~ 'i 11» .a
Iii . _ -
'0
.-.
_'Or~c.rono
Microns
'~_2~ 0
~~~
,e C rlJO
._-
·2
~H ~_icrons _Microns
..
;Jo=t!
~
- il IJ I1J IJ.§ ,
Time. IMC
1,4 II 1J.1 OS ,
Time. lee
1.4 1111 OS r
Time. He
1,4 00,; IJ4 , (41,8
Time. Me
IJ 1 6 8 :0
Time. I~
Fig. 7.24. Variation in vibrations of different components of bulb turbine hydro unit
at Kievsk power plant under various operating conditions.
I
103
7
8
• , \ .,,
~
o
N
6 -.:::
5
\. \ '\ \ 1\ 0:-
\ r\ \ \ \ r is
4
x~
§.
r'\ \ \
~
3I ~
~ 1\
1\
1\ • ~ i 1\ i\ $
'"g 2
\x ~
u ~.~ x
"\ ! fx lC
l\ ~
"E x ~ ~
~
b
-i
N
,, 6.
,,
6.
[\ f\ ~.
S·
-3::J 102 ,,
:E
~
8
7
A \
,
x
, , ~,
~
"tl
~ lC \.
: 6
:g 5
II; \ \ 6.
• \ '\ \
o
o 4
\ • r'\ \ II;
\ 1\ \
3I
\ II; r\ ! ~ i\ \ \
1\ ,
~V
6.
~9=iOdb
2,
\ \ I\.
~\
~nrrrt '\OOT40( "oo5T~Otr,~
"
6.
6.
N \
0.5g=80 db
'\9=95db
10 1 lC " AI J r-. f
, 10° 2 3 4 5 6 78910' 20 30 40 5060708010 2 200 300 400 600 800 Hz
Frequency osc/sec
Fig. 7.25. Graph of vibrations of hydro units represented in terms of double amplitude (2A) and frequency (f)'
coordinates for operation under transient conditions:
. - . - . -vertical vibrations; x - x - x -horizontal-radial vibrations; t:, - t::. - f::, -horizontal-tangential vibrations.
2) in terms of double amplitudes of vibration, 2A:

up to 50 microns-40%; from 50 to 100 microns-20.8%; from 100 to
200 microns-20.0%; from 200 to 400 microns-12.8% and 400 microns and
above-6.4%, i.e. nearly 80% of the points obtained during transient opera-
tion represent a double amplitude of less than 200 microns.
3) in terms of the frequency of vibrations,j:
from I to 10 Hz-45%; from 10 to 50 Hz-22%; from 50 to 100 Hz-28%
and 100 Hz and above-5%.
Most of the frequencies of vibrations lie in the range of 100 Hz which
accounts for 95% of all the fundamental frequencies measured during these
tests.
7.2 Pressure Variation in Flow Passage of Turbine
Under transient conditions, as under normal loads, the pressure varia-

tions in the turbine flow passage do not always have a periodic component.
Quite often the pressure in the flow passage of the turbine (Fig. 7.1, sections
-
Il, III and V) depends on the opening of the wicket gates.
At sections I considerable pressure variations occur during loading and
unloading of the hydro unit. For low-head power plants the maximum
change in pressure may be assumed to be a 30% increase above the static
head during unloading and a 25% decrease during loading of the hydro unit.
The rise or fall in pressure (during unloading or loading) occurs over a period
of 5 to 8 sec from the instant the operating conditions change. The periodic
components of pressure variations have a frequency between I and 1.5 Hz.
The constant pressure component at sections II and III changes mostly
due to the adjustment in the wicket gate opening and to the hydraulic shocks
that occur during transient conditions and cavitation regimes of operation.
During transient conditions the pressure at sections II and III changes
from positive to negative values during the time taken for regulation (on the
average, from 3 to 8 sec). Meantime the amplitude of pressure variations
may reach the total design head of the unit. The periodic components of
pressure that occur during regulation have a frequency ranging from I to 25
Hz with an amplitude not exceeding 25 to 28% of the static .head at low
frequencies and 10% at high frequencies.
There are no data available for the pressure variations occuring at section
IV. However, model tests carried out by V.S. Kvyatkovskii [52] show that
the pressure pulsations at this section occur at blade frequencies with ampli-
tudes corresponding to the pressure difference between the pressure and suc-
tion sides of the blade profile at the periphery of the runner. The pressure
pulsations are found to be rather high at maximum load on the hydro unit.
They severely hamper the working of the built-up sections of the turbine.
The pressure variation at section V (entrance of the draft tube) is charac-
terized by a change in the vacuum from 0 to 95m of static head while load is
increased. During transient conditions (load shedding) the pressure variation
here may range from vacuum to positive pressures brought about by the
reversal of pressure due to hydraulic shock in the draft' tube or due to the
pumping action of the turbine.
It is observed that a considerable positive pressure rise occurs in the draft
tube when the quick-closing gates (if they are located at the exit) are shut
while the hydro unit is still in synchronism with the grid or when the unit is
being brought to full speed.
In this situation the hydro unit goes into the propeller regime and some-
times the rotor surfaces are out of the water due to the pressure difference bet-
ween the two sides of the runner blades despite its considerable weight. In
adjustable-blade turbines this phenomenon is sometimes observed during
start-up of the unit and variation of load on the generator over a particular
range.
The total time needed for a change in pressure at section V during transi-
ent regimes varies from 3 to 8 sec.
If the governing system undergoes oscillaticns (this period is usually 1 to
-
5 sec) during a particular transient process the ',lressure variations at section
V have the same periodicity.
The periodic components of the pressure variations at section V have a
frequency close to 0.5 to I.5 Hz. Pressure pulsations at ver,y high frequencies
(25 Hz and above) and amplitudes not exceeding 25% of the vacuum under
normal load conditions have been observed in a number of instances.
Except for one hydro unit (8 m diame'ter runner) at the Verkhne-Svirsk
power plant pressure pulsations were not checked at section VI. The oscillo-
gram of pressure variations obtained for a 75% load on the unit is shown in
Fig. 7.26. It may be seen from this Figure that the frequency of pressure
pulsations at this section is 4.18 (blade frequency) and the maximum ampli-
tude corresponds to 50% of the mean pressure prevailing here for the given
load conditions.
The level of water at section VII usually depends on the operating
conditions of the unit in' question and of the entire power plant. There is a
sharp change in this level during pre-
flood and postfiood periods.
At some power plants the periodic
components of level fluctuations at
section VII vary by as much as 0.5 to
1 m at frequencies of a fraction of a
I'" 5 sec _I
Hz (with a period of 5 sec) and
Fig. 7.26. Oscillogram of pressure variations
higher. It' should be noted that the
at sectioo VI (see Fig. 7.1) of draft tube at amplitude of pressure pulsations at
'75% of oomioalload. the exit of the draft tube mostly
Results of Checks on Blade ~ibrations ' 305
depends on the constructional features of the draft tube and the turbine, on
the water level in the exit section by comparison with that in the tailrace and
on the operating conditions of the hydro unit. Apart from this, the shape of
the draft tube exit in the tail-waters also has a significant influence on the
level fluctuations at section VII. Unfortunately sufficient data are not avail-
able on this interesting aspect of the normal operation of turbines.
Figure 7.27 shows the results obtained from calculation of the pressure
variations at the upper surface of the draft tube for various operating condi-
tions (in terms of mean values of pressures). It can be seen from this Figure
that the maximum pressure variation at the upper surface of the draft tube
occurs when the entire load is rejected by the hydro unit (from a vacuum of
9 m of water to a pressure corresponding to 1.3 Hnominal).
In these calculations of pressure variations at the upper boundary of the-
draft tube one must also take into account the periodic components
superposed on the averaged value.
1.4
- ... ----~.: .....

6' .....
..... .....
!J
VI
E
a;
5
VI
VI
£ -10
Fig. 7.27. Variation in pressure and vacuum at upper boundary of draft tube for
various operating conditions and two different levels of tailwaters:
I and I'-first phase of pressure variations during total load rejection; 2 and 2'-
second phase of pressure variations. during total load rejection; 3 and 3'~uring
acceleration; 4 and 4'-during normal full-load operation; 5 and 5'-during no-load
operation.
Figure 7.23 shows the results of checks on pressure pulsations in a horizon-

.tal bulb turbine unit at the Kievsk power plant. During these tests the oscilIo';
gram of pressure pulsations was obtained at the following points [103]: ahead
of the wicket gates, in the space between the wicket gates and the runner and
downstream of the runner. The maximum pressure rise before the wicket
gates during load rejection was equal to L1H=2.7 m, which is 24.5% of the
static head of 11 m at the plant. The periodic component of pressure varia-
tions before the wicket gates was not constant. The pressure variation after
the wicket gates was found to be L1H = 3.1 m. The pressure pulsations attain
their maximum value about 2 sec after rejection of load.
Downstream of the runner the pressure initially rises and thereafter falls
to a vacuum.
During on-load operation of the hydro unit the periodic component of the
pressure variations in the region downstream of the runner was found to at-
tain a constant value. The frequency of pressure pulsations was equal to
5.4 Hz and their amplitude was 0.3 m of static head of water.
Summarizing, it may be said that under steady state operating conditions
the computed values of the pressure pulsations in the turbine flow passage
may be expressed in terms of the static head at the unit as given below:
Upstream of wicket gates (section I) , " up to 10%
-
Between wicket gates and runner (section II) '" , up to 30%
Before runner (section III) ,., up to 50%
In runner housing (section IV) -, , , .up to 130%
At entrance section of draft tu be (section V) , up to 25%
In elbow of draft tube (section VI) , ,., , , up to 75%
At exit section of draft tube (section VII) up tol5%
As stated earlier, the principal frequencies of pressure pulsations under

full-scale tests were' found to be those corresponding to the blade frequencies
and the frequency of vortex shedding (plaited vortex).
According to data gathered by the Scientific Research Sector of the
Hydroproject Institute during tests carried out on the hydro unit at the
Saratovsk power plant the frequencies of various harmonics of pressure pul-
sations in the flow passage of the turbine were: 0.1 to 0.5; 0.83; 3.3; 5.0; 6.7;
10; 13.3 Hz and higher. The principal frequencies were 0.83 and 3.3 corres-
ponding to the angular frequency of rotation and the blade frequency
respectively.
The maximum values of pressure pulsations in the load range of 16 to 62
MW at heads ranging from 9 to 12 m of water were found to be: section 1-
0.7 m; II, III and V -0.9 m. With the hydro unit operating smoothly (at loads
of 26 to 35 MW, 9.7 m head)' the pressure pulsations measured were: section
1-0.2 m; sections II and III-0.3 m and section V-o.l m of static water
head. The pressure pulsations were found to be maximum when the load
on the unit was between 0 and 16 MW (peak pulsations occurred between
6 and 9 MW loads) ~nd was found to be 6.5 m below the turbine:: cover.
The frequency of pressure pulsations at all sections was 0.8 Hz and 6.7 to
10 Hz. Apart from this a frequency of 0.3 Hz was observed at sections land
V and at sections II and III between 13 and 30 Hz. According to data obtain-
ed by the M.l. Kalinin Polytechnic Institute in Leningrad the pressure pul-

sations downstream of the runner of the model turbine of the Krasnoyarsk
power plant a~ a head of60 m and a load of 125 MW were equal to 7.5 m of
static water head. Operating conditions got rough when the load on the hydro
units equals 50% of the maximum for each value of the static water head on
.the turbines. Tests showed that the zone of operation without pressure
pulsations lay in the range 88 to 100% of the power output at all heads. It
was established that the pressure pulsations in the turbine flow passage at low
heads could be considerablyreduced if the unit was operated at the maximum
power output conditions corresponding to the head.
In certain cases the pressure variations at different sections of the flow
passage under unsteady state conditions may be appreciably higher than those
descri~ed above. High-frequency components of pressure pulsations (50 Hz
and above) may appear during the course of the transient process. These
. high-frequency components are governed by the velocity with which shock
waves propagate along the flow passage and the conditions under which the
hydro unit operates. For instance, during acceleration of the hydro unit at
- the Gor'kovsk power plant it was observed tbat the pressure pulsations were
accompanied by higb-frequency components (25 Hz) with a double amplitude
~ of 1.44 m, which was nearly 10% oftbe static head.
From the generalized results of the tests run by the M.l. Kalinin Poly-
technic Institute in Leningrad on model turbines of the Krasnoyarsk power
plant· it can be seen that the amplitude of pressure pulsations in the flow
passage during acceleration of the unit may be as much as 29% of the static
head. . -
It is obvious that if one requires precise information regarding amplitudes
and frequencies of pressure pulsations in the turbine flow passage, further
tests need to be carried out both on models and on prototypes. In all such
research the runner diameter of the model turbine should not be less than
460 mm and the head at the turbine should be as close as possible to that
under actual operating conditions [115, 116].
Figure 7.28b illustrates the effect on pressure pulsations of radial vibra-
tions at a point on the upper surface of the penstock pipe. These observations
were obtained for the 4,500 mm diameter penstock pipe of the Aktepinsk
power plant when the load on the hydro unit was 10 MW. The results ob-
tained from the analysis of the vibrogram on the BESM-4 electronic computer
are also shown in this Figure. The maximum double amplitude of the envel-
oping traces is 272 microns, the amplitude of vibrations being 136 microns.
The mean square error was found to be 62 microns.
The density function does not correspond to the normal distribution law
·Kazantsev, B.E. and Tananaev, A.V.: Laboratory testS on operating conditions of
hydro units of the Krasnoyarsk power plant at low heads during start-up-Trudy LPI im,
M.I. Kalinin No. 312, 1971.
I
w
o00
II)
c
[...
X(I) o
------·ETI-------
U g'
~
~
~
Cl
Wm(X) ~
W(X) ~.
...... to
000
000
It) .....
0000
("')N-
o 0 0 0 AL..d! i .L.-.-i. dB
-o
o
N
o
o
""
o
o
'<l'
0
0
$'
b 1.0 R(T)/RO(T) 0 1 2 3 4 sec

c ~"ti
O.B~ - a
0.6........ I I.
:.~ 'I I ,
'0 "'\ 0.2 0.3 ./ 1",- t
-02 0.1 ~ 0.4 0.5 0.6/0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1'- 1.2 sec
-0:4 Tn=0.176 sec -...;.... ~ I I 'f-.,..
d
Fig. 7.28. Radial vibrations at highest point on upper half of penstock pipe at Aktepinsk power plant with load of 10 MW on hydro
unit: a-process x(l) representing radial vibrations of penstock pipe shelJ; b---density function and maKima distribution of process
curve with respect to arbitrary datum line A-B; c-<!ensity function and displacement distribution in interval
(xma.. -Xml,.); d-correlating function of process.
Results '01 Checks on Blade Vibrations. 309
(Figs. 7.28a and c). The maximum of the function is displaced downward by
60 microns with respect to the center line of the process.
High-frequency components of 50 Hz and low-frequency components
of 1.25 Hz can be identified on the correlating function of the vibrations. -
The first zero of the correlating function occurs at 't'o =0.175 seconds. The
oscillations of the function R('t'), with a period of 0.8 sec, continue on with
an amplitude of about 0.4 R(O).
Figure 7.29 shows the results obtained from measurements of pressure
pulsations in the flow passages of different types of hydro units operating
under the various conditions met with in practice. The Figure has been drawn
with 2,dH/H as the ordinate and the frequency las the abscissa.
The Figure also shows lines of constant acceleration of pressure pulsations.
in terms of the head at the power plant.
The acceleration of the pressure pulsations is equal to
j=,dHw 2 •
Dividing the left- and right-hand sides of the equality by the head H, we
-
have -
. UH
L- __ (2n:1)2' l/sec 2,
H- 2H
where ,dH is the amplitude of pressure pulsations (the first surge of pressure
during transient conditions), m; I is the frequency of pressure variations (dur-
ing transient conditions I corresponds to the frequency of an equivalent
sinusoid of the first surge wave of the rising pressure), Hz.
Knowing the magnitude of j/H and the frequency of pressure pulsations,
one may obtain the double amplitude of pressure pulsations from the
formula
2,dH (j) I (j )
H = H 2n:2j2= Ii 2012'
1
The maximum value of 2,d H/H can be estimated from the line enclosing
the observation points, as shown in Fig. 7.29.
A statistical analysis of the points shown in Fig. 7.29 shows that their
distrib~tion is as follows:
I) According to zones of constantj/H ratio:
up to j/H equal to I, l/sec 2-23.5%; froml/sec 2 to 10/sec2-36.0%; from
10/sec2 to 100/sec2-25.5% and from 100/sec2 to 1,000/sec2-15%. Thus 85%
of the points lie in the range of j/H of l/sec 2 to 100/sec2.
2) According to amplitudes of pressure variations, 2,dH/H:
up to 5%-26%; from 5 to 10%-27%; from 10 to 20%-26%; from 20 to
40%-16% and 40% and above-5%. Thus 95% of the points lie in the 40%
range of the re~ative amplitude of pressure pulsations.
I
102
80
70
2~H/H9t.100%
\
\
-
w
o
-.:::
60
~
[
CIl
'"
50
40
•
\
\
\'
\. .. \
\
r\
~
-g'
~ 30
,
.sa.
CIl
CIl
"''1:1
~ '"
e- ~ 20
•• • A
•
. lC I \ , ft
\ )(
\ )( t\ ~
~
III
CIl -
c:~
1 ~ ! !.~ •
~
<:l
~
0'"
'-;
CIlU
~
&"B 10'
' I lC
'1 ,
I
f\r
6-
.~"
•
t 1\
..; \:
II
f\ t J· :
! \\\
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S·
'" I' ~-lC " "",,\-\ ~

",CIl
~o
:l &
B
7
A
A" _ "\ JI
\ "'0
a.:! 6 1\ ...-
•
)(
\ lC-)(
,
_c: JI
- 1\" ~
o~
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~&
6
4
~ ...'S )(
~ 1\ \ I\-~'C
Jc
'V~... \ ....10 I' )( ~100 ,\~OO' ~
.. i
ii
\ -:\ I\"~-
E 3
~~ f\
c(
lC
.
2! )C.
\
'\ \ 1\
l(
\
lC
1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.40.50.6 0.8
-
10° 2
\
3
i
4
1\
5 6 7 8910'
i' 1\ ~ \x,
20
D
30 40 50 60 80 10
Frequencv of vibrations. Hz
Fig. 7.29. Graph of pressure pulsations in flow passage of hydroturbines:
- , - . - . - -pressure fluctuations at section I (see Fig. 7.1); 0 - 0 - 0 -pressure fluctuations at section II; x - x - x -pressure fluctua-
tions at section Ill; D,-D,-t,-pressure fluctuations at section V. Line enveloping observation points is also shown in Figure.
3) According to frequency of vibrations:

up to 1 Hz-33%; from 1 to 2 Hz-21.5%; from 2 to 5 Hz-20.5% from 5
to 10 Hz-ll%; from 10 to 20 Hz-9% and from 20 to SO Hz-5%. Thus in .
_terms of frequency 95% of the points lie in the range of 20 Hz and 81 % in the
range of 10 Hz.
7.3 Vibration of Structural Elements
In the present work the vibration of the foundations and other parts of
the machine hall has not been considered in much detail. This is due to
the fact tha~ the principal task of the ORGRES was to investigate the vibra-
tions of the actual hydro units. Apart from this, in almost all the checks con-
ducted by the ORGRES, the foundations of the hydro units and the basement
sections of the power plants were of such massive construction that their
vibrations had almost no effect no the vibration of the hydro units.
The following conclusions may be drawn with respect to the vibrations of
various parts of the machine hall:
1) The double amplitude of vibrations of foundations at all the power
plants investigated by the ORGRES is small.
2) The frequency of these vibrations generally corresponds to the turning
- speed (or double the turning speed) of the unit or the blade frequency ..
3) The acceleration of vibrations is small and usually ranges from one-
.hundredth to one-thousandth part of gravitational acceleration.
4) Generator foundations made in the form of a steel framework with
the wall of the machine hall as one side (Skhodnensk, Kadyr'insk, etc.) are
less rigid than those where the foundations are attached to all the walls of
the machine hall. . .
The vibration of the foundations of the Kadyr'insk power plant therefore
influenced the vibration of the hydro units, giving rise to certain disturbing
operating conditions (the vibrations
-
took the form of beats and it was Micro ns
10 0 2A
necessary to synchronize a unit in the 80
grid only when the amplitude of vi-
60
40 l.,.....oooo'
,/' \
brations of the machine hall floor 2~ .--'
was at its minimum). The frequency II Ii II Ii vi I
of these vibrations corresponded with A B
. the turning speed and its amplitude Fig. 7.30. Variation in transverse-horizontal
was found to depend on the phase vibrations of columns supporting overhead
angle of the unbalanced rotors switch- crane in machine hall of Kadyr'insk
ed in parallel with the other hydro power plant:
A-Generator hall floor adjacent to wall of
units (illustrating the effect of poor control room; I, II, III and IV--:axes of
balancing of rotors on the vibration hydro units; B-free end of generator hall
of the power plant building). floor (not adjoining wall of control room).
It should be emphasized here that the natural frequency of vibrations of

generator foundations is fairly high. According to the data coIlected by the
TNISGEI, the natural frequency of vibrations of foundations at a number of
power plants (Adzharis-Tskal'sk, Krasnopolyansk) was found to be 70, 200,
300,400, 450 and 500 Hz. However, some parts of the foundations may have
natural frequencies below 70 Hz (for instance, the longitudinal foundations
beams of the Khramsk I power plant had frequencies of IS, 25 and 45 Hz).
Resonance may occur mainly due to electrical perturbation forces and the
high-frequency components of hydraulic perturbation forces. In the former
case high-frequency com'ponents (including those in the 50-100 Hz range) of
perturbation forces appear during transient operating conditions and are
rapidly damped. In the latter case they are far from constant (the process
may be random in nature).
Tests conducted by the Scientific Research Sector of the Hydroproject
Institute on the No. 10 unit of the Saratovsk power plant showed that when
the load was varied from 16 to 62 MW the double amplitudes of vibrations at
the g~nerator stator supports and the tie rods of the generator spider were 25
_.
and 45 microns respectively. When the load was varied from 0 to 16 MW the
double amplitude at the tie rods of the spider rose to 60 microns. The maxi-
mum acceleration at the concrete block of the generator stator was found to
be 0.1 m/sec 2 (harmonic frequency of 30 Hz).
Future vibration checks at hydro power plants should provide for simul-
taneous vibration measurements of both the hydro units and the foundations.
This would enable one to obtain a' better analysis of the results of investiga-
tions and use the results for estimating the probable amplitude of the vibra-
tions of foundations of hydro units under various operating conditions.
A summary of the data obtained from vibration tests of components of
hydro units and foundations is shown in Table 7.2. The Table gives the
. maximum values of double amplitudes of displacements and vibrational accel-
erations as well as the noise level in decibels calculated from accelerations.
Conclusions
It may be observed from Table 7.2 that the maximum amplitudes of vibra-
tions and accelerations occur during load shedding and certain other tran-
sient electrical processes. .
Although the amplitudes and accelerations of vibrations are large during
self-synchronization they are commensurate with others. In certain cases they
are even less than the amplitudes and accelerations observed during other
transient electrical processes that may occur during the operation of hydro
units. In terms of accelerations, i.e. dynamic forces on the hydro unit con-
struction, self-synchronization is less severe (one-half or one-third) than, for
instance, asynchronous operation or short circuiting.
As far as the power plant building is concerned, the vibration level attains
I
Table 7.1
--------------------------------------------------------------
Double amplitude. microns Acceleration of vibration, m/sec l Noise level of vibrations, db
-------------- --------------- ---------------
Operating conditions ~ C
~
of hydro units .
0
.
0
0
~b
Q.co
~:a ..
9
.
0
0
c
.~
,Do
. '"
Q,tlIl
b:a ..
9
..
0
0
.S
,Do
..
Q,CO
~:6
:; ~!§
"C "C "C
'0. .. >
S 'a .. > ~] .. > :l:!:l
iii (12
::30
~u l3.,D (12 (12
:::10
~u l3.,D '"
iii
'0.
(12
:::10
~u
0:::1
l3.,D
--------------------------------------------------------------
Start-up and no-load 65 260 110 18 2.8 3.12 0.9 0.05· 76.4 77.4 66.6 41.S
operation without
excitation
No-load operation 71 120 250 11 0.55 0.69 1.2 0.005· 62.3 64.2 69.0 21.S
~
with excitation
At normal load 250 330 250 240 4.0 3.4 1.2 O.IOt 79.8 78.1 69.0 47.5 ~
During self- 350 500 105 - 9.5 7.5 0.6 - 87.0 85.0 63.0 ~
synchronization ~
During load shedding 377 732 180 - 11.7 17.5 1.0 - 88.8 92.3 67.5 Q
Abnormal electrical 640 560 120 5 25.0 23.0 1.0 2.0· 95.4 94.7 67.5 73.5
..
~
conditions, e.g. ~
asymmetrical, §
asynchronous, short
b:I
circuit, etc. i:i
Start-up acceleration - 390 750 55 - 0.51 - 5.8t - 61.6 - 82.7 ~
Braking - 20 80 - - 0.5 0.07 - - 61.5 44.4 -.:::
----------------------~---------------------------------------
·Generator foundations. ~
tFoundatioDS of columns supporting overhead crane. ~.
tCeUing of draft tube diffusor.
-
IJ,J
IJ,J
its maximum value of 82.7 db at the ceiling of the draft tube diffusor during
initial acceleration.
During normal operating conditions the vibration level at the generator
foundations does not exceed 47.5 db.
The maximum deflections of the stator housing and the load-bearing
spider are found to occur during load shedding and abnormal electrical con-
ditions.
In none of the cases examined did the vibration (noise) level of the hydro
units exceed 96 db, i.e. the accelerations did not exceed 2 g.
-
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Vibration of Hydro Units in HPP - Vladislavlev

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/ PB298760T 'I

.~ "11111111111 III 1/111/111111111111 j

Published for the United States Department of the Interior,

Vibration of Hydro Units in

.~ :,., .:("...... '-,:> ~ •. ?

Translated from Russian

Published for the United States Department of the Interior,

~ 1979 Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

.Translated and published/or the United States.

Translator: Prof. A. Jaganmohan

Available from the U.S. Department of Commerce

Printed at Oxonian Press Pvt. LId., Foridabad, India

Preceding page blank . I I I

Preceding page blank 'Ii

Preceding page blank

The reliable operation of hydro units· in hydroelectric plants is governed

new instruments for investigation of vibrations is included. Pressure trans-

CHAPTER 1. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF DAMAGE TO UNITS •.

1.1 Some principles of the theory of vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2. STEADY STATE OPERATING CoNDITIONS.................. 38

CHAPTER 3. UNSTEADY OPERATING CONDITIONS :........ 122

5.1 Vibration checks according to standard test program No.1.. 189

6.5 Observations for detecting vibrations of hydro unit during

Preceding page blank i

_ Abbreviation Full Name (Transliteration) Translation

AN SSSR Akademiya Nauk Soyuz So- Academy of Sciences of

Abbreviation Full Name (Transliteration) Translation

TsAGI Tsentral'nyi Aerogidrodina- N.E. Zhukovskii Central

Basic Definitions and Examples of

1.1 Some Principles of the Theory of Vibrations

Fig. 1.]. Vibrating systems with a single degree of freedom:

Free vibrations in a system. Let us consider a system consisting of a spring

z~-C~ Si;;J~ t+ C2 c;~\f ~ I, (1.2)

where Cl and C2 are constants determined (rom initial conditions.

Z=Zo cos~ I. (1.3)

The quantity J~ =Wn is known as the angular frequency of natural

The motion described by equation (1.3) is known as simple harmonic

Velocity V=:=AWCOS (Wi +9'0);' (1.5)

The maximum acceleration of a harmonic motion is equal to the product

where G is the weight of the structure in tons;

The proportionality coefficient k=!!... J where ZIt is the static deformation

vibrations per minute.

The frequency of beats is equal to the difference between the frequencies

in intensity. Beats l are characteristic of the vibrations of the penstocks of

In the absence of any perturbation forces ~he -equation of motion is as.

This equation is known as the equation of damped free oscillations, where

in which case equation (l.lO)becomes:

Equation (I.ll) has a general solution in the form of a linear combination

The quantity 0 is known as the logarithmic decrement of damping. It

Let us consider a case where the perturbation force varies according to a

The amplitude of forced vibrations is equal to:

The angle of phase shift is equal to:

where A is the amplitude of the forced vibrations m;

shift is close to 180 0 • This ratio of frequencies is characteristic of stem turbines

P (t)= ~o + (al cos iwt+b , sin iwt), (1.24)

where i = I, 2, 3, is the order of the harmonics constituting the vibrations:

_ al=: JP (I) cos kal dl;

If we have a complex type of vibration for some particular component of

A (/)=Ao+ LAI sin (iwl+tpl), . (1.26)

.. , The harmonic AI sin (w/+Q1I) is known as the first or fundamental

A (t)=Ao+AI sin (Wlt+/PI)

Knowing the harmonic constituting the vibrations, it is possible to eva-

Forced vibrations with motion of point of fixture (kinematic disturbance).

F.= ~ R (y x= 21 x 10; x 2.34 ("t 2.5Y 3 x 102~6,300 kgr m.