PRE FINAL PERIOD

Communications

Advantages
Parallel : faster transfer rates
Serial : long distances

Disadvantages
Parallel: short distance only
Serial : slow transfer rates

Transmission Media- Guided

There are 2 basic categories of transmission media: guided and
unguided.

Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that

guides the data signals along a specific path.
Unguided transmission media consists of a means for the
data signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a
specific path.

Transmission Media- Guided

There 4 basic types of guided media:

Open Wire
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber

Open wire

Open wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire

strung along power poles.
 There is a single wire strung between poles.
No shielding or protection from noise interference is used.

Twisted Pair

The wires in twisted pair cabling are twisted together in pairs.

Each pair consists of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a
wire used for the -ve data signal.
Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair will also occur on
the other wire.
When the noise appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself
out at the receiving end.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined

specifically by the number of turns per foot.
I Increasing the number of turns per foot reduces the noise
interference.
To further improve noise rejection, a foil or wire braid "shield" is
woven around the twisted pairs.
Cables with a shield are called shielded twisted pair and are
commonly abbreviated STP.
Cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted pair or
UTP.
Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable consists of two conductors.

The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other
conductor woven around it providing a shield.
An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer
conductor.

The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside

electrical signals.
The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner
conductor plus the type of material used for insulating the inner
conductor determine the cable properties or impedance.
Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV,
50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet.
Optical fiber

Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry

information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and
beyond.
The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand of glass
called the core.
Around the core is a concentric layer of glass called the cladding.
Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic,
it is called the Jacket.
 An important characteristic of fiber optics is refraction.
Refraction is the characteristic of a material to either pass or
reflect light.
When light passes through a medium, it "bends" as it passes
from one medium to the other.
An example of this is when we look into a pond of water.

If the angle of incidence is small, the light rays are reflected and
do not pass into the water.
If the angle of incident is great, light passes through the media
but is bent or refracted.

Advantages of Optical fiber

Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI - Radio Frequency

Interference, EMI -Electromagnetic Interference)
 Security: cannot tap into cable.
Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
No corrosion (destroy metal)
Longer distances than copper wire
Smaller and lighter than copper wire
Faster transmission rate

Disadvantages of Optical fiber

Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!

Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
Difficult to splice (to join)

Comparison

The following compares the usable bandwidth of the different

guided transmission media.

Cable Type Bandwidth

Open Cable 0 - 5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 - 100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 - 600 MHz
Optical Fiber 0 - 1 GHz
COMPARISON BETWEEN TWISTED PAIR CABLE, CO-AXIAL CABLE AND
OPTICAL FIBER

Transmission Media - Unguided

 Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through
the air.
They are not guided or bound to a channel to follow.
They are classified by the type of wave propagation.
–RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation
–Microwave Propagation
–Satellite Propagation
RF Propagation

There are three types of RF (radio frequency) propagation:

1.Ground Wave
2. Sky-wave propagation
3.Line of Sight (LOS)
Ground wave propagation

Ground wave propagation follows the curvature of the Earth.

Ground waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM Radio is
an example of ground wave propagation.

Characteristics of Ground-wave propagation are as follows:

i. Follows contour of the earth
ii. Can propagate considerable distances
iii. Frequencies up to 2 MHz
iv. Example
a. AM radio

Sky-wave propagation
 I Ionospheric propagation bounces off of the Earth's ionospheric
layer in the upper atmosphere.
I It operates in the frequency range of 30 - 85 MHz.
Because it depends on the Earth's ionosphere, it changes with
the weather and time of day.
Ham radios operate in this range.

Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:

i. Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to
earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth‘s surface
iii. Reflection effect caused by refraction
iv. Examples
a. Amateur radio
b. CB radio
Line of sight propagation

Line of sight propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight.

The receive station must be in the view of the transmit station.
It is limited by the curvature of the Earth for ground-based
stations (100 km, from horizon to horizon).
Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio, microwave
and satellite.
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight

a. Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by

ionosphere
b. Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site
due to refraction

Radio waves:

• Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and

1GHz are normally called radio waves.

• Radio waves are Omni-directional when an antenna transmits

radio waves they are propagated in all directions. This means that
sending and receiving antenna do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any
receiving antenna.

• Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky

mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good
candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.

• Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies

can penetrate walls. It is an advantage because; an AM radio can
receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage because we
cannot isolate a communication to first inside or outside a
building.
Microwave

Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission.

The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive
station.
Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50
km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data
signal can hop, skip and jump across the country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10

GHz.
This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their
large bandwidth.
Advantages:

–They can carry high quantities of information due to their

high operating frequencies.
–Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small
area.
–High frequency/short wavelength signals require small
antennae.
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300
GHz are called microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits

microwaves they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of
 antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of
aligned antennas.

• Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with

the mounted antennas needs to be in direct sight of each other,
towers that are far apart need to be very tall, the curvature of the
earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication very high frequency
microwaves cannot penetrate walls.

• Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this
means of transmission

Disadvantages

–Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.

–Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
–Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
–Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected
away from receiver.

Infrared

• Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400

GHz can be used for short range communication.
 • Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate
walls. This helps to prevent interference between one system and
another. Infrared Transmission in one room cannot be affected by
the infrared transmission in another room.

• Infrared band has an excellent potential for data transmission.

Transfer digital data is possible with a high speed with a very high
frequency. There are number of computer devices which are used
to send the data through infrared medium e.g. keyboard mice, PCs
and printers. There are some manufacturers provide a special part
called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to
communicate with a PC.

COMPARISON BETWEEN WIRED AND WIRELESS MEDIA

Satellite
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency
and retransmit on another) that are set in geostationary orbits
directly over the equator.

Satellite
 These geostationary orbits are 36,000 km from the Earth's
surface.
At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the
centrifugal force of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each
other out.

The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite.

The downlink is the receiver of data.
Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because
they are located on the Earth.
The footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to,
the shadow being the area that can receive the satellite's
transmitted signal.
Activity 4.1
1. What is microwave?
2. What is ground wave propagation?
3. Give 2 disadvantages of optical fiber
4. What is infrared?