KNOW YOUR

TRANSFORMER

LIMITED

1
 KNOW YOUR TRANSFORMER
A QUESTION – ANSWER GUIDE

AMENDMENT 1
May 2007

Editorial Team:

Mr. R.S. Shah

Mr. A.N. Kumthekar
Mr. M.L. Jain
Mr. P.Y. Patki

2
 Foreword to Amendment 1

Know Your Transformer – A Question-Answer Guide is a compendium of

FAQ’s (frequently asked questions) on transformers that was written keeping in
view specifically the marketing engineers’ requirement. Notwithstanding that, it is
regarded as a ready reckoner for all engineers in general, as it broadly covers all
major aspects of transformer.

The first edition of this book was published on 28th February 2000 for internal
reference by EMCO fraternity, with limited number of copies available for
reference. Appreciating the need for addressing wider range of FAQ’s being
encountered today and to facilitate ease of access, the Editorial Team has come
out with an e-version of the book with Amendment 1. This contains 32 new
question-answers on different aspects placed under ‘Addendum’ that is
appended to the book without disturbing the existing contents. These will be
integrated later with the main sections of the book during the next revision, which
will be more elaborate in contents and address contemporary requirements.

It is hoped that the updated information contained in this amended version will
certainly prove to be more useful, and more so because it is now accessible to all
EMCOites on the Intranet site ‘Knowledge Management Database’.

Editorial Team

Thane
May 2007

3
FOREWORD

Marketing personnel are the true ambassadors of any Company. Their commercial
acumen is more effectively utilized, it is backed by technical insight of the product.

It has been my cherished desire that the Marketing Personnel of Transformer Division
function effectively as Techno-Commercial team, well prepared to handle the oft-asked
questions confidently. They should develop understanding of all committee offer they
make and equip themselves for handling any technical issues arising during tender
discussions and negotiations.

The book, which has been written specifically to fulfill the urge of the Marketing
Personnel, is a good piece of technical contribution by a team of experienced EMCO
engineers.

Team delighted to introduce this book for the benefit of those, who seek to know more
about the product. I am confident, this will help enrich their knowledge and serve as
handy reference.

Rajesh Jain
Chairman & Managing Director
EMCO Ltd.
Thane
Feb. 28, 2000

4
PREFACE

This a reference book designed to meet the need of front line Marketing managers who
are often required to communicate face-to-face with customers and are expected to
respond to their general technical queries confidently. This offers to enrich their
knowledge and equip them with the answers to the most frequently asked questions.

The book presents over 150 question-answers, broadly covering the theoretical and
practical aspects of core, winding, materials, accessories, testing and commissioning of
power, distribution and special transformers. The text of the book has been arranged in
a modular fashion to facilitate quick reference to the desired aspect of the transformer.
Preference for such structuring is guided by our plan to make the volume more
exhaustive in future. This will permit updating of the book as required, without the need
for major reshuffling of the original contents.

The contents of the book are brief and judiciously chosen primarily to benefit the
Marketing Personnel and also to serve as handy reference book for the technical
personnel of the entire EMCO family, associated with transformer product.

Shailesh Jain
Joint Managing Director
EMCO Ltd.

Thane
Feb. 28, 2000

5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Editorial Team thanks the Management of EMCO Ltd for granting permission to
publish this book for in-house reference.

It also thanks all the authors for their valuable contribution in preparing the book.

Thanks are due to the Marketing Group, whose urging pursuit made it possible to bring
about this publication in an incredibly short time span of four weeks.

Behind all success was the constant inspiration and nurturing support of the Chairman &
Managing Director of EMCO Ltd. The Editorial Team expresses its sincere gratitude to
him.

R.S. Shah
Director (Technical)
Transformer Division
EMCO Ltd.

Thane
Feb. 28, 2000

6
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

SECTION – I : GENERAL 9-14

SECTION – II : DESIGN – CORE & WINDOWS 15-48

SECTION – III : TANK & ACCESSORIES 49-60

SECTION – IV : MATERIALS 61-64

SECTION – V : TESTING & COMMISSIONING 65-73

SECTION – VI : COMMERCIAL 74-79

ADDENDUM 80-94

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 95

7
INTRODUCTION
Understanding the fundamentals of transformer is as important for a Marketing Manager
as for a Designer. Basic product knowledge is always expedient for business excellence.
In to-day’s competitive era, engaging specialists for handling routine matters is uncalled
for. Evidently, possession of multifunctional skill assumes vital importance. It is in this
context, that the marketing personnel, who are often required to interact with the clients
and are responsible for bringing business to the Company, need to know about the
basics of the product fairly well to be self-reliant.

Numerous books have been published on transformer. The engineer, who is beginning
his career in transformer or the one who is working in many other fields besides
transformers, may find many of the books difficult to read and understand. The
preaching, ‘much study is a weariness of flesh’ is an evident reason for another book
and especially this book.

This book is written not for the transformer specialists but for those, who want to know
as much about the transformer as they can, without much study. This brings out the
basics of transformer in the form of question answers, presented in easy ‘ easy-to-
understand’ manner. Another objective is to recapture some of the basics of transformer
theory, which is so old as to have been assumed to be either self-evident or old
fashioned or which has been dealt with in many books.

It is no doubt true that, engineers can design, build, and use the transformers without
knowing the basis or origin of the old simple principles, but it should be equally true that
they cannot progress beyond the beaten path without knowledge to guide them.

The book is based on real questions that the marketing personnel have faced from
clients. So it is very much to the point. Just about every question you could possibly ask
is posed in this book, and most of them are answered in detail. You may even find
answers to question you may never have thought of asking.

For the convenience of understanding, the book has been arranged in following six
sections.

Section – I : General
Section – II : Design – Core & Winding
Section – III : Tank & Accessories
Section – IV : Materials
Section – V : Testing & Commissioning
Section – VI : Commercial

Wherever appropriate, diagrams have inserted to substantiate the text.

8
 SECTION – I

GENERAL

9
SECTION – 1 : GENERAL

Q.1.1 What is the working principle of transformer ?

A.1.1. Transformer consists of a closed magnetic core and two or more windings. When
one of the windings (primary) is connected to an alternating current (A.C.) supply,
alternating magnetic flux is produced in the core. The flux links with the winding
(called secondary winding) on the same limb of the core, thereby inducing an
electromagnetic force (e.m.f., i.e. voltage) of the same frequency.
The e.m.f. is induced in the transformer by electromagnetic induction effect of
alternating magnetic flux, the value of which is given by the following equation.
E = 4.44 x f x n x B m x A x 10 4 Volts

Where, E = induced voltage

F = frequency in cycles per second
N = number of turns in the winding
A = net core area in sq. cm.
Bm = core flux density in Tesla
The voltage induced in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of
turns and is given by:
Primary volts x Secondary turns
Secondary volts = --------------------------------------------
Primary turns

Q.1.2. What are the different types of Transformers?

A.1.2. These are as enumerated below.
a) Power Transformers
i) Generator (step-up) transformer
ii) Station transformer
iii) Unit Auxiliary transformer
iv) Auto transformer (interconnecting)
v) Three winding transformer

b) Distribution Transformers
i) Oil filled transformer
ii) Dry type transformer

c) Special Transformers
i) Furnace transformer
ii) Rectifier transformer
iii) Converter transformer
iv) Welding transformer

10
 v) Mining duty transformer
vi) Booster transformer
vii) Earthing transformer
viii) Phase changing transformer
ix) Short-circuit testing transformer
x) Steel Rolling Mill transformer
xi) High frequency transformer
xii) Traction transformer
xiii) Locomotive transformer
xiv) Instrument transformer
xv) Motor starting transformer
xvi) Unitized sub-stations

Q.1.3. What are the different Vector Groups and how these are selected?
A.1.3. The different vector groups are given in IS: 2026. The most popular vector groups
are:

i) Dyn11
ii) Dyn1
iii) YNd11
iv) YNd1
v) YNynOd11
vi) DzO
vii) Yz11
viii) Auto vector group is YNaOd11. In the vector group, the first letter always
represents HV, second LV and third Teritiary winding.
For example
a) Dy11 - D is HV, y is LV
b) YNd11 – Y is HV, d is LV
c) YNynOd11 – Y is HV, y is LV & d is Teritiary
d) YNaOd11 – YNaO represents an auto connected HV winding.

Where ‘Y’ is common for both HV, LV and ‘a’ represents Auto connection and ‘d’
represents delta connected Tertiary Winding.
The Purchaser specifies the vector group in line with that of the existing system.
Proper selection of vector group is important for protection of the system and
parallel operation of transformers.

11
 Generally, one of the HV or LV windings is delta connected and the other is star
connected, to prevent third harmonic currents.

As per CBIP, transformers up to 100 MVA, 220kV class with both HV and LV star
connected windings, provision of tertiary winding is not recommended. This is to
avoid the risk of outage of transformers due to failure of tertiary winding.

Q.1.4 Why the efficiency of a transformer is generally tending to 100%?

A.1.4 Transformer is the most efficient electrical equipment. This being static equipment,
there are no mechanical friction and windage losses. The electrical losses, viz. the
no load and load losses are also low due to the use of CRGOSS (cold – rolled
grain oriented silicon steel) for core laminations and electrolytic grade 99.99% pure
grade high conductivity copper with optimum current density for windings.
Efficiency of well-designed transformer is over 99%.

Q.1.5 Explain the use of three single-phase transformers vis-à-vis a single three-phase
transformer.
A.1.5 The use of three single-phase transformers in a three-phase system is sometimes
justified due to the fact simultaneous failure of all phases is a rare possibility.
Therefore, provision of one stand-by single-phase transformer is enough in order to
restore the power supply without much loss of time. Whereas failure of a three-
phase transformer will cause complete loss of power supply.

Use of three single-phase transformers sometimes is also necessary due to

transport constraints, particularly when installation sites are located in hilly terrains
and remote places.

Q.1.6 What are the essential requirements for parallel operation of transformers ?
A.1.6 The essential requirements for satisfactory parallel operation of two or more
transformers are the following :
1. The polarity should be the same.
2. The voltage ratios should be the same
3. The percentage impedance at all taps should be equal
4. The phase sequence should be the same
5. The vector relationship and the phase displacement should be the same

Q.1.7 What is Neutral Grounding Transformer ? Where it is used?

A.1.7 Neutral Grounding transformer is a three phase device for providing an artificial
neutral for grounding a delta connected winding of star / delta connected power
transformer.

12
 U

W U
N

W V V

Q.1.8MAIN
WhatTRANSFORMER
is Neutral Grounding Reactor ? What is its application ?

A.1.8 It is single phase reactor connected to the star point of the LV winding of main
transformer. It is used to limit the fault current in case of single line to-ground fault.

W V

Neutral
Grounding
Reactor

Q 1.9 Where the Single Core & Double Core CTs are normally used ?
A.1.9 Customer sometimes specifies number of Cores, may be two or three Crores.
Hence, this is a specific requirement. He will use different crores for REF,
Differential protection or Metering purpose.

Q.1.10 What is corona? Does it affect the transformer life?

13
A.1.10 The ionization of medium (e.g. air) surrounding a charged electrode (e.g. High
Voltage bare bushing metal structure) is called corona. It affects the transformer
life, if it is not within limits.

Q.1.11 What are the standard rail gauges?

A.1.11. The standard rail guage is 1676 mm (5’-6’) for longitudinal and transverse
direction.

Q.1.12. How QAP helps in ensuring the product quality?

A.1.12. QAP (Quality Assurance Plan) is a well-defined quality tool for carrying out all
relevant quality checks as per specified requirements, covering the entire
process of contract execution from raw materials to manufacturing processes at
various stages, final assembly and despatch of the product. This helps in
ensuring that no checks are missed out at any stage of execution, thereby
ensuring detection of any deficiency different stages of manufacturing before
proceeding further.

14
 SECTION – I I

DESIGN – CORE & WINDING

15
SECTION – II: DESIGN – CORE & WINDING

Q. 2.1 Describe different types of Core Constructions and its Advantages?

A. 2.1 There are mainly two types of core constructions viz. Core type & Shall type.
There are 3 limb & 5 limb core constructions for 3-phase transformers. 5-Limb
core construction is used to reduce transport height of transformers. Single
phase with middle would limb and two wound limbs are used due to transport
height restriction.

Q. 2.2 What are the considerations for deciding the Grade of Lamination?

A. 2.2 The main parameters are :

1) Losses required by Customers
2) Capitalization formula
3) Cost of particular grade of lamination v/s the advantage gained in No Load
Loss reduction.

Example 1: CORE WEIGHT = 13780 Kg (1)

Flux density = 1.6 Tesla (2)
No load Loss with MOH Grade core
= 13780 x 0.85 x 1.23 = 14406 W
= 14.406 kW (3)
Cost of core with CRGO of MOH Grade
= 108 x 13780 = Rs. 14.88 Lacs (4)
No Load Loss with M4 Grade core material
= 13780 x 1.256 x 1.23 = 21288 W
= 21.288 kW (5)
Cost of core with M4 Grade core material
= 72 x 13780 = Rs. 9.926 Lacs (6)
Cost of capitalization
Rs 1,25,000 / kW of No Load Loss (6A)
The cost of loss with MOH Grade core

= 14,406 x 1,25,000 = Rs. 18 Lacs (7)

The cost of loss with M4 Grade core

= (5) x 1,25,000 = 21.288 x 1,25,000 = Rs. 26.61 Lacs (8)

16
 The increase in core material cost due to
Use of MOH Grade = (4) – (6)
= 14.88 – 9.926
= Rs. 4.954 Lacs (9)

The reduction in cost of losses = (8) - (7)

due to use of MOH core = Rs. 26.61 – 18
= Rs. 8.61 Lacs (10)

Therefore reduction in cost of loss = (10) – (

due to MOH Grade – increase in material = 8.61 – 4.954
cost due to use of MOH Grade core = Rs. 3.656 Lacs (11)

The above example shows that use of MOH material is advisable in this case.

Example 2 : If we repeat the same example except that the capital cost of

No Load Loss = Rs. 48,000 /kW (12)

Then the cost of No Load Loss with MOH

Grade of core = (3) x 48000

= 14.406 x 48000

= Rs. 6.91 lacs (13)

The cost of No Load Loss with

M4 Grade of core = (14) – (13)

= 21.288 x 48000
= Rs. 10.2 Lacs (14)

The reduction in cost of No. Load Loss

Due to use of MOH core = (14) – (13)
= 10.2 – 6.91
= Rs. 3.29 Lacs (15)

But the increase in cost of core due to = Rs. 4.95 Lacs (16)
Use of MOH Grade = (Ref. (9) above)

The net increase in capitalized = (16) – (15)

Cost due to sue of MOH core = Rs. 4.954 – 3.29
= Rs. 1.664 Lacs

Hence it is not advisable to use MOH Grade core in this case.

Thus it is clear as to how the use of particular Grade of core is decided.

17
Q. 2.3 What are the different types of joints used in Core ? Why?
A.2.3 Plain Overlap:
This type of joint was made when the cores were made from NGOs, not with
Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel, i.e. they were hot rolled cores. In this case, the
loss that was taking place in corner was less due to non-orientation of core
lamination grains. This type of joint was mechanically strong.

Mitred Joint:
This type of joint was introduced when the core laminations were grain oriented
and losses in the plain overlap jointed core was high due to crossing flux in
wrong direction. This joint produces, smooth path to the flux and reduces the
loss.

Step – Lap Joints

Step – lap joints are “staggered”, resulting in less crowding of flux at corners,
which resulted into further reduction in loss. This requires special core cutting
machines.

Wound Core:

For small transformers (say up to 100 kVA), wound cores are sometimes used
which result into further low loss as there are no corners and hence no corner
losses.

Q.2.4 What is step – lap joint & its Advantages?

A.2.4 Unlike normal mitred core, the joints in the step lap core are “staggered” by 3 mm
and such 7 laminations form one group. This ensures that the flux from limb
lamination directly flows to the yoke lamination, which is directly in contact with
limb lamination as the reluctance of air path is high and this results into less flux
crowding at corners and thus reduces the overall no load loss.

In normal mitred cores, the joints are not staggered and flux from limb lamination
does not necessarily flow in the corresponding yoke lamination but may follow air
path, depending on the reluctance and may cause flux crowding at corners and
results into higher no load loss.

Q.2.5 What is the consideration for deciding the cooling duct area in core ?

A.2.5 The cooling duct in core is decided as follows:

a) The loss taking place in core is calculated.

b) The core dissipating surface area is calculated.
c) The watts per unit of dissipating area of core are calculated.
d) The temperature gradient of core is calculated.
e) Then the temperature rise of core is calculated.

18
 f) If the temperature rise of core is below the permissible temperature rise of
surrounding winding no duct is provided. If the temperature rise of core is
more than the surrounding winding then duct is provided.
g) If one duct is not sufficient, multiple ducts are provided.

Q.2.6 What is the effect of over-fluxing in core?

A.2.6 a) In case of flux density going beyond saturation value due to over-fluxing, the
flux can fringe and cause loss in the winding nearer to yokes. The core also
gets overheated due to over fluxing.

b) The precautions against over-fluxing can be taken by restricting the flu density
in the core to a maximum limit of 1.73 Tesla as the saturation value of CRGO is
around 2.02 Tesla.

Q.2.7 How Laminations are bound together?

A.2.7 For reducing the transformer noise, the laminations are tightly clamped together.
Generally the following methods are used for binding the core laminations.

A) LEG Laminations binding:

For effective clamping of the core leg laminations, clamp plates made of steel
are used on either side of legs. These plates are mechanically strong enough
to prevent buckling, bending of laminations and are able to withstand the
lifting load of core and windings and axial short circuit forces.

Over the clamp plates, 50 mm wide resiglass / fibre glass tapes are tightly
would around the legs at a pitch of 160 mm and cured by heating. The tapes
shrink after heating and provide a firm grip. The tensile strength of resiglass
tapes is even higher than steel tapes.

However, the core leg laminations of Distribution Transformers are bound

with the cotton tapes.

B) Top & Bottom Yoke Lamination Binding:

i) Bolted Yokes:

For effective clamping of the yoke laminations, Yoke Clamping Frames (End
frames) made of steel are used on either side of top & bottom yokes and
entire core & Frame Structure is properly secured through yoke bolts at a
number of positions.

19
20
21
 Disadvantages of using bolted Yokes:

.i) Reduction of core cross-sectional area due to punching of holes in

laminations results in increase in flux density at local places, leading to
concentration of losses.

ii) Failure of yoke bolts in 2 kV test due to failure of yoke bolt insulation.

iii) Hot spot generation due to failure of yoke bolt insulation.

ii) Boltless yokes:

To eliminate the risk of Hot Spots arising out of core-bolt insulation failure,
boltless yoke laminations binding arrangement is used. In this arrangement,
top & bottom yokes are bound through end frames with the help of 40 mm
wide resiglass tapes at a number of positions. The tensile strength of
resiglass tape is even higher than the steel tapes. This ensures better
lamination binding.

Advantages of bolt less yokes:

i) No punching of holes on laminations hence no reduction in net core area.

ii) Risk of insulation failure in 2 kV test is eliminated.

iii) Elimination of hot spots arising out of core bolt insulation failure.

Q.2.8 What are the consequences of improper core earthing?

A.2.8 If core earthing is not proper, the core will acquire floating electrostatic potential.
This will lead to electrical discharges, causing disintegration of transformer oil
and producing fault gases and ultimate failure of insulation. In case of improper,
multiple core earthing, it may form a short-circuited loop leading to undesired
circulating currents in it and ultimate burning of earthing strip and failure.

Q.2.9 What are the types of windings and their application ?

A.2.9 The types of winding are :-

i) Spiral: Generally used for low voltage up to 11 kV and current up to 500 Amps.
Helical windings: Low voltage up to 11 kV and current more than 500 Amps.

ii) Disc windings are used for high voltage windings (usually for above 11 kV up
to 400 kV). The disc windings for above 66 kV are interleaved type, for uniform
distribution of impulse voltage.

iii) For small distribution transformers crossover windings, with round paper
covered conductors are used for current less than 30 A and voltage 3.3 kV and
above up to 33 kV.

22
Q. 2.10 What are the different types of copper conductors used for windings?

A. 2.10 i) The conductors are basically of rectangular and round shape.

ii) Round shape conductors are used in mainly distribution transformers for HV
winding.
iii) Rectangular conductors are used in Power Transformers for HV , LV Tertiary
windings and on LV winding of Distribution Transformers.

iv) The conductors are:

a) Paper covered rectangular.

b) Twin conductors are used (when no. of
conductors are more than 6 in a disc)
c) Continuously Transposed Conductors (CTC)
are used when Current is high and low eddy
losses are desired.

Q.2.11. What is the insulation used on windings conductors?

A.2.11 The insulation used on winding conductors is Kraft paper. On CTC, individual
conductors are enamel or epoxy covered and overall insulation is kraft paper.

Q.2.12 How the current density for HV & LV windings is selected?

A.2.12 I) Generally the current density does not exceed 3.5 A/mm 2 in copper.

iii) For a given load loss, the current density is required to be so chosen that
the I 2 R loss plus stray loss does not exceed desired load loss.

iv) Under short circuit for 2 seconds, the temperature of conductor at the end
of 2 seconds shall not exceed 250 °C s per the formula.
Qu = Qo + aJ 2 S x 10 3

Where Qu = ultimate temperature at the end of 2 seconds.

Qo = Initial temperature = 50 (Amb) + 55 (Wdg) = 105°C

S = duration of short circuit = 2 seconds.

a = factor depending on temperature = 8.2

J = Short circuit current density

23
 100
= Normal current density x
%impedance
3.5 x100
= = 35 A / mm 2
10

Therefore the Qu = Qo + aJ 2 x S x 10 3

2
= 105 + 8.2 (35) x 2 x 10 3

= 105 + 20.09 = 125.09°C

Thus the current density is decided on load loss requirement and short-circuit
capacity also.

Q.2.13 How the winding resistance is calculated ?

A.2.13 Let us take an example :

i) Let the number of turns on say HV winding be = 1500 = T

ii) Let the cross sectional area of HV conductor = 100mm 2 = A
iii) Let the mean diameter of HV winding be 600 mm = D
iv) Let the number of phases = 3
v) Therefore the total length of HV

= 3 x Number of turns per phase x mean diameter of HV x 

= 3 x 1500 x 1600  x 10 3 = 8462 Mtrs.
vi) The Resistance of HV winding
Lengthofwindingconductor ( Mtrs)
= x 0.0211
Cross sec tionalareaofconductor (mm 2 )

Where 0.0211 is resistance factor for copper @75°C

8482
= x 0.0211 = 1.7897 ohms
100
In this way the resistance is calculated. Similarly, resistance of LV, Tertiary is
also calculated.

Q.2.14 How Impedance is calculated?

A.2.14 Let us take an example –

Let LV current be = I = 1000 Amps
Let LV turns be = T = 150 Turns
Let LV voltage be = V = 11000 volts (phase)

11000
 Voltage per turn = V/T = = 73.3
150

24
 Core dia = 560 mm = 56 cm
Core area = 0.7 x 56 2 = 2195.2 cm 2

450 xV / T 3
Flux density = x 10
A

450x73.3 3
= x 10 = 15025 Lines/cm 2
2195.2

= 1.5 Tesla

Let H = height of winding = 1500 mm = 150 cm

The ampere-turn diagram comprises of triangle, rectangle and sometimes

trapezium.

Area of ampere turn diagram is to be calculated as follows :

LV Radial 5
x mean LV dia = x (60+70) / 2 = 108.33
3 3

LV / HV duct x mean LV / HV dia = 4 x (70 + 78) / 2 = 296.00

25
 LV Radial 6
x mean LV dia = x (78 + 90) / 2 = 168.00
3 3
.   Total Area = 572.77 cm 2

( Ampereturns ) 
 % Reactance =
HxV / Tx 2.54 x10 3

(1000 x150) x572.77

=
150 x73.3x 2.54 x10 3

= 9.66 %

Q.2.15 Why HV & LV winding heights are kept equal?

A.2.15 The HV & LV winding heights are kept equal to avoid axial unbalance force
during short circuit, as equal height balances the ampere-turns in axial direction.

Q.2.16 How the losses and the Impedance are calculated at different tap positions?

A.2.16 I) Loss calculation

a) The HV resistance at normal tap = 1.7897 ohms (say)
b) The HV current on normal tap is 252 Amps (say)
c) Let the taps be  10%
d) Therefore the current on – 10% tap
Current on normal tap 262
= ------------------------- = ----- = 291.11Amps
0.9 0.9
The resistance on – 10% tap
= Resistance on normal tap x 0.9
=1.7897 x 0.9 = 1.61073 ohms
PR loss at – 10 % tap = (291.11) 2 x (1.61073) = 136501 W
= 136.501 KW
262
Current at + 10% tap = -------- = 238.18 Amps
1.1
The resistance at + 10 % tap = 1.7897 x 1.1 = 1.9687 ohms

The loss at + 10 % tap = 1.7897 x 1.1 = 1.96867 ohms

26
 = 111683 W = 111.683 kW

The LV Loss remains same. Hence the loss at –10% tap is more than loss at
+10% tap.

Q 2.17 How the Short Circuit Current is calculated ?

A.2.17 The current on 132 kV side is = MVA x 10 2

-------------------
3 Voltage (kV)

= 10 x 10 3
------------- = 43.738 Amps
3 x 132
10 x 10 3
and current on 11KV side is = --------------- = 524.86 Amps
3 x 11

The impedance on 10 MVA base = 10 %

100
 The short circuit current = Normal current on HV = -------------
% Impedance
100
= 43.738 x ---------
10
= 437.38 A = 0.43738 KA on HV side

100
The short circuit current = Normal current on LV X -------------
% Impedance

100
= 524.86 x ----------- = 5428.6A
10

= 5.2486 kA

Q 2.18 Whether windings are suitable for system fault level ?

A 2.18 I) The Transformer short circuit through current depends on its Impedance Viz.
A 100 MVA Transformer with 10 % Impedance can withstand

100
= 10MVA x ----------------------------
10 (% Impedance)

= 100 MVA fault

27
 ii) Assuming that the transformer having 132/33 kV ratio and as per IS : 2020
(Part I) 1977, Table 4, the fault level for 145 kV - 10000 MVA and fault level
for 36 kV – 1000 MVA

The fault levels specified in (ii) above can never be experienced by

transformer, because its fault level is restricted to 1000 MVA by its own
Impedance as shown in (i) above.

iii) The bushings can be designed for the fault level of 10000 MVA on 132 kV
side and 1000 MVA on 33kV side (but not the transformer as that much
current will never flow through it, as it is restricted to 100 MVA by its own
impedance)

iv) The bushing shall be able to withstand 40kA which means

3 x40kA x 132 kV = 9145 MVA

= 10000 MVA
which is the fault level on 132 kV side.

vi) Fault level of 10000MVA can be made used of in adding system impedance
to main transformer impedance of 10 % at the time of short circuit test as
follows:
Normal MVA
System Impedance = --------------------- x 100
Fault MVA

= 10 x 100
----------------- = 0.1 %
10000

Which can be added to 10 % making it 10+0.1 = 10.1 % for short circuit test
purpose.

Q 2.19 How temperature in the winding is calculated ? is it different for HV & LV

windings ?

A.2.19 I) Let us take example –

Let the Top Oil Temperature Rise be 50°C
Average Winding Temperature Rise be 55°C by Resistance
Yearly weighted average ambient temperature is 32°C
 The Average temperature rise of oil = 0.8 x Top Oil Temperature Rise

= 0.8 x 50 = 40°C

The average gradient between winding and oil

= Average winding temperature rise – Average oil temperature rise

= 50 – 40 = 15°C

28
 The hot spot gradient = 1.1 (Average Gradient)

= 1.1 (15) = 16.5°C

 The hot spot temperature

= Top Oil Temperature Rise + Hot Spot Gradient + Yearly weighted average
ambient temperature

= 50 + 16.5 + 32 = 98.5°CC = 98°C

Allowable hot spot temperature as per IS is 98°C

ii) The hot spot temperature may differ for HV & LV windings depending on
actual designed value of gradient, but it shall not exceed 98°C at 32°C
yearly weighted ambient temperature.

Q 2.20 Which are the various methods of cooling of power transformers ?

A 2.20 Methods of Cooling

Several cooling methods are possible for transformers. The symbols used are :
a) Medium :
Air A
Gas G
Synthetic Oil L
Mineral Oil O
Solid Insulation S
Water W

b) Circulation: Natural N, Forced F

Methods of Cooling
1. Air cooling
A.N. Air Natural.
A.F. Air Forced.
2. Oil cooling
2.1 O.N.A.N Oil Natural Air Natural.
2.2 O.N.A.F. Oil Natural Air Forced.
Oil is forced through cooler. Cooling water is also circulated in closed loop
2.3. O.F.A.N. Oil Forced Air Natural.
2.4. O.F.A.F. Oil Forced Air Forced.
3. Oil immersed water cooled
3.1 O.N.W.F. Oil Natural Water Forced
3.2 O.F.W.F. Oil Forced Water Forced.

29
Q.2.21 How the quantity of radiators is decided ? Is there any thumb rule of same ?

A.2.21 The radiators are decided as follows :

i). The load Loss is calculated
ii) Load Loss at minimum tap is calculated.
iii) From the Load Loss at minimum tap and the dissipating surface available
watts per sq cm are calculated.
iv) From the curves of average winding to average oil i.e. gradient v/s. watts / sq.
cm. The gradient is calculated.
v) From the gradient the top oil temperature rise is calculated.
vi) Depending upon the tank height, the height of radiator is decided.
vii) The total loss i.e No Load Loss + Load Loss at minimum tap is divided by the
watts/section of given height to determine the number of radiator sections.
viii) Keeping number of sections per radiator less than 30, the number of
radiators are calculated.

A very rough, Rule of Thumb for power transformer is one radiator dissipates
around 10 kW for ONAN condition.

Q.2.22 What is the cause of overheating of transformer ? How can it be avoided ?

A.2.22 The overheating is cause by overloading or by failure of cooling system.

Overheating causes reduction in life. In case of overheating , the transformer
should be switched of from service immediately, but cooling fans/cooling water
should be continued till the oil temperature falls to normal. Then the
transformer can be switched on again.

Q 2.23 Whether all the OLTC’s are suitable for bidirectional operations?

A.2.23 All Jenson type, (Easun-MR BHEL, TELK, NGEF & CTR) ATL (CGL) OLG
OLTCs are suitable for Bidirectional power flow. Externally mounted OLTC’s
(CTR & CGL) are also possible to operate bidirectional, provided step voltage
and phase currents are of small values.

Q.2.24 Is there any limitation on tapping range ?

A.2.24 The tapping range is primarily limited by availability of OLTC. With present
availability the number of tapping positions shall be limited to 35 positions.

Q.2.25 What are the consideration for selection of OLTC ?

A.2.26 Criteria for selection of OLTC are as follows :-

i) Based on the application of transformer i.e Power, Auto Transformeror
Furnace Transformer.
ii) Connection of the winding on which taps are provided and location of taps i.e
at line end / neutral end / middle of winding.
iii) No. of steps, Tapping range, Step percentage.
iv) Type of regulation linear / coarse – fine / buckboost
v) Voltage class of divertor & selector.
vi) Maximum flow requirement i.e unidirectional or bidirectional.

30
Q.2.26 Is there any method to increase the number of Steps of an OLTC ?
A.2.26 OLTCs are ordered based on the number of steps required by customer.
Increasing no. of steps in later stage is not possible . In case earlier ordered
OLTCs are having spare steps and are run through steps, then only it is
possible to increase the steps. Transition resistance value should be checked
prior to change.

Q.2.27 What is the Fault Level of OLTC & What is the duration ?
A.2.27 There is no fault level for OLTC, However, the maximum short circuit it can
withstand is stated by the supplier.

Q.2.28 What is the kVA rating of OLTC ?

A.2.28 Step voltage x Step current (Phase).

Q 2.29 What is the Tapping arrangement for Off Circuit and on Load tap changer ?
A.2.29 I) Oil Circuit : The off circuit switch is bridging typed :

Sw Position Connect
7
1 4-5
6
5 2 5-3

3 3-6
4
4 6-2
3
2 5 2-7

It is rotary switch
ii) OLTC : It is Selector type
Sw Position Connect
17
1 2-3
16
2 2-4

3 2-5
4
3 - -

2 - -

17 2-17

31
Q.2.30 What is Cover Mounted Construction ? Upto what MVA it is used ? What is its
advantage ?
A.2.30 Cover mounted construction means the active part i.e core & winding assembly
of Transformer is directly bolted with tank cover from inside through top yoke
Clamping frames, Generally, such type of construction is used upto 100 MVA
Transformer depending upon the un-tanking weight of core & winding assembly
including Tank Cover. However, the lifting arrangement differs depending upon
the tanking weight as follows:

i) UNTANKING WEIGHT UPTO 50 TONNES :

Lifting bollards for un-tanking core & winding including tank cover are provided
on top of the cover

ii) UN-TANKING WEIGHT ABOVE 50 TONNES :

The core & winding including tank cover is fitted by using lifting bollards of top
yoke clamping frames through inspection cover provided on top of the tank
cover.

ADVANTAGES

i) No movement / vibration of active part during transit due to rigid fixing with
the tank cover.
ii) No dismantling / disconnection of Porcelain bushing upto 52 kV is required
during untanking.
iii) No dismantling of OLTC head is required during un-tanking.

iv) Less chance of oil leakage through gaskets joint of cover & tank curb/rim,
because there is no occurrence of Tension / Stress on bolted joints during
lifting of complete oil filled transformer through lifting Bollard provided on tank
wall.

Q.2.31 Why stiffners are used on tanks ? What are the different types of stiffners ?

A.2.31 Generally stiffeners are used in the tank to make the tank suitable to withstand
pressure & vacuum requirement. Stiffeners can be used in either longitudant or
transverse directions or combination of both. Types of stiffeners will remain
same.
i) Box type stiffeners

ii) “T” type stiffeners

iii) Rib type stiffeners

iv) “I” type stiffeners

v) “L” type stiffeners

vi) “C” type stiffeners

32
Q.2.32 What are the considerations for deciding C.G. ?

A 2.32 If a number of forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, then a point may be
found out in a body through which the resultant of all such parallel forces act.
This point through which the whole weight of body acts irrespective of the
position of this body is known as C.G.
During C.G. calculation, we have to calculate the movement of each forces (such
as core & winding assembly. Tank assembly, OLTC pocket, Oil, Conservator,
Radiators & M. Box if mounted on tank wall) from a fixed point or references
point. Some of the moments divided by the total weight acting on tank will give
the distance of a point i.e. C.G. from the fixed point or reference point through
which the whole weight of body acts.

Q.2.33 How the volume of conservator is decided ?

A.2.33 For conventional Conservator, the volume between cold oil level and hot oil level
should be minimum 7.5 % of the total oil for expansion and 9% in case of Air cell
type conservator.

Q.2.34 How the Jacking pad positions are decided ?

A.2.34 To decide the Jacking pad position the following points are to be considered.

i) A minimum of four jacking pads are to be provided, However, number of

jacking pad may be increased dpending upon total lifting weight.

ii) Jacking pads are to be provided in accessible position.

iii) Design of jacking pads should be suitable to lift or lower

iv) As per CBIP, the height of jacking pads above tank base should be 300 mm
minimum for transformer above 10 tonnes weight.

v) Position of two jacking pads on same plane should be kept equal from the C.G

vi) Position of jacking pads should be kept in such a way that jack does not foul
with the roller while changing the direction of roller through 90°.

vii) Capacity of each jacking pad should be suitable to carry the load.

Total weight

(N – 1)

Where N = No. of jacking pads.

33
Q.2.35 What Precautions are taken while a designing a Transformer for SC Test ?

A. 2.35 As per IS : 2026 and as per function called, each transformer is supposed to
pass through short circuit test. Hence no special precautions are taken for
transformer.

Q. 2.36 What is creepage distance of bushing & How it is selected ?

A. 2.36 I) Breakdown of medium over intervening solid insulating surface is known as

creepage breakdown.
ii) The creepage distance depends on the insulating material and the
surrounding insulating medium.
iii) If the insulating medium, is air, the creepage distance required is more for
the given voltage compared to oil insulating medium.
iv) For example, In case of bushing the atmosphere is polluted, then the
creepage distance required is more. Depending upon whether the atmosphere
is lightly polluted, medium polluted, highly polluted the creepage distance for
bushing is specified as 15mm / kV or 25mm or 31mm / 1kV respectively.
In case of oil to oil bushings, the creepage required is less, as the insulating
medium is oil as discussed in (ii) above.

Q.2.37 What are the standard phase & phase to earth clearance in air ?

A.2.37 As per CBIP, standard clearances in Air are as follows

i) Bushings Air Clearance :-

S. No System Voltage Basic Insulation Level Clearances

Phase to Phase Phase to Phase
(kV) (BIL) (mm) (mm)
1 11 75 280 140

2 22 125 330 230

3 33 170 350 320

4 47 250 530 480

5 66 325 700 660

6 110/132 550 1220 1050

7 132 650 1430 1270

8 220 950 2000 1820

9 220 1050 2350 2150

10 400 1425 4000 3500

34
 Note:- 1) These clearances are applicable to the transformer to be installed at attitudes
up to 10000m. above mean sea level.
2) For altitude exceeding 1000m. Above sea level. The clearances should be
increased by 3% for every additional 300m.
ii) Cable Box Clearances :

S. No System Voltage Basic Insulation Level Clearances

Phase to Phase Phase to Phase
(kV) (BIL) (mm) (mm)
1 1.1 Air 25 20

2 3.6 Air 50 50

3 6.6 Air 90 70

4 1.1 Air 130 80

5 33 Air 355 220

6 12 Compound 50 50
Semi fluid compound
7 24 100 75
or oil
Semi fluid compound
8 36 125 100
or oil
9 220 1050 2350 2150

10 400 1425 4000 3500

Q 2.38 When the Shunts are used in the Tank and what is the material ? Why it is used ?

A. 2.38 Losses and temperature rises caused by the leakage flux may generally be
reduced in the following three ways :
a) By deflecting the magnetic flux from endangered spots by electromagnetic
shields or magnetic shunts.
b) By proper dimensioning of constructional parts with respect to eddy current
losses.
c) By proper selection of constructional materials.
d) We are discussing electromagnetic shielding and magnetic shunts
i) Electromagnetic shielding: The electromagnetic shielding prevents the stray
flux from penetrating into the tank by repelling it and thus preventing losses
taking place in tank.
ii) Magnetic shunt diverts the flux from the endangered location i.e. the tank
where, loss takes place.
When designing a magnetic shunt, the magnetic leakage flux radially leaving
the windings towards the tank and the loss generated by it in the tank wall
(without using shunt) must first be determined. Magnetic shunts are applied
to the tank wall, If the stray loss is higher than permissible. Flux is attracted
by shunts and because the permeability of shunt is high, the losses are
reduced.

35
Q. 2.39 What is Impedance ?

A.2.39 If by exciting a transformer, a flux  T is produced then only flux  m links with
both HV & LV windings for power transformation between HV & LV, but certain
amount of flux  L does not link with either windings resulting in non-
transformation of power and hence it is called leakage flux which is the seat for
leakage impedance popularly known as Impedance (%Z).

LEAKAGE FLUX

In Short  T =  M +  L

Where  T = total Flux

 M = Mutual flux or useful flux

 L = Leakage flux

Flux
Leakage Inductance L =
Ampere

L
=
Ampere
Leakage Impedance or impedance = 2  fL where f = frequency in HZ

In short, the impedance is nothing but a result of leakage flux, Impedance

protects transformer against short circuits but, reduces voltage under load
conditions (which is known as regulation)

36
Q 2.40 What is the relationship between flux density, core weight and Iron losses ?

A 2.40 The relation between flux density, weight and iron losses is as follows :

Flux density  IronLoss

Weight

Q. 2.41 What is the relation between copper Weight, Current Density, Resistance and
loss in a winding ?

A. 2.41 Example (Ref. Q.16)

i) The resistance of HV = 1.7897 ohms.

ii) The Weight of HV

= Length of HV conductors in m. x
Area of conductor in mm 2 x 8.89 x 10 3
Where 8.89 is copper density factor

= 8482 x 100 x 8.89 x 10 2 kg. = 7540 kg.

iii) The I 2 R loss = I 2 R

Where R = Resistance per Phase = 1.7897 ohms
Where I =Phase current of HV = 262 Amps. (Say)
 The I 2 R loss = (262) 2 x 1.7897 x 10 3

iv) The same I 2 R loss than can be derived from copper weight, current
density, by the formula.

I 2 R loss = 2.36 x (Current density in A/mm 2 ) x copper weight in kg. X 10 3 KW

(2.36) constant)

 Current density in this case.

Current
= -----------------------------------------------------
Cross sectional area of conductor in mm 2

262
= = 2.62 A/mm 2
100

 The I 2 R loss = 2.36 x (2.62) 2 x 7540 x 10 3 = 122.14 KW

Q.2.42 What is the ratio of copper and lamination weights ?

A. 2.42 The ratio of copper weight to lamination weight is very roughly 1:2 for normal
design.

37
Q 2.43 What is the thumb rule for Copper Losses in terms of Rs / KW ?

A. 2.43 Let the price of copper be Rs. 138/- per kg. And copper loss be 16W/kg.,

Price of copper (in Rs.)

 Copper loss in Rs./kW = -------------------------------------------
Copper loss (in Watts per kg.)

138
= = Rs 8.635 per watt = Rs. 9 per watt
16

=  Rs. 9000 per kW of copper loss.

Q.2.44 What is the condition of loading for maximum efficiency and its significance ?

A.2.44 The maximum efficiency of transformer occurs at a load at which the no load
loss is equal to the load losses.
This is the condition for maximum efficiency of a Transformer. In other words, for
maximum efficiency occurs at load k where

k 2 Load Loss = No Load Loss

Q.2.45 What is the thumb rule for oil quantity per kVA ?

A.2.45 Very roughly 0.8 Lit / KVA for Distribution Transformers and 0.5 Lit / KVA for
Power Transformers

Q 2.46 How the Quality of Oil monitored ?

A. 2.46 Quality of Oil is maintained by monitoring the important characteristics of oil at

various stages as stated below :

S.No. Stage Characteristics Ref. Standard

1. Incoming All routine tests IS-335
(excluding Long duration tests)

2. Process stage IS-1866

- During storage
- Before impregnation of
core – coil assly.
- After filling in jobs
BDV, Water content
BDV, Water content
(Tan delta & Resistivity on
random basis)

3. Before despatch of oil BDV, Water content IS-1866

38
Q 2.47 What are the Parameters to be considered when a transformer with Off Circuit
Tap switch is converted into a transformer with OLTC ?

A. 2.47 Following Parameters are to be considered if Off Circuit transformer is

converted into OLTC transformer.
i) Number of steps required for OLTC and HV winding design. This will change
the core frame design.
ii) Space availability to mount OLTC instead Off Circuit Switch. This will change
the tank dimensions and hence overall dimensions of Transformers.

Q. 2.48 Explain the cause of the noise produced by transformers. What are the steps
generally taken to reduce the noise ?

A. 2.48 Noise in Transformers

The transformer in operation produces “hum” or “noise”. The noise originates in

the core of the transformer due to vibrations of the laminations of the core due to
magnetic forces. The vibrations of laminations cannot be totally eliminated but
can be minimized. Noise increases with load.

The causes of the transformer noise are :

a) Magnetostriction (e.g., an extension of 0.00012% for a flux density of 1 T).
(1 Tesla = 1 weber/m 2 ).
b) Mechanical vibration developed by the laminations, depending upon the
tightness of clamping, size, gauge, associated structural parts, etc..
c) Mechanical vibration of the tank, and
d) Noise by fans of force air cooling.
e) Noise in cooling system oil pumps.

In general, the total noise emission may be reduced by

a) Preventing core plate vibration, which needs the use of a lower flux-density
and attention to constructional features such as clamping bolts, proportions,
and dimensions of the ‘steps’ in plate width, tightness of clamping and
uniformity of plates.
b) By providing noise absorbing cushions, padding, or oil-barriers.
c) Preventing vibration of the tank walls by suitable design of a tank and
stiffeners; and
d) Providing enclosure fro transformer.
e) Air cooling fans of low speed.

Q 2.49 Explain the effect of moisture and water on the performance of a power
transformer.

A 2.49 The transformer oil and winding have a tendancy to readily absorb moisture from
the air. The water in the oil decreases the dielectric strength of the oil as well as
that of insulating paper which absorbs and stores the moisture due to higher
affinity fro water.

39
 All possible preventive steps, should, therefore, be taken to guard against
moisture penetration to the inside of the transformers. This will include blocking
of all openings for free access of air in storage and frequent reactivation of
breathers in service.
Oxygen reacts on the insulation and the decomposition products cause sludge
which blocks the free circulation of the oil. The adverse effect of oxygen, gets
accelerated at higher operating temperatures. The dielectric strength of oil is
diminished significantly by small quantities of solid impurities. It is, therefore, a
good practice to filter the oil during periodic maintenance if the BDV * of oil is
poor. Some oxidizing type varnishes having acid resisting properties are
generally preferred. This should be considered when the rewinding and replacing
the coils during repairs of transformer.

Q. 2.50 What is tertiary winding ? Why it is required ?

A. 2.50 i) To suppose third harmonic currents, (which are in the same phase), tertiary
winding is required.

ii) It is separate winding with 33.1/3% capacity of full MVA.

iii) It is also reduces single line to ground fault currents.

iv) It is delta connected.

v) It is generally unloaded with two delta corner bushings brought out on tank
cover joined and grounded.

vii) Sometimes Tertiary is also loaded and the load connected to it is capacitive
(synchronous condenser load)

Q. 2.51 What are the special considerations while designing a Generator Transformer ?

A. 2.51 Precautions for designing Generator Transformer.

i) Flux density selection based on the over-excitation & frequency variation.

ii) Low voltage winding having very high current is designed with number of
parallel conductors transposed at regular intervals to reduce Eddy Losses.

iii) Adequate precautions are taken to strengthen Coil Clamping Arrangement by

providing number of Jacking Pads and higher of Clamping rings to take care of
high short-circuit forces due to high current in LV winding.

iv) Shunts are provided on the tank wall to take care of fluxes to reduce
additional losses.

Q.2.52 Whether any Power Transformer can be used as a Generator Transformer ?

A.2.52 Power Transformer can be used as generator transformer if bidirectional power

flow OLTC is used.

40
Q.2.53 What are the special features of a Furnace transformer & what are the basic
parameters required for preparing the offer ?

A 2.53 Specialties in Furnace Transformer

i) Taps are on HV winding to vary the LV
ii) High current involved in LV, hence design of LV, connection to Bus bars and
hence space inside the tank to be taken care of while designing.
iii) Care to be taken for the overloading of transformer and the design to cater for
short time high currents
iv) LV side connections to suit customer’s terminal arrangement either through
bus bar risers or copper bus tubes. Termination is taken through fibre glass
board.
v) Overall dimensions of the transformers to fit in the room where furnace
transformers are to be installed.

vi) Either copper shielding provided to LV side of tank wall or wall made up of
stainless steel to reduce Stray losses and avoid wall heating.
Following are the Parameters required from customer to give complete offer.
1) Rating (And application of F.T.) with Type of Cooling.
2) No load voltages on HV & LV side
3) Duty cycle (i.e overloads for specified period)
4) Connection on HV & LV sides
5) Constant kVA tape or maximum secondary current
6) Regulation through Off Circuit or OLTC, Tapping details
7) % Impedance & Losses at particular tap.
8) Temperature rises of Oil / Winding and Cooling Water temperature for OFWF
cooling.
9) Terminal arrangement & the location of terminals (Sometimes HV & LV are
required on side wall of Tank).
10) Any special accessories other than normal required.

Q 2.54 What is an auto-transformer. What is its advantage and dis-advantage ?

A.2.54 In autotransformer a single winding is used for primary and secondary circuits.
The volt-amperes of primary winding is equal to volt-amperes of secondary
winding. Since the same winding is used for primary and secondary winding.
Autotransformer requires less material for the same output than that required by
a two winding transformer.
We can also say that for the same amount of material in both, the output of auto-
transformer will be higher than that of two winding transformer.
Auto-Transformer Rating
1
= [ Two-winding Transformer Rating ] x
1  1/ R
R= Ratio of high voltage to low-voltage of autotransformer.
Autotransformer is economical. Lesser the value of R, Lesser the cost of
Autotransformer.

41
Q 2.55 What is the Core material used in Reactor ?
A. 2.55 Normally CRGO cores are used in gapped core reactors. The cores are bult in
the form of packets of laminations bolted together. Due to fringing of flux in the
gaps, the cores need not be of very high grade quality. They can be M6 grade or
may be CRNGO material.

Q.2.56 What are the different types of core Laminations ?

A 2.56 Transformer steels belong to the group of ferromagnetic materials.

The kind of laminations applicable to transformers was developed as early as

1889. The same time the need for reducing the hystersis and eddy current looses
in 1mm and thinner steel sheets by alloying with Silicon, at the same time
maintaining their magnetization properties within acceptable limits, was
recognized.

1. Hot Rolled Sheets:

The development of hot rolled sheets was carried on until the 1950’s their
essential properties being as follows.

1.1 The magnetization properties and losses in the direction of rolling or in any
direction are the same. The attainable minimum loss of 0.35 mm thick sheet
is 0.9 W/kg at a flux density of 1 tesla & 50Hz frequency.

1.2 Surface unevenness of sheets and insulating layers has limited the space
factor of core to maximum of 92%

1.3 Hot Rolled Sheets saturate at a flux density of 1.9 T and the working flux
density has to be limited.

42
2. Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel (Conventional grade, M4, M5 & M6)

2.1 The magnetic characteristics and losses of steels are strongly dependent on
the direction of grain orientation.
A 30° change in direction may cause more than double losses and in the
case of 60° deviation, the magnetizing power may be 50 times higher than
the normal.

2.2 In the rolling direction, the core loss and magnetizing power are considerably
lower than those of hot rolled sheets.

2.3 The stacking factor is 97 %

2.4 An unfavourable property of cold rolled steels is their instability. Mechanical

stress due to impacts, cuts, vibration, punching or bending increase the loss
in the sheets by 5 – 10 %.

2.5 Deterioration due to stresses caused by mechanical processing can be

corrected by subsequent annealing at 800°C to 820°C, whereby the original
magnetic properties of the sheets can be fully restored.

3. For Hi-B grade steel designated M1H, M2H, M0H, ZH100 etc, watts/kg at
higher flux density is less compared to conventional M4 grade of steel.

43
Q 2.57 Give a chart for specific loss of different grades of cores steel.

A 2.57 Grades in conformity with AISI

Thickness Watts per Kilogram

Grade
mm (in.) 50 Hz, 1.5 T
23ZH90 0.63
23ZH90 0.64
0.23 M-OH 0.66
(0.009) M-1 0.69
M-2 0.71
M-3 0.76
27ZH95 0.69
27ZH100 0.70
0.27 M-0H 0.72
(0.0106) M-1H 0.74
M-3 0.80
M-4 0.83
30ZH100 0.73
M-0H 0.74
0.30 M-1H 0.77
(0.0118) M-2H 0.81
M-3 0.83
M-4 0.86
M-5 0.90
M-1H 0.87
0.35 M-2H 0.90
(0.0138) M-3H 0.93
M-5 0.96
M-6 1.01

44
Q 2.58 What are the common thicknesses of CRGO laminations ?

A 2.58 CRGO is available in 0.23, 0.27, 0.30, & 0.35 mm thickness depending on grade
Better the grade, lower the thickness.

Q 2.59 What will happen if CRNGO is used instead of CRGO ?

A.2.59 The losses will increase to nearly 3 to 5 times those of CRGO grade core.

Q 2.60 What is the insulation used for Lamination ?

A 2.60 The insulation used for lamination is a coating of magnetisium silicate, commonly
known as “CARLITE”.

Q 2.61 What is Stacking factor ?

A 2.61 The ratio of bare iron area to iron covered (insulated) area is called stacking
factor. It is generally of the order of 0.97.

Q 2.62 What is the Insulation provided on the core bolts for distribution and Power
transformers? What is normal practice ?

A 2.62 I) Distribution Transformers are made without core bolts.

ii) Power Transformers are made with & without core bolts. In case core bolts are
used, the insulation provided over core bolts are :-

a) Wrapping of min 3 mm radial glass fibre woven tape &

b) Providing of Fibre Glass Sleeve.

Generally in EMCO, we are making core without yoke bolts.

Q 2.63 Why 2 kV test is conducted on core ?

A 2.63 To check insulation between core & frame, core & core bolts. In case of failure of
insulation there will be path available for leakage flux which will result in
excessive leakage current and high core loss.

Q 2.64 How do you provide Core earthing ?

A 2.64 a) Lamination to Lamination Earthing :

Where the magnetic circuit is divided into the packets by cooling ducts parallel
to the planbes of laminations. ‘U’ shape tinned copper strips are inserted to the
minimum 50 mm deep between the laminations to maintain electrical continuity
between packets. The area of earthing strips should not be less than 0.20 sq.cm.

45
b) Core Earthing :

46
 The whole Core Assembly is earthed at one point by inserting one end of
tinned copper strip about 300 mm deep inside the laminations and the other
end of copper strip is bolted with the insulated flexible copper cable, which is
finally connected to one of the terminal studs of Earthing Terminal Board
provided on the Top of Tank Cover. The earthing strip / cable should have a
cross sectional area of not less than 0.80 sq. cm.

c) Frame Earthing :
One point of the Top yoke clamping frame (End Frame) should also be
earthed through insulated flexible copper cable. One end of the cable is
bolted with the Top Frame and other end is connected to the one of the
terminal studs of the Earthing Terminal Board provided on top of the cover.
The cross sectional area of cable should not be less than 0.80 sq. cm.

c) Core, Frame to tank earthing :

The Earthing Terminal Board is provided on the top of the Tank Cover
having two terminal studs which are connected to the Core & Top the Frame
independently as described in b) & c) above from inside. The outer terminals on
the Tank Cover are connected together through copper link and finally earthing
terminal stud welded on the top of cover. This arrangement ensures single –
point earthing of core, frame and tank. A typical earthing arrangement is shown
in the sketch.

Q 2.65 What is the core Construction used in Amorphous Core ?

A 2.65 It is basically a wound type core due the use of very thin laminations as shown in
the sketch.

There are four packets of wound core and the construction is similar to the
normal 5 limb construction.

47
Q 2.66 Why Annealing is done on Lamination ?

A. 2.66 The grains get disoriented due to stresses of impacts, cuts, vibrations, punching
or bending and this results into increase in loss. This can be corrected by
annealing the lamination at 800°C to 820°C which reorients the disturbed grains
and hence reduces the losses.

Q 2.67 What is the material of amorphous core ?

A 2.67 It is magnetic steel ribbon of 0.0254 mm thick and 100 mm wide without grains. It
is also known as ‘Metal glass’ as glass also does not have grains.

Q.2.68 What is regulating winding ?

A 2.68 The thickness of Amorphous core ribbon is 0.001” (0.0254 mm)

Q 2.69 What is regulating winding ?

A. 2.69 Regulating winding is nothing but a tapping winding. In power transformers it is

wound separately to reduce unbalance axial forces. In small transformers or
transformers where tapping unbalance axial forces. In small transformers or
transformers where tapping range is less, it is part of main winding itself (which is
known as body taps).

Q 2.70 What is the relation between Impedance, Losses and Price ?

A 2.70 The Relations are as follows :

i) Loss & price

1
Loss  i.e. the loss is inversely proportional to price
price
ii) Impedance and loss :
Higher the impedance, higher is the leakage flux and hence higher is the Load
Loss. There is no definite relation between impedance and No Load Loss.

iii) Impedance & price :

There is no definite relation between impedance & price.

48
 SECTION – I I I

TANK & ACCESSORIES

49
SECTION – I I I : TANK & ACCESSORIES

Q 3.1 What is conventional and Bell type construction & advantage ?

A 3.1 I) Covnetional tank means the joint of tank & Cover is provided at the top of tank,
the cover may be that or sloppy type. Such type of tank is generally used upto 50
MVA transformer where the un-tanking of core & winding assembly is possible at
site by mobile crane for inspection and maintenance.

ii) Bell type tank means the total tank height to be made in-two halves. Top
portion known as top tank & bottom portion known as bottom tank. The height of
bottom tank is to be kept in, such a way that if the top tank is removed. Then the
core winding assembly of the transformer can be easily accessible for inspection
& maintenance. This type of tank is recommended above 50 MVA rating of
transformers, because at site it is not possible to lift the core & winding together
from tank for inspection & maintenance purpose due to the heavy weight of Core
and Winding assembly.

Q 3.2 What is the material used for tank ?

A 3.2 Good commercial grade low carbon weldable structural steel to is : 2062.

Q 3.3 What are the thicknesses of bottom, side and top plates of the tank ?

A 3.3 As per IEEMA, the following are the recommended thicknesses for bottom, side
and top Flat Plates.

Sr.No. Length Bottom Thickness Side Thickness Top Thickness

mm mm mm mm

1 Upto 500 3 2 3

2 501 – 1000 6 3 4–5

3 1001 – 1500 6–7 5 6

4 1501 - 2500 8 6 6

5 2501 – 5000 10 8 8

6 5001 - 8000 12 or as required 10 10

NOTE: The above are recommendations only. However, they may vary
depending upon the method of stiffeners used in tank plate to meet the
requirement of Vacuum & Pressure, weight acting on the base Plate.
Q 3.4 What is the thickness of CRCA sheet used for radiators ?

50
A 3.4 As per IEEMA Standard (IEEMA :9), the thickness of radiator section is 1.25 mm
for all sizes of radiators.

Q.3.5 What are the standard pitch, width & height of radiators ?

A 3.5 As per IEEMA : 9, the following are the standard pitch, width & height of radiators.
i) Pitch : Pitch between adjacent section is 50 = 0.5 mm
ii) Width : Standard section width of the radiator is 226 = 2 mm, 300 = 3
mm & 520 = 3 mm
iii) Height of : centre distance between top & bottom header pipes (cc) is in
between 400 mm to 3000 mm in steps of 100 mm with a
tolerance of = 2 mm upto & including 2000 mm and = 3 mm
above 2000 mm

Q 3.6 What are the different types of rollers & their application ?

A 3.6 Different types of rollers are as under :-

i) Plain type roller - Generally used in Distribution Transformers.
(without bearing)
ii) Flanged type bi-directional roller – Generally used in Power Transformer,
(with taper bearing) Flanged type bi-directional roller should be
either single or twin depending upon the
capacity requirement.

Q 3.7 What are the different types of Jacks? Write down their applications ?

A 3.7 Generally, two types of Jacks are used to raise or lower the complete transformer
with oil.
i) Hydraulic Jacks (with Plain ram type & screwed ram type)
ii) Mechanical Jacks (with screwed ram)
Method of Use:-
Lifting of any load calls for precise and sale Jacking Points. Jack should be
centrally loaded. Eccentric loading causes dangerous accidents and damages
the equipment. Jacks to be used as per the instructions given in O & M Manual of
respective product.

Q 3.8 What is the procedure for painting ? What are the different paints & shades ?
What is the dry Thickness ? Normal life of painting ?

A 3.8 Painting is a process to provide a protective coating to the exposed metal surface
against environmental conditions to prevent corrosion of the base surface.
Before application of paint, surface preparation is done to prepare base surface
with uniform profile and finish. This done by different methods dependingupon
the size, shape, service conditions & application of the job. It is important that the
surface on which paint is applied, is properly finished & free from defects, dust &
rust.

51
Procedure for spray painting.

Mix the paint thoroughly in case of two pack and measure the flow time by ford
cup – F4. Clean & dry spray gun properly and pour ready mixed paint,
maintaining the air pressure between 2.5 to 4 kg/cm 2 . Pressure line should have
two stage filter to ensure moisture & oil free air during spray painting. Apply paint
on the surface, start from one point and finish at other point, during spray
process maintain the feed uniformity to ensure uniform coating thickness through
out the surface. Allow sufficient time of atleast 2-4 hours before applying next
coat on the surface. After primer, the finish paint coat shall be applied and an
intermediate drying time 2-4 hours should be allowed before application of next
coat. Finally dry coat thickness is measured and peel off test is conducted to
ensure the final coat thickness and its adherence to the surface.

Other painting procedures used for painting of transformer components are :

a) Dip painting : for components like small pipes, flanges, boxes etc.

d) Airless spray painting : for main tank and accessories.

c) Flood painting : for primer coating & inside coating of radiators.

d) Forced painting : for inside painting of pipes & radiators.

e) Brush painting : for general touch up.

f) Stove painting : for control panel boxes.

Various types of common paints & shades used for transformer are as under :

Sr. No. Type of Paint Shades of IS -5

1 Synthetic enamel red oxide primer Red
(zinc chrome as per IS:104)
2 Epoxy base primer Red
3 Synthetic enamel finishing paint Light gray (shade No. 631)
Dark gray (shade No. 632)
Olive green (shade No. 220)
Off White
Cream
White
4 Epoxy finishing paint -- do --
5 Oil resistant yellow paint Light biscuit colour
6 Aluminium paint Silver
7 Zinc spray Zinc

In normal environmental conditions, thickness of dry paint coat is 80 – 110

microns for outside paint & 40 microns minimum for inside paint.

52
Q.3.9 What are the precautions taken during welding to avoid leakage ?

A 3.9 Following precautions are taken to avoid leakage .

a) All sharp edges are finished and proper V – notch (groove) is prepared during
joint preparation at fit-up stage.
b) Use of proper size and type of electrode and current.
c) Only qualified welders are allowed to perform the welding.
d) Maintaining uniform weld size through out the joint.
e) Always some over – run of weld is ensured before finishing the weld run.
f) Welding defects, viz, cracks, under –cutting, blow holes, under run of weld,
are attended before leakage test.

Q 3.10 What Precautions are taken in Bell type construction from oil leakage point of
view ?
A 3.10 The following precautions are taken during designing of Bell type tank to prevent
the oil leakages :-
i) Thickness of curb for top & bottom tank should be kept 25 mm min.
ii) Width of curb should be kept 150 mm min.
iii) Curb bolt size should be minimum M 24 and bolt pitch should be kept
maximum 5 times of the bolt dia.
iv) HTS Curb bolt should be used.
v) The welding of top & bottom tank wall with curb should be in such a way that
Curb should project minimum 10 mm towards inside of tank wall.
vi) For flat curb, 16 mm thick gasket to be used.
vii) For curb with limiter (metallic stopper to prevent the over compression of
Gasket) arrangement 16 + 16 mm thick Gaskets to be used.

Q 3.11 How is PRV selected for different ratings of transformers ?

A 3.11 The standard operating pressure of PRV are as under with tolerance of = 10%
2
i) 0.42 Kg / cm
2
ii) 0.49 Kg / cm
2
iii) 0.56 Kg / cm
2
iv) 0.70 Kg / cm
.
The transformer tank is generally designed to withstand pressure corresponding
2
to twice of the normal head of oil or to the normal pressure plus 35 KN / m (5
lb/sq.in) whichever is lower measured at tank base and will be maintained for one
hour. This pressure value differs from job to job. The PRV selected from the
above range should be one step below the calculated value for the safe
operation of transformer.

53
Q. 3.12 What is the guarantee that PRV operates at pre Set Value ?

A. 3.12 The operational reliability of PRV depends upon the quality of spring and the
effectiveness of periodic checks defined in O & M manual. All the PRVs are
tested initially for operating pressure and provided with rain guard to protect the
diaphragm and spring from corrosion. During service, PRV should be periodically
checked for free spindle movement and cleanliness so that it retains its functional
repeatability during service.

Q. 3.13 What is the difference between PRV & Sudden Pressure Relay ?

A. 3.13 Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) provides instantaneous relieving of dangerous

pressure built-up inside the transformer tank within a few milliseconds before
rupturing the tank.
Whereas Sudden Pressure Relay minimizes the possibility of such occurrences
by detecting rates of pressure increases in excess of the safe limits for which
transformer is designed. When such conditions are experienced, it will initiate an
electrical signal for circuit breaker operation to de-energize the transformer and
institute an alarm if desired.

Q 3.14 What is Oil Surge Relay and What is the difference between OSR & BR ?

A 3.14 i) Oil Surge Relay operates on the surge of oil.

ii) Buchholz Relay has two floats. One float operates on oil surge (due to severe
fault which operates trip circuit). Another float operates due to slow
accumulation of gas in transformer (connected to alarm circuit).

iii) As the gas formation is a normal phenomena in OLTC due to constant arcing
of divertor contacts during operation, It is fitted with oil surge relay only. The
other float operations due to slow arc accumulation is not provided, as it will
always give false alarm.
iv) Thus, single float OSR is connected to OLTC and double float BR is
connected to transformer.
v) OSR has one float operating on oil surge. BR has two floats, one operating an
oil surge and another operating on slow accumulation of gas.

Q 3.15 What is Reed type BR ? How does it operate ?

A. 3.15 The Reed type Buccholz relay doesn’t have mercury switches. It works with reed
contacts which are less sensitive to seismic vibrations (unlike mercury switches)

Q 3.16 What is the function of conservators ? What are the types ?

A. 3.16 During the load condition, the oil of transformer expands and contracts. The
conservator is connected to transformer tank by means of a pipe. The
conservator volume is used for expansion contraction of oil during condition load.

54
 Two types of conservators are used in practice:
1) Conservator with dry air on top portion in communication with atmospheric air
via silica- gel breather.
2) Conservator with air-bag : This is type conservator has a rubber air bag in the
upper portion of conservator tank. The conservator in connected to the
transformer tank via a pipe. During expansion of tank oil, rubber air-bag gets
compressed, allowing oil to rise in the conservator tank. The rubber bag is
connected to Silica gel -breather.

Q 3.17 What is the Method of Oil Filling when Transformer is supplied with COPS in
Conservator ?

A 3.17

COPS – Conservator Oil Preservation System (viz. Air Cell)

1) Close and blank the valve (A) to isolate the conservator from main tank, fill
the oil in transformer under vacuum up to tank rim through bottom filter valve.
2) After filling the oil in transformer, break the vacuum through silica gel breather
(F) by connecting it to 25 NB valve provided on cover.
3) Remove the inspection cover provided on the side of the conservator and
check the air cell ensuring that it is inflated. The air cell must remain in fully
inflated condition during oil filling operation. If the air cell is found deflated, fit
the inspection cover and inflated the air cell with dry air / nitrogen gas to 0.07
2
kg/cm max. through connection (B), A guage “E” is mounted at the top.
After Achieving the pressure close valve (B). Wait for 24hrs. To check
leakage in air cell by monitoring the air pressure.
4) Remove air release plugs (C)and (D) provided on top of the conservator and
open valve (A).
5) Slowly pump the oil through the main transformer, temporarily stop filling
operation when oil starts coming out from openings (D), After ensuring that

55
 no air bubbles come out through these air release holes, fit the two air
release plugs (D).
6) Continue oil filling till oil starts coming out from opening (C). stop oil filling
after ensuring that no air bubbles come out , fit the plugs (C).
7) Now release the air pressure held in the air cell by opening valve (B) and
continue oil filling until oil gauges indicates 30°C level.
8) Remove the breather (F) and its connecting pipe by closing 25NB valve and
relief breather (F) in to connecting pipe (G)
9) Finally remove pressure guage (E) & blank the opening with plug.

PRECAUTIONS:
1) Oil filling in the conservator and also draining whenever required must be
done very slowly, during oil filling, pressure in the cell should not exceed 0.07
2
kg/cm
2) If a pressure or vacuum is ever applied to the main transformer tank the
conservator must be disconnected and a banking plate fitted on shut of valve
(A)
3) Do not carry out any welding operation on conservator to avoid any damage
to air cell.
4) Once all the air has been driven out during oil filling in the conservator do not
remove air release plugs (C) and (D).
5) After connecting breather (F) valve (B) to be kept in open position.

NOTE:
In OLTC CONSERVATOR OIL to be filled separately through oil filling hole
provided at the top of conservator up to level marked on the prismatic oil guage.

Q 3.18 What are the different types of OLTC’s ?

A. 3.18 Different types of OLTC :-

i) Externally mounted to transformer tank
ii) Inside tank mounted

Externally mounted OLTCs are generally fuller type or English Electric type
OLTCs mounted inside tank are Jenson type OLTCs used earlier were of huge
reactors type. Now almost all OLTC are High Speed transition resistor type.

Q 3.19 What are the guaranteed number of operations for different types of OLTCs?

A 3.19 Different OLTCs will have different guarantee operations, maximum guaranteed
value is about 1.0 Lac based on the maintenance of oil in divertor compartment.

Q 3.20 State the function of bushing. Which types of bushings are used for power
transformers?

A 3.20 Bushing comprises a central conductor surrounded by graded insulation. A

bushing is necessary when a conductor is taken out through metallic tank or a
wall.

56
Simple porcelain insulator bushing can be used up to 52 kV class. Such a
bushing consists of a single porcelain housing through which a single central
conductor passes.
Oil impregnated paper condenser bushing (OIP) is used. (for 66kV and above).
The condenser bushing consists of a central conductor surrounded by alternate
layers of insulating paper and tin foil. The capacitor formed by alternate layers of
tin foil and paper insulation results in uniform electric stress distribution between
conductor surface and the earthed flange.
The bushing core is coated with suitable resign. The assembly is enclosed in
hollow porcelain and is provided with support fange and top hood. The porcelain
is filled with dielectric oil.

One end of the bushing goes into transformer tank. The other end is in the
outside air.

In some cases there is a provision to mount current transformer on the bushing.

Constructional Details of OIP Condenser Bushing.

The bushing is built up around a center tube on which the condensor body is
wound.
The upper porcelain, lower porcelain and fastening flange are held between the
end plates by the centre tube and sealing is accomplished by oil-resistant rubber
gaskets in grooves.
The annular space between the condensor body and the porcelain is filled with
transformer oil and gas-filled expansion space is left at the top. The oil level can
be checked by means of a dip-stick in the oil filling hole.
The outer conducting layer of the condensor body is connected to an insulated
test tap on the flange. During operation the test is automatically earthed and
protected by a screw on cap.
The lower end-plate is enclosed by an epoxy resin insulated aluminium shield.
The inner terminal is attached to the centre tube by means of a through-going
resilient pin which becomes locked when the outer terminal is screwed on. The
pin ensures effective electrical contact between the inner and outer terminals.
The inner terminals can be chosen for connection to leads either by brazing or
crimping.
The outer terminal is available in aluminium or copper alloy and can be
supplemented by terminal plates or corresponding material.
The upper porcelain is made in one piece of high quality electrical porcelain. The
fixing flange is manufactured of corrosion-resistant aluminium alloy and is
available in straight or, for some types, also inclined designs, the latter giving the
bushing and inclination of 18°.

The flange as well as the other metals parts on the exterior side of the bushing
are protected by painting with two-component primer and a grey-blue finishing
coat of paint.

57
 The bushings are delivered oil-filled and ready for use. They can be stored in any
position in warm dry storage.

If the bushing is mounted with an inclination of more than 45° from the vertical,
special measures may have to be taken no ensure sufficient filling of oil in the
bushing.

Q 3.21 What are different type by bushing ?

A 3.21 The different types of bushings generally used in transformer are as under :-
i) Epoxy bushing
ii) Porcelain bushing (Oil Communicating type)
iii) Oil Impregnated Paper (OIP) Condenser bushing.
iv) Synthetic resin impregnated (SRBP) bushing
v) Oil to SF-6 bushing

Q 3.22 What are the tests conducted on bushing ?

A 3.22 Routine Tests

i) Physical dimensions check
ii) Measurement of insulation resistance
iii) Measurement of resistance
iv) Measurement of tan delta and capacitance
v) Dry Power frequency voltage withstand test for one minute.

Type Test.
i) Wet power frequency test for 1 Minute
ii) Temperature rise test
iii) Short circuit test for 1 second . A current of the order of 25 times normal
current is passed through the conductor for one second.
iv) Switching impulse and lightening impulse voltage withstand test
v) Partial discharge test.

Q 3.23 What are the accessories normally provided on RTCC ?

A 3.23 The standard accessories are tap position indicator, Remote WTI, OTI, indicating
lamps, Annunciation, OLTC control switches, Remote cooler control switches,
etc..

Q 3.24 State the various safety devices fitted on the power transformers. Protective
Devices and Safety Devices.
A 3.24 The electrical protection systems can sense the abnormal conditions by
measuring current/voltage. Besides electrical relays, a transformer is provided
with the following accessories :
- Oil level guage
- Sudden pressure relay
- Pressure relief valve
- Oil temperature indicator
- Winding temperature indicator (hot spot)
- Buchholtz relay.

58
Q 3.25 What is the function of breather ?

A 3.25 The breather is filled with silica gel. The silica get absorbs moisture. The breather
is filled between the air space of conservator and the outside vent. The breathing
of transformers during load cycles takes place through the breather. When the
load increases, the oil expands and the air from conservator is expelled. During
reduced load, the oil level in the conservator falls down the atmospheric air is
breathed in. This incoming air taken through the silica gel breather or activated
alumina breather. The silica-gel or activated alumina absorb moisture.
Dry silica gel is of the blue colour.
It turns pale pink as it absorbs moisture. The wet silica gel can be regenerated by
drying.

Q 3.26 What is Thermosyphon filter ?

A 3.26 Thermosyphon filter is intended for prolonging transformer oil life by extracting
harmful constituents like water, acids, etc. from oil. Such filters are normally
mounted on the transformers tank and connected to top & bottom of tank through
pipes. The filter, generally is of cylindrical shape has a number of perforated steel
trays filled with an absorbent material like activated alumina.
As a result of difference in the temperature between the upper & lower layers of
oil in the tank of transformer in operation, the oil circulates through the filter by
convection currents. During the circulation the activated Alumina absorb
moisture, acids etc, from oil.

59
Q 3.27 What are the different Systems used to prevent ingress of moisture in Oil ?

A 3.27 Transformer oil deterioration takes place due to moisture. Moisture can appear in
a transformer from three sources, viz, by leakage through gasketed joints, by
absorption from air in contact with the oil surface, or by its formation within the
transformer as product of deterioration as insulation ages at high temperature.
The effect of moisture in oil is to reduce the electric strength, especially if loose
fibre or dust particle are present.

Method available to reduce oil contamination from moisture are :-

i) Silicagel breather,
ii) Thermosyphon filter,
iii) Nitrogin sealed Conservator,
iv) Aircell (flexible sepaatior) type Conservator,
v) Diphragm type Conservator and
v) Driyed refrigeration type breather.

60
 SECTION – I V

MATERIALS

61
SECTION – IV : MATERIALS

Q. 4.1 What are the electrical properties of copper used for windings ?

A 4.1 Properties of copper as per IS : 6160 are as follows :

a) Material : The conductor is manufactured from Electrolytic Tough Pitch (ETP),
Fire Refined High Conductivity (FRHC) or Fire Refined Tough Pitch (FRTP)
grade copper conforming to IS : 191 – 1967 (Specification of Copper)
b) Physical Constants :
i) Resistance : The resistance at 20°C of conductor of annealed copper metre
in lemgth and of a uniform cross-sectional area of 1sq.mm shall be taken as
0.017241 ohm.
ii) Density: The density at 20°C shall be taken as 8.899 gm / cm 2
iii) Co-effeicient of linear expansion of annealed copper over a temperature
range of 0 to 150°C shall be taken as 0.000017 per degree Celsius.
iv) Constant mass “temperature co-effeicient of resistance”: At temperature of
20°C, the constant mass “temperature co-efficient of resistance” of
annealed copper measured between two potential points rigidity fixed to the
conductor, the metal being allowed to expand freely, shall be taken as
0.00393 per degree Celsius.
For any temperature (To) above 0°C, the temperature co-efficient of
1
resistance is
234.5  To

Q 4.2 What are the different types of transformer Oil ?

A 4.2 There are two type of transformer oil

a) Mineral transformer oil (IS : 335 & IS : 12463 for fresh oil)
b) Synthetic insulating fluid (IS : 1866 for oil in service)
Mineral transformer oil is further divided in to two categories
- Uninhibited oil (Oil with natural anti-oxidants – IS : 335)
- Inhibited oil (Oil with additive anti-oxidants – IS : 12463)

Q 4.3 What are the various properties of Oil ?

A 4.3 The properties of oil are given below

- Physical appearance - Density
- Kinematic viscosity - Pour point
- Flash point - Total acidity
- Presence of oxidation inhitors - Water content
- SK Value - Interfacial tension
- Electric strength - Tan Delta
- Resistivity - Accelerated ageing characteristics
- Corrosive sulphur - Oxidation stability

Q 4.4 Which oil is generally used ?

62
A 4.4 Both, uninhibited & inhibited types of mineral insulating oil is used

Q 4.5 Why oil is required to be filtered ?

A 4.5 Oil filtration is essential

- To remove the moisture content
- To reduce suspended particles
- To reduce suspended sludge
- To improve viscosity
- To improve the acidity by using activator
- Tp remove the dissolved and free gases from oil

Q 4.6 Why PCB is added in Oil ?

A. 4.6 PCB (Polychlorinated bi-phenyl) is an antioxidant additive, mixed with oil to

enhance its oxidation stability and increase the oxidation induction time. PCB has
advance effect on the environment and human health and therefore, its use is
restricted to less than 2 %. It can be measured with IR spectrometer.

Q 4.7 What are the Chemicals added in the Oil to enhance its Life ?

A 4.7 The inhibitors are the additives used in transformer oil to enhance the life
expectancy. These inhibitors are DTPC (Di-terbuty-paracresol) & Amine type.

Q 4.8 What are the tests conducted on Oil at EMCO Lab ?

A 4.8 Following tests are conducted on transformer oil

- Physical appearance - Density

- Kinematic viscosity - Total acidity
- Flash point - Water content
- Presence of oxidation inhibitors - Interfacial tension
- SK Value - Accelerated ageing characteristics
- Electric strength - Dissolved gas analysis
- Resistivity & Tan Delta -
- Corrosive sulphur -

63
Q 4.9 What is the minimum permissible value of Oil BDV ?

A 4.9 The minimum permissible values of Oil BDV for various voltage class applications,
as per IS : 1866 are as given below :

Oil BDV, kV
Voltage Class
Before Testing After commissioning & Testing
Up to 72.5 kV 40 30
> 72.5 & < 145 kV 40 40
> 145 kV 40 50

Q 4.10 What gases are evolved during fault in Transformer ?

A 4.10 The gases generated in the event of a fault in the transformer are : hydrogen,
Methane, Ethylene, Ethane, Acetylene & carbon monoxide.

Q 4.11 What are the different types of Valves the Materials used ? Indicate the cost
difference, if any.

A. 4.11 The different types of valves used in transformers are as under :-

Sr. No. Type of Valves Material of Valves

Gate type valves

1. Gun Metal
(15 NB to 180 NB size)

Gate type valves Cast Iron body with

2.
(50 NB & above size) Gun metal fittings

Butterfly valve
3. Cast Iron / Steel
(50 NB & above)
Cast Iron body with
4. Reflux – Non Return Valve
Gun metal rings

Gate type valve is costly by about 20 % compared to Butterfly valve.

Q 4.12 What is the cost different between different types of Oils ?

A 4.12 Inhibited oil is about 5% costlier than uninhibited oil.

64
 SECTION – V

TESTING & COMMISSIONING

65
SECTION – V : TESTING & COMMISSIONING

Q 5.1 Can the winding resistance be measured at site ?

A 5.1 Yes, it can be measured with the help of a Micro-ohm meter or Kelvin double
bridge or Wheatstone bridge.

Q 5.2 How the Vector Group is checked ?

A 5.2 Step-by-step procedure for checking the vector-group of a 3-phase transformer is

described below.

a) One terminal of each winding is joined together as shown in figure.

b) Three phase ac voltage different (415 V) is applied to the HV winding
terminals.
c) Voltage as per the diagram. A typical example is given below.

For a YnynO Vector Group transformer

1U, 2U - Join 1U & 2U terminals

- Apply 3 phase voltage across 1U,
● 1V & 1W
2N - Measure voltage between
1U-1V, 1V-1W, 1W-1U
1W-2W, 1V-2V, 1W-2V,
● 2W 2V
1V-2W, 1U-2N, 1N-2N, 1U-1N

From the vector diagram it is clear that

1W-2W = 1V-2V; 1W-2V = 1V-2W

also 1W-2V >1W-2W

and 1U-2N + 1N-2N = 1U-1N

1N
It the measured values are in line with
the above, the vector Group is
confirmed as YNynO

1W 1V

66
Q 5.3 What are the processes involved in making core laminations ? List out the tests
carried out on the CRGO laminations ?

A 5.3 Various processes involved and the tests carried out on the laminations are
tabulated as below.

Process Tests
Slitting Thickness
Mitring Stack height & Stacking factor
Notching Bend test
Burr pressing Surface Insulation resistance
Stacking Specific iron loss
Annealing Burr measurement
Hole punching Surface finish
Packing Waviness

Q 5.4 Whether Flux Density can be verified ?

A 5.4 Yes, It can be verified indirectly . A typical example is given below.

Formula for calculation of flux density is expressed as

(V / T 0 ) x10 4
Flux density B =
4.44 xfxA

Where

B = Flux density in core in Tesla

V = Phase voltage of a winding in Volts

T = No. of turns in the winding

F = Frequency in Hz

A = Area of cross – section of the core in sq.cm.

67
 Example :

a) Let the core diameter(d) = 50 cm

Net cross-sectional area of core (A) = 0.7 x (50) 2

= 1750 sq. cm.

b) Voltage rating of LV (V) = 11000 Volts

c) No. of turns in LV winding per phase (T) = 176

d) Supply frequency f = 50 Hz

Putting the above values in equation (1) gives

(11000 / 176) x10 4

B= = 1.608 Tesla
4.44 x50 x1750

From the foregoing. It is observed that by measuring the cross-sectional area of

the core, physically counting the number of turns of LV winding and taking the
value of V/T from design specification, the value of flux density in the core can be
verified.

Q 5.5 What are the tests conducted on transformer at various manufacturing stages &
what is their significance ?

A 5.5 Following tests are conducted at different manufacturing stages.

1. In-process tests on windings

a) Continuity test
This test is conducted to check the continuity of winding conductor & each
strand of multi-strand conductor.

b) Winding resistance measurement

This test is performed to check the continuity of winding conductor, the
quality of brazed joint in the winding & to confirm that the size of winding
conductor used is in conformance with design requirement.
2 In-process tests on core
a) Core loss test
Core loss is measured on the fully assembled core by putting dummy
winding turns & applying appropriate voltage sp as to develop the flux
corresponding to the rated voltage. This test helps in checking the core
performance without assembling the coils.

b). Core insulation test

This test is performed at 2kV to check the health of insulation between
Core & Frame and Core & Core-bolts.

68
 3. In-process tests on core-coil assembly
a) Check of voltage ratio
This test is conducted to verify the correctness of number of turns in
different windings. It is conducted at two stages, viz. before and after
making the lead connections to the tap-changer.

b) Magnetic balance test & Measurement of Magnetizing current.

These are two different test, but are complementary to each other. Thane
are intended to check the health of magnetic circuit and windings.

4. Tests on fully assembled transformer

Final Routine & Type tests are conducted on the fully assembled transformer
as per IS : 2026 to check the performance of transformer and demonstrate
the compliance of contractual requirements.

Q 5.6 What is the significance of Routine, Type & Special tests ? List out the tests
applicable under each category.

A 5.6 Significance of the different categories of tests is described briefly as follows :

1) Routine Tests
These tests are conducted on every unit of transformer manufactured. These
are intended to check the workmanship and normal performance of the job as
per contractual requirements.
2) Type Tests
The tests are more exhaustive as compared to routine tests and are generally
conducted on the first unit of every new design of transformer duly fitted with all
external components and fittings, that are likely to affect the performance of the
transformer during the test. These tests are intended to verify the design
adequacy and compliance of guaranteed technical parameters in conformance
with contractual requirements.
3) Special Tests
These are optional tests, which are carried out by mutual agreement between
the purchaser and the supplier, generally on one unit (preferably the Type –test
unit). Normally, the results of these tests do not directly affect the routine
performance of the transformer, but may be useful for power system studies
and studying the impact of the electrical installation on the environment.
Under different categories described above, the following tests are specified in
IS :2026.

ROUTINE TESTS
a) Measurement of winding resistance
b) Measurement of voltage ratio & check of voltage vector relationship
c) Measurement of impedance voltage & load loss
d) Measurement of no-load loss & current
e) Measurement of insulation resistance
f) Separate source of voltage withstand test
g) Induced over voltage withstand test
h) Tests over voltage tap-changers, wherever applicable.

69
 TYPE TESTS
a) Measurement of winding resistance
b) Measurement of voltage ratio & check of voltage vector relationship
c) Measurement of impedance voltage & load loss
d) Measurement of no-load loss & current
e) Measurement of insulation resistance
f) Separate source of voltage withstand test
g) Induced over voltage withstand test
h) Tests over voltage tap-changers, wherever applicable
i) Temperature – rise test
j) Tests on On-Load tap changers, wherever applicable.

SPECIAL TESTS.

a) Lighting impulse voltage withstand test chopped on the tail

b) Measurement of Zero-sequence impedance of three phase transformers
c) Short-circuit test
d) Measurement of acoustic noise level
e) Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current
f) Measurement of the power taken by the fans & oil pumps.

Q 5.7 What are the causes for poor value or insulation Resistance? What precautions
should be taken to achieve good IR values ?

A 5.7 I) Factors influencing the IR value.

Following are some of the factors, which influence the IR value of transformers.

a) Quality of oil (i.e BDV and Moisture content)

b) Dryness of oil-immersed insulation
c) Temperature of insulation system
d) Location / Termination of tapping leads of regulating winding
e) Dust / dirt / moisture on the surface of insulators / bushings
f) Dust / dirt / moisture on the measuring leads
g) Terminal connections on bushings during IR measurement (i.e. shorting /
grounding of terminals)

Improperly dried transformer, filled with poor quality of oil (having low BDV value
& height PPM) exhibits poor IR values. Further, it has been observed that
wherever the tapping leads are brought-out through a bakelite board for further
connection to OCTC, extreme care is required to achieve the acceptable values
of IR.

ii) Precautions to be taken to achieve good IR value.

70
 Some of the vital precautions to be taken to achieve good IR values are
mentioned below.

a) The active part of the transformer (i.e core and coil assembly) should be dried
properly under vacuum to ensure evacuation of total moisture from insulation.
b) Oil of good quality should be filled in the transformer under vacuum,
maintaining the desired rate of oil filling.
c) Job should not be exposed unduly during dry servicing after processing.

d) Final fittings, e.g. bushings, should be fitted in the shortest possible time to
prevent excessive exposure of insulation.
e) Insulators & Bushings should be thoroughly cleaned before fitting on the job.
f) Oil in the OLTC diverter chambers should be separately filtered to achieve
good BDV & PPM values.
g) Wherever bakelite board is used for termination of tapping leads or main line
leads, its surface dryness should be ensured.

Q 5.8 What are the different tests conducted on tank as per CBIP stipulation ? Do we
conduct all the tests on the tank ?
A 5.8 Different tests conducted on the transformer tabulated below

Sr.No. Name of test Ref. Standard

1. Pressure deflection test CBIP ‘Manual on Transformer’
2. Vacuum deflection test (Pub. No 275, dt. Oct. 99), Section – ‘A’

3. Leakage test

4. Jackling test
Adequacy of weld by DP test,
5.
Ultrasonic test & X-ray test
6. Raw material testing of plates IS : 2062

As a routine practice, Pressure, Vacuum deflection & Leakage test is carried out
on every new design. Ultrasonic & X-ray test on welds and the Jackling test are
done on specific requirement of customer. For proven tank design, only Leakage
test is conducted. The norms recommended by CBIP ‘Manual on transformers’
(Pub 275 – Oct,99) – section ‘A’ are as below:

71
 - Rating-wise, vacuum withstand capability of the transformer tank :

Highest Systems Voltage kV MVA Rating Vacuum, mm of

Upto 72 KV Upto 1.6 MVA 250
Above 1.6 & upto
500
20 MVA
Above 20 MVA 760

Above 72 KV For all MVA 760

Tank designed for full vacuum (760 mm of Hg at sea level or the Barometric
reading at the location of the test) shall be tested at maximum internal pressure
of 3.33 kN /m 2 (25 mm of Hg) for 1 hr. Permanent deflection of the plates after
releasing vacuum shall not exceed the values specified in CBIP ‘Manual on
transformers’ (Pub 275 – Oct.,99) – section ‘A’ as below :

Horizontal length of flat plate Permanent deflection,

Sr.No.
(in mm) (in mm)
1. Up to & including 750 5

2. 751-1250 6.5

3. 1251-1750 8

4. 1751-2000 9

5. 2001-2250 11

6. 2251-2500 12.5

7. 2501-3000 16

8. Above 3000 19

Pressure test shall be done at an oil pressure of twice the normal head or at
normal pressure plus 35 kN/m 2 (whichever is lower), measured at tank base for
1 hour. The permanent deflection after releasing the pressure should not exceed
the limits listed above.

Q 5.9 What is Die – Penetrant (D.P) test ?

A 5.9 It is non-destructive test , conducted to detect the surface defects on weld joints,
viz., cracks, blowholes, pinholes & porosity. DP test kit consists of Developer, Die
penetrant & Cleaner.

Q 5.10 How the grade of core laminations is verified before use ?

A 5.10 Grade of the core laminations is verified by measuring the thickness and specific
core loss on a selected lot of lamination samples.

72
Q 5.11 What is ‘Polarization Index’ and what is its significance for dielectrics ?

A 5.11 Polarization Index (PI)

A practical method of evaluating dielectric absorption of an insualting material is
obtained by determining its insulation resistance measured.
a) After 1 minute of change and
b) After 10 minutes of charge
The ratio of the two values of insulation resistance i.e.,
IRafter10 min
is called polarization Index.
IRafter1 min .
Various published references define PI differently. Following table gives
comparison at a glance.

Sr. Recommended
Reference Definition of P.I.
No minimum value of P.I

1. Insulating materials for design & R 10 min / IR 1 min --

Engg. Practice – Clerk

2. CBIP manual IR 120 s / IR 20 s 1.5 – 2.0

3 Transformer design (Book) IR 60 s / IR 15 s .> 2

- ‘A’ Dymkov

4. ‘A stich in time … ‘manual on IR 10 min / IR 1 min 2– 4

Electrical insulation testing’ IR 60 s / IR 30 s 1.4 - 1.6
--- James G. Biddle Co. (Dielectirc absorption
ratio)
5 Power transformer & Spt IR 60 s / IR 15 s
Transformers > 1.3

6. Testing Commissioning, R 60 s / IR 15 s
Operation & Maintenance of > 1.3
Electrical Equipment – S. Rao

ii) Significance of PI
PI gives indication of the dryness condition of the dielectric , In case of mixed
solids and liquids dielectrics, like in transformer, if the dielectric is fairly dry and
the oil is without any contamination, the PI value will normally be > 1.5. Higher
the PI, the better is the condition of insulation. In some cases, PI can be as
high as 4 or 5.
In service, PI is mentioned and used as a measure of dielectric deterioration
with time. It is a technique that can allow planned servicing outages. It has the
additional advantage that it is independent of temperature & hence readings
taken at different ambient and operating temperatures can be compared.

73
 SECTION – V I

COMMERCIAL

74
SECTION – VI : COMMERCIAL

Q 6.1 What is L/C ? What are the different types of L/Cs ? Revocable / Irrevocable ?
What are the critical points in L/C ? What are the Opening & Executing
Charges ? What is the Procedure for opening the L/C ?

A. 6.1 L/C (Letter of Credit)

This is an instrument which assures receipt of you of you payment on a
particular date without delay in other words, receipt of payment is committed
against your sales. In L/C, two parties are involved, one is the L/C Opens
(Purchaser) and the other is Beneficiary (Supplier).

The following are the various types of L/Cs :

a) L/C at Sight :
This deals with the Payment at site. In this kind of L/C, the moment the
material is dispatched, the necessary documents like invoice, L/R,
Packing List, Time of Guarantee and Warranty and other documents as
specified by the Purchaser are given to the Bank which has issued the
L/C. Bank in turn makes payment at the counter.

b) L/C at Usance basis :

For this kind of L/C, the usance period will be fixed as per the mutual
understanding among the parties at the time of negotiation itself. Here it
should be recommended that when you negotiate a usance L/C (e,g
30/60/90 days from the date of despatch or receipt of material at site),
you should also take care of loading the charges in the prices itself which
are to the tune of 13% at present.

The L/C has to clearly state that it is Revocable or Irrevocable. The basic
difference is that a Revocable credit can be amended or cancelled by the
issuing Bank without any prior notice to the Beneficiary (Supplier) where
as in case of Irrevocable credit, the L/C cannot be cancelled or amended
even if its has expired, without the prior consent of the Beneficiary
(Supplier).

ii) With regard to he critical points of an L/C, the following points are to be
looked into :

a) Shipment date:
It is nothing but dispatch date.

b) Negotiation date :
According to the L/C rule, documents of the dispatches have to be
produced / negotiated with the L/C opening Bank within 21 days from
the date of dispatch. Here, care should be taken to ensure submission
of dispatch documents within the specified period to avoid delay and
discrepancies.

75
 c) Part Shipment :
This relates to shipment / dispatch of the material in one lot or more,
the option for which lies with the Purchaser and has to be decided
with mutual understanding.

d) Transshipment :
This is nothing but giving the break-up of the carrier while crossing
from one area to another, for shifting the material to from one vehicle
to another, vehicle or one part to another part, Normally this happens
only in the Light weight items where movement of the goods is
possible. Normally, it does not happen for heavy weight items like
Transformer.

The important condition is the Terms of Payment, i.e whether the

Payment is at site or on usance. This is nothing but re-production of
the conditions agreed in the initial stage of the discussions and as per
P.O. terms.

Apart from the above, the following points need to be clarified in the
P.O. itself, which in turn can be incorporated in L/C.:

a) Freight and Insurance to whose account

b) Guarantee / Warranty
c) Taxes and Duties
d) Fluctuation, if any on +/-.
These are the points which shall be incorporated in the L/C over
and above the given instructions.
iii) The L/C opening charges are different for Domestic and Foreign L/Cs
and vary from Bank to Bank, based on the internal policies and
decisions.

For academic interest, following are the present charges on account

of Local L/Cs

At sight 0.45 %
On usance 0.60 % for 90 days.
On usance 0.80 % for 120 days.
On usance 1.00 % for 150 days.
On usance 1.20 % for 180 days.

Retirement charges on account of Foreign L/Cs :

At sight 0.45 %
On usance 0.30 % + 0.15 % = 0.45 % for 90 days.
On every addition of month 0.675 % (with max. of 180 days usance).

v) Once the negotiation is over and all Terms and Conditions are as
mutually agreed, an application in the prescribed form is made fro
getting the L/C. this will have to be done by the Purchaser through
their bank, incorporating all the Terms and Conditions as per P.O.
after due scrutiny of the given documents, the Bank will establish the
L/C to the Beneficiary i.e. the Supplier.

76
 Q 6.2 What is Hundi ? What are the different types of Hundies & its procedures ?
What are the procedures for Hundi to be Co-accepted Bank ? What is Bill of
Exchange ? What are the risks involved ib Hundi ?

A 6.2 I) Hundi is nothing but your commitment which assures you the payment of
Supplier. The Hundies are classified as follows:
a) Sight :
On this kind of Hundi, the payment is effected across the counter to the
holder of the Hundi.
b) Usance :
In this kind of Hundi, the payment will be effected after the usance period
is over, to the holder of the instrument i.e Hundi.
c) Co-acceptance :
In this kind of Hundi, whether it is Site or Usance, the Hundi will be Co-
accepted by the Purchaser Banker. This is nothing but assurance by the
respective Bank that this payment will be released on due date.
The basic risk involved in this kind of transaction is that generally the Hundies
may get dishonoured for payment on due date when it is demanded. To avoid
this generally people use to take their Hundies backed by post dated Cheques
for the amount of Hundies to ensure that the Payment is received in due date.
However, the chances of Cheques being dishonoured also cannot be ruled out.
To avoid such kind of risk, the instrument No. C is always prefers, which will
ensures the receipt of payment against supplies, as the Banker’s commitment is
there for release of the payment on due date.
There is no much procedures involved in getting the Hundi Co-acceptance by the
Bank. The concerned Party (Purchaser) will have to make an application to their
Bank towards his inclination for availing DPG (Deferred Payment Guarantee)
Limit of he can very well request to the tune of Hundi being Co-acceptance by
their Banker. Normally the Bankers do respect the request made by their Party
towards Co-accepting the Hundies by earmarking their B.G / L/C Limits if the
Hundi is for short tenure. The changes also are very nominal i.e 0.75 % of the
Hundi value (which is of one time in nature). This Hundi is also called “Bill of
Exchange”

Q 6.3 What is Bill of Lading ?

A 6.3 Bill of Lading is an instrument which gives evidence of the acceptance of the
material for transporting the same to the destination. This will be issued by the
Shipping Co. and generally forming the part of the dispatch documents. These
documents are applicable in case of imports and not for local supplies.

Q 6.4 What are the various discounting schemes (e.g IDBI, ICICI etc.) ? What is
procedure & Charges ?

77
A 6.4 With regard to the discounting schemes available with the institutions, following
are the major ones :

a) Direct discounting of Bills:

Under this scheme, the Bills will be discounted by the respective Parties (i.e
Purchaser, e.g MSEB, GEB etc) under their own Limit given by the Financial
instructions and the same will be accepted by us (Seller) and on surrendering
the same to the respective institution, we will be reimbursed our money.

b) Bankers Co-acceptance :
Under this category, the respective Purchaser will have to do the Bill of
Exchange of Hundi for their invoice Value (our supplies) and which will be
Co-accepted by their Bankers under Deferred Payment Guarantee (DPG)
Limit provided to the Purchaser.

c) Bills Re-discounting Scheme :

Under this scheme, the seller of the instrument will have to make a specific
Limit with their Banker and under this Limit, the bills can be discounted Limit
with their Banker and under this Limit, the bills can be discounted on
acceptance of the bills by the Purchaser directly. This acceptance has to be
supported by the Govt. Guarantee in case of State Electricity Boards, without
which, this discounting cannot happen.

With regards to the charges on all the three schemes mentioned above, it is
nil as far as the seller is concerned. What you have to pay is the conveyance
of the person who is traveling to the Institution or to the Party or to the
Banker.

Q 6.5 What is Deemed Export ? What is the benefit ? Who can avail this ?

A 6.5 A supply, which is being made within India and the funding arrangement is made
through Foreign Agencies like World Bank / Asian Development Bank etc. would
be treated as ‘Deemed Export’ Apart from this, Domestic supplies notified by the
Commerce Industry are also eligible for Deemed Export. The main advantage of
Deemed Export is that Excise Duty need not be paid. We can have Special of
Deemed Export is that Excise Duty need not be paid. We can have Special
License for the same can avail packing credit benefit at lesser rate of interest.

Q 6.6 What is Current Ratio / What is the Current Ratio prevailing for various
Transformer industries ?

A 6.6 This is Ratio which reflects the Liquidity position of the Company. The Cap for
this Ratio is fixed by the Banks as 1.33%

78
Q 6.7 What are current Assets & Current Liabilites ?

A 6.7 The following form the part of the Current Assets :

A) I) Inventory :
It is nothing but the stocks like raw material, WIP, Finished goods and
others which a company is holding for the sake of Production.
ii) Receivables :
This is nothing but the Billing which is being made to the Parties on
account of Sales.
iii) Advances to Suppliers of Raw Materials :
This is nothing but a Payment made to the Supplier for the sake of
procuring the raw material for Production purpose.
iv) Other Current Assets:
This includes Cash and Bank Balances.

B) The following are main items form part of the Current Liabilities::
i) Bank Borrowings :
This is nothing but Limits fixed by the Bank in the Form of Cash Credit
against our inventory and receivables (on which the Bank will charge
interest on an average of 10 % per annum).
ii) Creditors :
This is nothing but our Suppliers who have supplied us basic new
materials for our manufacturing purpose.
iii) Advances from Customers :
This is nothing but the advances which we are receiving from the Parties
concerned at the time of getting an order from them. This has been
clarified under Current Liabilities because, if the Order is not exceeded in
time, we are liable to make the Payment which people are aware of it.
iv) Statutory / Account Expenses :
Salary, PF, Income Tax, TDS etc constitute statutory expenses.

Q 6.8 What is the difference between Warranty & Guarantee ?

A 6.8 Warranty : Services are provided within the Warranty Period of goods sold with
cost of replacements, if any.
Guarantee: Services are provided within the Gurantee Period of goods sold Free
of Cost.

Q 6.9 What are the Bank Gurantee Charges ?

A 6.9 The prevailing charges are as indicated below :
 For Performance BG : 1 % p.a + Rs 100/- (postage)
 For Financialnature of BGs : 1 % p.a + Rs 100/- (postage)

(e,g EMD/SECU/BID/ADV/CUSTOMS etc.)

79
 SECTION – VII

ADDENDUM

10th May 2007

80
SECTION – VII: ADDENDUM

Q 7.1 What is Parallel Operation ?

A 7.1 Single and three phase transformers may be operated in parallel by connecting
similarly marked terminals, provided their ratios, voltages, resistances, reactance
and ground connections are designed to permit parallel operation. Current and
voltage angular displacements are also required to be the same in the case of
three phase transformers.

Q 7.2 What is Inrush Current ?

A 7.2 It is an abnormally high transient current, caused by residual flux in the core,
which maybe drawn when a transformer is energized.

Q 7.3 Describe Saturation ?

A 7.3 Saturation is a natural condition in which an increase in current result in a

decrease in inductance.

Q 7.4 What is Temperature Class ?

A 7.4 It is the maximum temperature that the insulation can continuously withstand. The
classes of insulation systems in a transformer are rated as follows:
Class A : 105°C
Class E : 120°C
Class B : 130°C
Class F : 155°C
Class H : 180°C
Class C : 220°C

Q 7.5 What is the effect of “Overload” ?

A 7.5 When a transformer is continually overloaded, excessive heat develops and the
insulation system will begin to breakdown. As a result, the life expectancy of the
transformer is shortened due to the heat exceeding the rating of the insulation
system.

Q 7.6 What is Voltage Regulation ?

A 7.6 The change in secondary voltage that occurs when the load is reduced from rated
value to zero, with the value of all other quantities remaining unchanged. Usually
expressed as the percent change output voltage when the load goes from full
load to no load at given power factor.

Q 7.7 What are K-Factor Transformers and where are they used ?

81
A 7.7 K-factor transformers used as general-purpose transformers but are designed to
withstand the variety of harmonics created in today’s office and industrial
environments. The expanding use of devices with switch-mode power supplies
and rectifier circuits with the subsequent wave distortion requires transformers to
withstand the higher harmonics in the neutral conductor in the distribution system

Q 7.8 Define K-Factor ?

A 7.8 K-Factor is defined as a ratio between the additional losses created by the
harmonics and the eddy losses at the rated 50 Hz. This factor is used to specify
the size of the transformer to meet the magnitude of the non-linear harmonic load
in the circuit. A standard general-purpose transformer does not have the
shielding, conductor sizes, core cross-section, or the capacity in the neutral to
provide the same service. Transformers with rated K factor of 4,7,13,20 and 30
are available. For balanced loading a transformer with a K factor of 4 should be
specified when no more than 50% of the total load is non-linear. A transformer
with a K factor 13 should be specified when 100% of the load is non-linear.

Q 7.9 What are Motor Starting Autotransformers?

A 7.9 Motors have a large inrush current component that requires a special design.
Motor starting transformers are designed to withstand an inrush of above of 25
times the normal current. They typically are tapped on larger sizes to soft-start
the motor until it is up to full RPM.

Q 7.10 What are Energy Efficient (TP1) Transformers ?

A 7.10 There is growing movement in the electrical industry towards energy efficient
products in all sectors including dry type transformers. In addition to the benefits
to the environment, energy efficient transformers also can realize substantial
savings in operating costs, thereby having a direct impact on the initial
investment evaluated over a period of time. The specifications covering energy
efficiency in transformers, is the NEMA Standards Publication, TP-1-1996,
“Guide for Determining Energy Efficiency for Distribution Transformers”. This
specification has carefully considered the total owning cost unique for industrial
or commercial installations where the load factor is an integral part of the
efficiency rating.

Q 7.11 Explain the Banking of Transformers ?

A 7.11 Two or three single-phase transformers can be connected to make a three-phase

bank. The primary windings of the single-phase transformers can be connected
in delta or Wye and the secondary windings can be connected in either a delta
or Wye configuration. The equivalent capacity of the bank will be equal to three
times the nameplate rating of each single-phase transformer. Usually this type of
installation is more expensive than using a single three phase transformer.

82
Q 7.12 Can you operate a 60Hz Transformer at 50Hz?

A 7.12 Transformers rated at 60Hz should not be used on 50Hz supply due to higher
losses and core saturation and the resultant higher temperature rise.
Transformers rated for 50Hz, however, can be operated on a 60Hz supply.

Q 7.13 What is a Polarity and Phase-Relation test for?

A 7.13 Polarity and phase-relation tests are made to determine angular displacement
and relative phase sequence to facilitate connections in a transformer.
Determining polarity is also essential when paralleling or banking two or more
transformers.

Q 7.14 What is an Autotransformer?

A 7.14 It is a transformer that has only one winding per phase, part of which is common
to both the primary and secondary circuits.

Q 7.15 What are Harmonics ?

A 7.15 A Harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a frequency that

is a multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, a component whose
frequency is twice the fundamental frequency is referred to as the second
harmonic. (100 Hz is the 2nd harmonic of 50Hz). Harmonics are principally the
by-product of switch-mode power supply technology where AC is rectified to DC
and back again. In the process, a capacitor is charged in the first half-cycle, and
then discharged in the next half-cycle, in supplying current to the load. This cycle
is repeated. This action of recharging causes AC current to flow only during a
portion of the AC voltage wave, in abrupt pulses. These abrupt pulses distort the
fundamental wave shape causing distortion to the various harmonic frequencies.

Q 7.16 What are Non-Linear Loads ?

A 7.16 Today, non-linear loads make up a large percentage of all electrical demand.
Rectified input, switching power supplies and electronic lighting ballasts are the
most common single-phase non-linear loads. Harmonic currents and voltages
produced by single phase, non-linear loads which are connected phase-to-
neutral in a three phase four wire system, are third order, zero sequence
harmonics (the third harmonic and its odd multiples – 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st, etc.,
phasors displaced by zero degrees). These third order zero sequence harmonic
currents do not cancel but add up arithmetically on the neutral bus, creating a
primary source of excessive neutral current.

Q 7.17 What is air core reactance of transformer? What role does it play during the
service of transformer in a network?

A 7.17 The transformer in a network is regularly switched in and out of network for
various reasons. During the switching in (ON) process the transformer draws
vary high inrush current from the source. The magnitude of the inrush current is
often several times higher than the rated current of that particular winding. This
inrush current magnitude is governed by the following parameters.

83
 a) Air core reactance of the transformer.
b) Instant of switching on during the sinusoidal waveform.
c) Residual flux density.
d) Source and line impedance.
e) Resistance of the energized winding

The air core inductance of the coil is calculated by the very familiar equation

µ0 x N2 x π x Amt*10 -8
L=
h
Where
µ0 = 4 π x 10-7
N = No. of turns in winding.
Amt = Area inside the mean turn(in cm2)
h = Height of winding. (in cm)
L = Inductance of the winding in Henry

The air core reactance (XL) = 2 x π x f x L

The inrush current of the transformer can be calculated by using different formulas
and one of them is given as below.

I inrush current = (r + 2m -s) x h x 108

0.4π x N xAmt
Where
 r – Residual flux
 m – Normal flux
 s – Saturation flux
The air core reactance depends on the diameter of the winding. Hence the inrush
current will be more if the energized winding is of smaller diameter and less for
larger diameter coil in a transformer.

Q 7.18 Explain the purpose of tertiary winding in a transformer?

A 7.18 The following are the purpose for providing tertiary winding in a transformer.
a) To suppress third harmonic voltages.
b) To stabilize the unbalanced load on the main winding.
c) To carry an additional load apart from the load carried by the main windings.

a) Suppression of third harmonic voltages: -

If a transformer is connected in star – star fashion without a neutral terminal, a
third harmonic voltage component on both the line voltages would appear. The
peak value of third harmonic component voltages oscillate above and below the
neutral point potential. This situation could be addressed in a transformer by taking
care of any additional requirement of insulation on account of this third harmonic
voltage stress.
Now if the above transformer is provided with a neutral terminal, a triple
frequency current component starts flowing to the ground completing their path
through the line capacitance. This triple frequency current may cause electrostatic
induction and would interfere with any neighboring telecommunication lines, which

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 use earth as the return path. This third harmonic current could be suppressed by
introducing a delta connected winding in a star-star connected transformer. A
circulating current starts flowing in the delta winding and thus supplies the
necessary ampere-turn for countering the third harmonic voltage.

b) Stabilizing the unbalanced load on the main winding: -

When a star-star connected transformer without a neutral is subjected to
unbalanced loads, a voltage unbalance is introduced and also the neutral potential
is shifted. To explain this, let us take the case of above transformer feeding a
single-phase load at its secondary with other two phases of secondary kept open.
Under this condition, the single-phase load on one winding will have to be shared
by all the three phases of the primary winding. Due to the absence of balancing
ampere-turns in two of the secondary windings, the primary windings
corresponding to these two phases would act like a current limiting choke. Thus
creating further imbalance in the line voltages of the transformer.
The introduction of a third winding into this transformer balances the load currents
as a balancing current starts flowing in all three phases of this tertiary winding, thus
a balancing ampere-turn is facilitated in all three limbs.

c) Additional load Sharing:

With the availability of a third winding an additional load can be connected to this
transformer other than the load on main winding. The load on tertiary winding can
also be so arranged as to improve the power factor of the source.

Q7.19 What is the importance of hot spot temperature of 98°C ? How this value has
been arrived?

A 7.19 Various governing standards like IS 2026 and IEC 60076 have specified a hot
spot temperature of 98°C for the transformers. It is said that the normal life of a
transformer is achieved if operated continuously at a hot spot temperature of 98°C.

The ANSI standard describes the life of transformer with the following phrase “The
Transformer Life Expectancy with continuous operation at 95°C is not known , but
past experience indicates that the life is satisfactory”.

Amongst various factors contributing to the life of transformer, the tensile strength
of paper insulation of winding conductor is considered to be the chief contributor
towards the life of transformer.

Q7.20 If on a 315 MVA transformer, load on IV is 315 MVA and the load on tertiary
winding is 105 MVA then, what would be the load on HV ? (Assume the
necessary parameters)

A 7.20 Case 1 Load on IV = 315 MVA at say 0.8 pf (lagging)

Load on tertiary = 105 MVA at say 0.9 pf (lagging)

Active Load on IV = 315 x 0.8 = 252

Reactive Load on IV = 315 x 0.6 = 189

Active Load on Tertiary = 105 x 0.9 = 94.5

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 Reactive Load on Tertiary = 105 x 0.4358 = 45.759

Total Load on HV = [(252 +94.5)2 + (189 +45.759)2]1/2

= 418.538 MVA

Case 2: Load on IV = 315 MVA at say 0.8 pf (lagging)

Load on tertiary = 105 MVA at say 0.9 pf (leading)

Active Load on IV = 315 * 0.8 = 252

Reactive Load on IV = 315 * 0.6 = 189

Active Load on Tertiary = 105 * 0.9 = 94.5

Reactive Load on Tertiary = 105 * 0.4358 = - 45.759

Total Load on HV = [(252 +94.5)2 + (189 + (-45.759))2]1/2

= 374.94 MVA

Case 3: Load on IV = 315 MVA at say 0.8 pf (lagging)

Load on tertiary = 105 MVA at say 0 pf (lagging)

Active Load on IV = 315 * 0.8 = 252

Reactive Load on IV = 315 * 0.6 = 189

Active Load on Tertiary = 105 * 0 = 0

Reactive Load on Tertiary = 105 * 1 = 105

Total Load on HV = [(252 )2 + (189 +105)2]1/2

= 387.22 MVA

Q 7.21 Find out the leakage inductance for each of the windings in a generator
transformer?

A 7.21 Let us take an example of 67MVA generator transformer with following details for
finding short circuit inductance of individual coils.

Transformer rating: 67MVA, 220/11 kV, 3 , 50 Hz, YNd1, +7.5 % to –2.5% in

2.5% per steps.
At Tap No. 1:
Volts per turn = 105.7692; LV turns (N1) = 104, HV turns (N2) = 1291;
Avg. winding height (h) = 2060mm, Dm1 = 0.7235 m, Dm2 = 1.0135 m, Kr =
0.966.
The calculated % impedance = 12.24 (by conventional method). Now the
inductance of each winding can be found out by using the following formulas.
L1 = 4π x 10-7 x N12 x π x Dm1 a + b1
h 2 3` 1
L2 = 4π x 10-7 x N22 x π x Dm2 a + b2
h 2 3 2

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 927
853
668

19 74
55.5 86.5

LV wdg. HV wdg.

By substituting appropriate values in above equations 1 & 2 we get values of L1 &

L2 as below.
L1 = 0.832 mH
L2 = 0.213 H

From the se values of L1 & L2 the % impedance of the transformer calculated by

using the equivalent circuit diagram of two winding transformer is equal to 12.4%.

Q 7.22 Explain the Arrhenius law and life of transformer with respect to dryness?

A 7.22 The Arrhenius law of insulation deterioration is given as below.

Life = e[A+B/T]
Where
A and B are the constants
T is the absolute temperature

The above Arrhenius equation can be expressed by the more convenient

exponential expression of Montsinger within a limited range of temperatures (Say
80 to 140°C)

Life = e -pθ

Where
P is a constant
θ is the temperature in degree Celsius

In a temperature zone of 80 to 140 the deterioration of transformer insulation

increases exponentially with temperature and it could be said that the life of
transformer is halved for every 6°C increase in temperature in the above zone.
Even when there was no agreement on life of transformer with regard to the hot
spot temperature amongst various researchers there is a common consensus
amongst them on deterioration of transformer life as per the above said relation.

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Q7.23 What is impedance and role of impedance in transformer?
A 7.23 It is apparent resistance in a circuit to the flow of an alternating current analogous
to the actual resistance to a direct current. If by exciting transformer, a flux ΦT is
produced then only flux Φm links with HV and LV windings, but certain amount of
flux ΦL does not link within either windings resulting in non transformation of
power and hence it is called leakage flux which is the seat for leakage
impedance known as impedance (%Z).
Impedance has an important role to decide the short circuit strength of windings
and the voltage regulation. Higher he impedance better the short circuit strength
of windings, but poor regulation of voltage i.e. the output voltage reduces
because more voltage drop.
For example:
Transformer having 10 % impedance.
Short circuit current = (100/10) = 10 times the rated current.
% voltage regulation at 0.8 pf (lag) ≈ 8%
If for the same transformer with 12.5% impedance, short circuit current =
(100/12.5) = 8 times the rated current, & % voltage regulation at 0.8 pf (lag) =
10%

Q 7.24 what is Zero phase sequence impedance and Positive sequence impedance?
A 7.24 Asymmetrical fault currents are calculated by using Positive sequence, negative
sequence and Zero sequence impedances.
The positive impedance of transformer equals the leakage impedance. It may be
obtained by the usual short circuit test. Since the transformer is a static device,
the leakage impedances does not change if the phase sequence is altered from
UVW to UWV. Therefore the negative sequence impedance of the transformer is
the same as Positive sequence impedance. The zero sequence impedance
consisting of 3 single phase components all equal in magnitude but with the
same phase angles.
The Zero sequence impedance of the transformer depends on the winding type
(Star or Delta) and also on the type of earth connection.
The positive and negative sequence per unit impedances are independent of
whether the sequence currents are injected into the primary or secondary.
However the zero sequence impedances will have different values, depending
upon whether the sequence currents are injected into the primary or secondary.

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 ZW1 ZV2

ZU0
ZV0
ZW0
ZU1 ZU2

ZV1 ZW2
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence

Q7.25 What is inrush current and formula for calculation?

A 7.25 When a transformer is switch on, a transient phenomenon occurs of the
magnetizing current of transformer. There is substantial surge of current through
the energized winding is called Inrush current. This phenomenon last for a short
period of time. Transient cause a dip in the voltage if the impedance on the
source of excitation is considerable, and it may trip the overload or differential
relays, if the settings are two close. Transient current or Inrush current is
governed by several factors viz, switching instance, amplitude of current and the
time constants.
When the excitation is switched off, the magnetizing current follows the
hysteresis loop to zero, but the flux density remains at the same residual value.
Since the magnetic flux cannot be instantly created or destroyed, therefore in
next switched on, instead of starting from normal value the magnetic flux starts
from its residual value and follow a sinusoidal path regardless of saturation
characteristics.
But saturation does modify the magnetizing current necessary to provide the flux.
The maximum theoretical value of flux density can go as high as three times its
peak value and leading to super saturation.
In this flux is not confined to the core, the air space around the coil also place
important role in this process. The air core reactance of a coil plays a major role
in defining the magnitude & duration of inrush current.
Formula for calculation of inrush current:
1 A L L0
Im  x x  2 B m  B r  BS  in Amps
μ0 Aδ N
Where,
Im = Inrush current
μ = 4  x 10-7 permeability of air
AL = cross sectional area of core limb in cm2
Aδ = Cross sectional area of core and winding in cm2 (switched on)
L0 = mean length between winding height and limb height
N = No. of turns of winding (switched on)

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 Bm = Operating flux density in Tesla
Br = Residual flux density in Tesla (App. 0.6 x Bm)
Bs = Saturation flux density in Tesla
Example:
AL = 2242.24 cm2
Aδ = 7790.12 cm2 (calculated for HV winding)
Lo = (1610 + 1900) / 2 = 1755 mm = 1.755 meter
N = 1838
Bm = 1.45 Tesla
Br = 0.6 x 1.45 = 0.87 Tesla
Bs = 2.03 Tesla
1 2242.24 1.755
 Im  x x ( 2 x 1.45  0.87 - 2.03 )
4  x 10 -7
7790.12 1838
= 380.55 A
Q 7.26 What is rectifier transformer? It’s application and precautions to be considered
while designing.

A 7.26 A transformer designed to supply AC input to a rectifier to obtain the desired DC

output and have the ability to withstand the heating effects caused by rectifier
commutation or ripple.
Application: At chemical plant (caustic soda plant) and aluminium plants where
electrolytic processes are adopted, require electrical energy in the form of direct
current
Precautions to be considered while designing:
a) Design transformer at 1.65 Tesla for higher LV voltage tap.
b) Select Tap changer with 1.5 times the rated current.
c) Calculate the eddy losses at different harmonic orders and add it to total
losses for selection of heat exchanger or any cooling arrangement.
d) Provide stainless steel plates on LV side i.e. high current take off along with
Fibre glass Boards
e) Provide shunts preferably (copper shunts) on HV side & OLTC pocket side.
f) For twelve pulse transformer provide Double Decker type tap changer
g) In case of rectifier transformer with IPT, design IPT core for 0.9 Tesla or less.

Q 7.27 Basic details of furnace transformer. Types of furnace transformers and their
applications? What is basic requirement before designing the furnace
transformer?

A 7.27 Furnace transformer differs from Power transformers to meet the onerous service
conditions like frequent short circuit due to striking of arcs & collapse of charge
during melting.

90
 Reduced voltages are required during refining period of molten metal. This calls
for variation in LV voltages. Higher currents to be handled by LV winding. LV
windings are to be arranged in no. of pair discs which in turn connected to
busbars. Busbars are required to transfer currents from LV winding to electrodes
of furnace. Normally LV terminations are in open delta connection. Delta will be
closed at the electrodes of furnace.
Types of furnace transformers:
a) Electric arc furnace transformer
b) Submerged arc furnace transformer
c) Induction furnace transformers

Application: For Steel mills.

Basic requirements before designing the furnace transformer, following
information are necessary.
a) LV voltages
b) Constant KVA and constant current taps
c) % Impedance requirement
d) Cooling method and temperature rises
e) OLTC or off circuit tap changer
f) Terminal arrangement of LV, whether on tank cover or on tank side?
g) Foe OFWF cooling, Inlet water temperature and water analysis from
customer
h) Dimension limitation

Q 7.28 What is the difference between converter duty transformer and inverter duty
transformer?
A 7.28 In converter transformers one star connected AC winding and two valve windings
one connected in delta and the other in star. AC winding is connected to AC
system. Whereas valve windings are connected to converters which in turn
connected in series to build up the required level of DC voltage.
Inverter transformers which convert power from DC source into alternating (A.C.)
power. The combination of Converter & Inverter are used in HVDC system.

Q 7.29 What is the meaning of transformer used for 6 pulse or 12 pulse thyristor
converter drives and significant use in transformer design?
A 7.29 As explained above (8), the two LV windings one in Delta and other in star
connection outputs from all the 2 x 3 phases are connected to 6 pulse rectifier
unit And two 100% outputs each of 2 x 3 phases are connected to 12-pulse
rectifier unit.
In case of twelve-pulse rectifier transformer with IPTs, one HV winding is in star
and will be associated with 2 star LV windings. Neutrals of each LVs connected
through IPT.
Another HV winding is in delta and associated with 2 star LV windings – neutrals
of each LV connected through IPT.

Q 7.30 What is graded and non-graded insulation and selection in winding?

A 7.30 a) Graded Insulation:

91
 For star connected windings the test level at line end and neutral end are at
different levels. This grading of test levels is called graded insulation.
For ex. 132 KV star connected winding ,
Line terminal will have test level of 230 KV(rms) / 550 KVp whereas neutral
end will have test level of 38 KV(rms) / 95 KVp
b) All delta connected windings and star connected windings of 33 KV & below
will have non-graded or uniform insulation.
c) Selection in winding does not effect the graded or non-graded (uniform)
insulation but the clearance and insulation will have to be taken care for the
test levels specified by the customer.

Q 7.31 What is the difference between Physical Exports & Deemed Exports Project ?

A 7.31 Physical Exports are projects where equipment are exported to a foreign country.
Such projects get benefits such as exemption from payment of excise duty on
final product, exemption from payment of custom duty on specified raw materials
imported for manufacturing the equipment. Also payment for such supplies can
be received in foreign exchange.
Deemed Exports are projects where goods supplied do not leave the country.
However, all benefits as available to Physical Exports projects are available for
this project. Some of the projects which are categorized under Deemed Exports
are as under.
a) Supply of goods to projects financed by multi lateral agencies / funds such as
World Bank, Asian Development Bank as notified by the department of
Economic affairs, Ministry of finance. Also such tenders should be under
International Competitive Bidding (2CB)
b) Supply of goods to Export Oriented Units (EOUs) or Software Technology
Parks (STPs) or Electronic Hardware Technology Parks (EHTPs) or Bio
Technology Parks.
c) Supply of capital goods to holders of licenses under the Export Promotion
Capital Goods (EPCG) scheme.
d) Supply of goods to Super Thermal Power Project (1000 MW & above) and
Hydro project of 500 MW & above.
e) Supply of Projects funded by UN agencies
f) Supply of goods to Nuclear Power Projects through International Competitive
Bidding (ICB).

Q 7.32 What are Incoterms ?

A 7.32 Language is one of the most complex and important tools of International Trade. As in
any complex and sophisticated business, small changes in wording can have a major
impact on all aspects of a business agreement.
Word definitions often differ from industry to industry. This is especially true of global
trade. Where such fundamental phrases as "delivery" can have a far different meaning in
the business than in the rest of the world.
For business terminology to be effective, phrases must mean the same thing throughout
the industry. That is why the International Chamber of Commerce created
"INCOTERMS" in 1936. INCOTERMS are designed to create a bridge between different
members of the industry by acting as a uniform language they can use.

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Each INCOTERM refers to a type of agreement for the purchase and shipping of goods
internationally. There are 13 different terms, each of which helps users deal with
different situations involving the movement of goods.

INCOTERMS are most frequently listed by category. Terms beginning with F refer to
shipments where the primary cost of shipping is not paid for by the seller. Terms
beginning with C deal with shipments where the seller pays for shipping. E-terms occur
when a seller's responsibilities are fulfilled when goods are ready to depart from their
facilities. D terms cover shipments where the shipper/seller's responsibility ends when
the goods arrive at some specific point. Because shipments are moving into a country, D
terms usually involve the services of a customs broker and a freight forwarder. In
addition, D terms also deal with the pier or docking charges found at virtually all ports
and determining who is responsible for each charge.

EX-Works
One of the simplest and most basic shipment arrangements places the minimum
responsibility on the seller with greater responsibility on the buyer. In an EX-Works
transaction, goods are basically made available for pickup at the shipper/seller's factory
or warehouse and "delivery" is accomplished when the merchandise is released to the
consignee's freight forwarder. The buyer is responsible for making arrangements with
their forwarder for insurance, export clearance and handling all other paperwork.

FOB (Free On Board)

One of the most commonly used-and misused-terms, FOB means that the shipper/seller
uses his freight forwarder to move the merchandise to the port or designated point of
origin. Though frequently used to describe inland movement of cargo, FOB specifically
refers to ocean or inland waterway transportation of goods. "Delivery" is accomplished
when the shipper/seller releases the goods to the buyer's forwarder. The buyer's
responsibility for insurance and transportation begins at the same moment.

FCA (Free Carrier)

In this type of transaction, the seller is responsible for arranging transportation, but he is
acting at the risk and the expense of the buyer. Where in FOB the freight forwarder or
carrier is the choice of the buyer, in FCA the seller chooses and works with the freight
forwarder or the carrier. "Delivery" is accomplished at a predetermined port or
destination point and the buyer is responsible for Insurance.

FAS (Free Alongside Ship)*

In these transactions, the buyer bears all the transportation costs and the risk of loss of
goods. FAS requires the shipper/seller to clear goods for export, which is a reversal from
past practices. Companies selling on these terms will ordinarily use their freight
forwarder to clear the goods for export. "Delivery" is accomplished when the goods are
turned over to the Buyers Forwarder for insurance and transportation.

CFR (Cost and Freight)

This term formerly known as CNF (C&F) defines two distinct and separate
responsibilities-one is dealing with the actual cost of merchandise "C" and the other "F"
refers to the freight charges to a predetermined destination point. It is the shipper/seller's
responsibility to get goods from their door to the port of destination. "Delivery" is
accomplished at this time. It is the buyer's responsibility to cover insurance from the port

93
of origin or port of shipment to buyer's door. Given that the shipper is responsible for
transportation, the shipper also chooses the forwarder.

CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight)

This arrangement similar to CFR, but instead of the buyer insuring the goods for the
maritime phase of the voyage, the shipper/seller will insure the merchandise. In this
arrangement, the seller usually chooses the forwarder. "Delivery" as above, is
accomplished at the port of destination.

CPT (Carriage Paid To)

In CPT transactions the shipper/seller has the same obligations found with CIF, with the
addition that the seller has to buy cargo insurance, naming the buyer as the insured
while the goods are in transit.

CIP (Carriage and Insurance Paid To)

This term is primarily used for multimodal transport. Because it relies on the carrier's
insurance, the shipper/seller is only required to purchase minimum coverage. When this
particular agreement is in force, Freight Forwarders often act in effect, as carriers. The
buyer's insurance is effective when the goods are turned over to the Forwarder.

DAF (Delivered At Frontier)

Here the seller's responsibility is to hire a forwarder to take goods to a named frontier,
which usually a border crossing point, and clear them for export. "Delivery" occurs at this
time. The buyer's responsibility is to arrange with their forwarder for the pick up of the
goods after they are cleared for export, carry them across the border, clear them for
importation and effect delivery. In most cases, the buyer's forwarder handles the task of
accepting the goods at the border across the foreign soil.

DES (Delivered Ex Ship)

In this type of transaction, it is the seller's responsibility to get the goods to the port of
destination or to engage the forwarder to the move cargo to the port of destination
uncleared. "Delivery" occurs at this time. Any destination charges that occur after the
ship is docked are the buyer's responsibility.

DEQ (Delivered Ex Quay)*

In this arrangement, the buyer/consignee is responsible for duties and charges and the
seller is responsible for delivering the goods to the quay, wharf or port of destination. In
a reversal of previous practice, the buyer must also arrange for customs clearance.

DDP (Delivered Duty Paid)

DDP terms tend to be used in intermodal or courier-type shipments. Whereby, the
shipper/seller is responsible for dealing with all the tasks involved in moving goods from
the manufacturing plant to the buyer/consignee's door. It is the shipper/seller's
responsibility to insure the goods and absorb all costs and risks including the payment of
duty and fees.

DDQ (Delivered Duty Unpaid)

This arrangement is basically the same as with DDP, except for the fact that
the buyer is responsible for the duty, fees and taxes.

94
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Franklin, A.C. & Franklin, D.P, : J & P Transformer Book

2. Westinghouse Transformer Book
3. Karsai, K., Kerenyi, D. & Kiss, L: Large Power Transformers
4. Power Transformer Handbook : Alsthom Transformer Division., France.
5. Vasultinksy, S.B. : Principles, Operation & Design of Power Transformers
6. Transformers : BHEL, Bhopal
7. IS : 2026 (Part I - V) : Indian Standard – Specification for Power Transformers
8. CBIP Publication No. 275 : Manual on Transformers

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KNOW YOUR TRANSFORMER

This guide purports to clearly answer over 182 questions about the
transformer – covering the design, tank and accessories, materials,
testing and commissioning and commercial aspects.

EMCO LIMITED
Plot No. F-5, Road No. 28, Wagle Industrial Estate,
Thane – 400 604 (India)
Tel: (91-22) 2583 0517 – 24; 40404500 Fax: (91-22) 2583 0571
Email: emco@emcoindia.com Website: www.emcoindia.com

Printed and Published by, EMCO LIMITED, Thane for In-house Reference

97