TEACHING

STRATEGIES
TRADITIONAL TEACHING
STRATEGIES
 TRADITIONAL
1. Lecturing
2. Discussion
3. Questioning
4. Using Audiovisuals
5. The Interactive Lecture
 LECTURING
• Passive learning
• Conveying facts, information, and
ideas that could not be readily
obtained elsewhere
 Lecturing in general is
good, not bad, but there
are bad lectures, and
lectures can be used to
excess.
 Purposes of Lecturing
1. Efficient means of introducing
learners to new topics
2. Used to stimulate students’ interest
in a subject
3. Used to inspire people
 Purposes of Lecturing
4. Integrate and synthesize a large
body of knowledge from several
fields or sources.
5. Clarify difficult concepts
6. Valuable where knowledge is
advancing rapidly and up-to-date
textbooks are not available (Jones)
 Advantages
1. Economical
2. Can supplement a textbook by
enhancing a topic and making it come
to life
3. Enables the learners to watch a
“creative mind at work” (Frederick)
– Lecturer can demonstrate critical
thinking & problem solving being done by
an expert
 Advantages
4. Lecturers enjoy a sense of “theatre”
as they are in the stage in the
classroom.
5. Helps students develop their
listening abilities
 Disadvantages
1. Places learners in the passive role of
a sponge, just there to soak up
knowledge
2. Others claim that few teachers are
good lecturers therefore few can
achieve class objectives
 Disadvantages
3. Lends itself to the teaching of facts
while placing little emphasis on
problem solving, decision making,
analytical thinking, or transfer of
learning
4. Lectures result in “surface learning”
 Disadvantages
5. Not conducive to meeting students’
individual learning needs
6. Brings with it the problem of limited
attention span on the part of the
learners
 Lecturing is valuable and
should be retained, but it
should be used skillfully and
supplemented with other
teaching methods.
Organizing the Lecture

Planning the lecture well ahead

of the time of deliver is time
well spent.
 Forms of Outline
1. Hierarchical / classical
Ø the most commonly used form
Ø typical outline
Ø the simplest
Ø very easy for learners to follow
Ø the most appropriate for teaching
facts and introducing difficult
material.
 Forms of Outline
2. Problem-centered format
Ø various hypotheses & solutions are
developed
Ø become complicated when
hypotheses & solutions overlapped
Ø requires a lot of clarification &
examples
 Forms of Outline
3. Comparative structure
Ø used when the objective is to
differentiate 2 entities
Ø Medical technologist vs medical
laboratory technician
 Forms of Outline
4. Thesis format
Ø involves the lecturer taking a
position on an issue or a particular
viewpoint on a subject and then
supporting or justifying that
viewpoint or position with evidence or
logic
 Whatever approach is
appropriate for your topic
and audience, it is important
that you make the structure
of the lecture CLEAR
to the learners.
 Advance Organizers
• Statement that forms a bridge
between concepts already discussed
and those to come.
• statements made at the beginning of
class or introduction at the beginning
of a book chapter, to help students
activate prior knowledge and relate it
to the new material
• Used in stressing points in the
structure
 At the end of the lecture,
the structure and main points
should be summarized.
 Characteristics of
Disorganized Lectures
1. Structure or outline is not obvious to
the listener. No apparent rationale for
sequence of topics.
2. No mention of the objective or
desired learning outcomes of the
lecture.
3. Lecturer mentions the same topic at
different times for no apparent
purpose other than falling to complete
a thought at one time.
 Characteristics of
Disorganized Lectures
4. No advance organizers before new
concepts are introduced.
5. No transition between sections of
the lecture.
6. No summary or trying thoughts
together at the end.
 Delivering the Lecture
• Plan your delivery, rehearse, &
consciously think about your
techniques of delivery
 1. Controlling Anxiety
q imaging
q scholar & expert
q preferred image in your mind can
increase your self-concept & your
confidence
 2. Spontaneity
q avoid reading to the class
q DO NOT write your lecture in full
sentences
q notes help
 3. Voice Quality
q loud enough
q project your voice
q not monotonous
 4. Body Language
q Move
q Common mannerisms
q Verbal habits
q Maintain eye contact
 5. Speed of Delivery
q Pacing
q Pause now and again
q Hand outs
 6. Getting Off on the
Right Foot
q Give an opening “attention getter”
q A good opening puts the audience in
a positive frame of mind for what is
to come
 7. Clarifying During the
Lecture
q clarify confusing & difficult
concepts thru examples & analogies
 8. Facilitating Retrieval
from Memory
q repetition
q elaboration
q imagery
 Types of Lectures
• Fit the learning situations
1. Traditional Oral Essay
Ø teacher is orator & the only speaker
Ø topic is inspirational & informative
Ø overused
 2. Participatory Lecture
Ø begins with brainstorming
Ø the teacher organizes the students’
ideas
 3. Lecture with
uncompleted handouts
Ø somewhat traditional oral essay
Ø w/ printed lecture
 4. Feedback lecture
Ø mini-lectures combined with 10-min
small group discussions
Ø opportunity to manipulate the
lecture content & apply immediately
 5. Mediated Lecture
Ø use of media such as films, slides,
Web-based images along w/
traditional lecture
 DISCUSSION
• Formal
• Informal
 Purposes & Advantages
of Discussion
1. give learners an opportunity to apply
principles, concepts, and theories;
transfer learning to new & different
situations
2. clarify information & concepts
3. students learn the process of group
problem solving
 Purposes & Advantages
of Discussion
4. help develop & evaluate their beliefs
& positions
5. getting practice in using critical
thinking skills
6. attitudes can be changed
7. students like and prefer it
 Disadvantages of
Discussion
1. takes a lot of time
2. inefficient way to communicate
information
3. effective only w/ small groups
4. some may monopolize the discussion
5. valuable if participants come
prepared
 Discussion Techniques
• Careful planning
• Controversial issues, clinical or
professional problems, emotionally
laden topics
• Factual material = short
 Discussion Techniques
1. Make your expectation clear.
2. Set the ground rules.
3. Arrange the physical space.
4. Plan a discussion starter.
5. Facilitate, don’t discuss.
6. Encourage quiet group members.
 Discussion Techniques
7. Don’t allow monopolies.
8. Direct the discussion among group
members.
9. Keep the discussion on track.
10. Clarify when confusion reigns.
11. Tolerate some silence.
12. Summarizes when appropriate.
 QUESTIONING
• Recall; factual questions
• Higher order thinking skills
• Mean of teaching reasoning & critical
thinking
 Functions
1. Places learners in an active role
2. Used to assess a baseline knowledge
3. Used to review content
4. Increase the students’ motivation to
learn
5. Guide learners’ thought processes in
a certain direction
 Levels of Questions
• Stimulate specific levels of
cognitive activity in learners
• Classification:
1. convergent / divergent
2. lower order / higher order
3. based on Bloom’s taxonomy
1.a. Convergent questions
Ø Require the learner to recall or
integrate information they have
learned
Ø Require fairly low-level cognitive
activity
Ø w/ specific, short, expected
answers
 1.b. Divergent questions
ØAsk the learner to generate new
ideas, draw implications,
formulate a new perspective on a
topic
ØNo single correct answer
ØRequire higher level of cognitive
activity
2.a. Lower-order questions
• Require the learner to recall
information they have read or
memorize
2.b. Higher-order questions
• Require more than recall
• Learner must comprehend or
think critically
 3. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Level of BT Level of Thinking Terms & Phrases

Knowledge Involves recall of Define, how, what,

memorized data list, when. where,
Comprehension Includes Compare, contrast,
understanding & explain, give an
interpretation of example, put in
information your own words,
why
Application Requires using Apply, consider,
information in new use this
situations information, how
would you
 3. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Level of BT Level of Thinking Terms & Phrases

Analysis Involves breaking the Classify, explain

whole into parts & your reasons, what
showing relationships evidence, what
hypotheses, what if
Evaluation Includes assessing a Appraise, decide,
situation based on evaluate, justify,
criteria judge, how would you
rate
Synthesis Requires combining Create, generalize,
elements into a new plan, predict
structure
 7 Types of Questions
1. Factual questions
- assess learners’ understanding
- find out if they are paying
attention
2. Probing questions
- to further explain an answer
- assess learners’ thought process
 7 Types of Questions
Types of Probing Questions
a. Extension probes
b. Clarification probes
c. Justification probes
d. Prompting probes
e. Redirection probes
 7 Types of Questions
3. Multiple-choice questions
- oral or written
- test recall
4. Open-ended questions
- require learners to construct an
answer
 7 Types of Questions
5. Discussion-stimulating questions
- help to move the discussion along
6. Questions that guide problem
solving
7. Rhetorical questions
- no answer at the time
- guide learners into asking some of
their own questions
 Questioning Techniques

• Establish an atmosphere in which

students feel fairly relaxed
and free to ask questions
 Questioning Techniques
1. Prepare some questions ahead of
time
2. State questions clearly and
specifically
3. Tolerate some silence
4. Listen carefully to responses
 Questioning Techniques
5. Use the “beam, focus, build”
technique
6. Provide feedback
7. Handle wrong answers carefully
 Stimulating Learners to
Ask Questions

must learn how to

ü Learners
ask questions
ü“Thinking is driven not by
answers, but by questions.”
(Elder & Paul)
 Using Audiovisuals
• Greatly enhance teaching
• Can add interest & stimulation to the
classroom
Tips for Educators:
1. Know what media are available
2. How to select media
3. How to use media effectively
 Selecting Media
Factors:
1. Learning objectives
2. Availability of teaching
materials & technical assistance
3. Level, ability & number of
learners
 Types of Traditional
Audiovisuals
1. Handouts
2. Chalkboards or whiteboards
3. Overhead transparencies
4. Slides
5. Videotapes
 Handouts
• Printed materials
• Save a lot of time to give information
• Learners can review if given before
the class
• Ensure that all learners have access
to same information
• Pamphlet form
 Chalkboards /
Whiteboards
• Allow for spontaneity
• Illustrated in the board
• Add dimension to the class
• Seen by everyone
• Kept clean
 Chalkboards /
Whiteboards
Disadvantages:
1. Mess made by chalk
2. Materials cannot be saved
3. Not visible to a large group
4. Teacher’s back is to the class
5. Not good for teachers w/ poor hand
writing
Overhead Transparencies
• Sheet of acetate placed on an
overhead projector that enlarges
& projects the image onto a
screen
• Stand in front of the audience;
face the class
 Tips For Making
Effective Transparencies
1. Keep the amount if information
on each sheet to a minimum. (6
x 6)
2. Each letter should be at least
one-fourth inch high.
3. Be sure that every word or
image can be seen from the
back of the room.
 Tips For Making
Effective Transparencies
4. If placing a picture or diagram
on the transparency, fill most of
the sheet, with only one
image per sheet.
5. To protect transparencies
overtime, either mount them
into a cardboard frame or slide
them into a plastic sleeve
 Slides
• Show pictures, diagrams, charts
or word concepts
• Can be effective promoters of
discussion
• Can make abstractions concrete
• Can lend realism
 Advantages of Slides
1. Not too expensive to make or buy
2. Compact & easy to store
3. Easy to update & reorganize to fit
changing class needs
4. Teacher can control the speed of
slide presentation
5. Easy to back up to previous frames
• Easy to carry
 Disadvantages of Slides
1. Can easily get smudged w/
fingerprints
2. Can get bent inside a malfunctioning
projector
3. Projector bulbs don’t last too long;
expensive to replace
4. Reduced light makes it difficult for
learners to take notes
 Videotapes
• Used to film students while they
role-play interviewing,
communication, & counseling skills
 Disadvantages
1. Communication is only one-way;
learners cannot interact w/ the
medium
2. Learners become passive
3. High cost
 Advantages
1. Maintains the teacher’s eye contact
2. Something of a personal touch
3. Enhances the realism of situation
The Interactive Lecture
• Combination of lecture,
discussion, questioning and
audiovisuals
• Utilizing the advantages of all
methods and reducing their
disadvantages
ACTIVITY-BASED
TEACHING
STRATEGIES
 Activity – based
teaching strategies
• Cooperative learning
• Simulations
• Problem-based learning
• Self-learning modules
Activity-based Teaching
• Implies active learning
• Learners : create & store up
knowledge for themselves
 Cooperative Learning
• learn in groups
• Structuring small groups of
learners who work together
• Responsible not only for their
own learning but for that of
others in the group
Types of Cooperative
learning groups:
1. Formal Groups
2. Informal Groups
3. Base Groups
 1. Formal Groups
• Can be done in a traditional class or
online class
• Purpose: To complete a specific
learning task consisting of concepts
or skills
• Length of Existence: One class to
many weeks
• Most useful in academic settings
 2. Informal Groups
• Can be used in any setting
• Purpose: To enhance understanding
of a specific unit of information; to
make connections to prior learning
• Length of Existence: No more than
one class and perhaps for only a few
minutes during a class
 3. Base Groups
• Purpose: To provide encouragement
and to monitor progress throughout
the learning experience
• Length of Existence: The length of
learning experience; usually long term
• Applied to new staff orientation
of preceptorship program
 Advantages of
Cooperative Learning
1. Group members learn to function as
part of a team
2. Working in a group for any length of
time can teach or enhance social
skills
3. Help address individual learning
needs and learning styles
4. Critical thinking is promoted
Research on Cooperative
Learning
1. Produces higher learning achievement
levels than do individualistic or
competitive learning approaches
2. Outcome measures of achievement
are knowledge, problem solving,
reading, mathematics, & procedural
tasks
Research on Cooperative
Learning
3. Increased self-esteem, improved
attitude toward learning, social
competence, & decreased anxiety in
learning
4. Cost-effective strategy
Research on Cooperative
Learning
5. Effectiveness has been found in all
age groups & levels of education,
both sexes, all nationalities, & all
economic groups
6. Effects have been equally good for
learners at all ability levels
Research on Cooperative Learning
• High level of validity and generalizability
(Johnson et.al.)
• Nastasi & Clements, Stockdale & Williams
1. Effective way to learn something is to
teach it into someone else
2. Add cognitive schemata
3. Reduce cognitive dissonance, end up
synthesizing divergent ideas
4. Group reinforcement is present when
rewards are available for students
 Simulations
• Controlled representations of reality
• Exercises that learners engage in to
learn about the real world without
the risks of the real world
 Types of Simulation
1. Simulation exercise
2. Simulation game
3. Role-playing
4. Case Study
 1. Simulation exercise
• A controlled representation of a
piece of reality that learners can
manipulate to better understand the
corresponding real situation
 2. Simulation game
• Game that represents real-life
situations in which the learners
compete according to a set of rules
in order to win or achieve an
objective
 3. Role-playing
• Form of drama in which learners
spontaneously act out roles in an
interaction involving problems or
challenges in human relations
 4. Case Study
• Analysis of an incident or situation in
which characters and relationships
are described, factual or
hypothetical events transpire, &
problems need to be resolved or
solved
 Purposes & Uses of
Simulations
• Help learners practice decision-
making & problem-solving skills to
develop human interaction abilities, &
to learn psychomotor skills in a safe
& controlled setting
 Purposes & Uses
• Learners have the chance to apply
principles & theories, & to see how
and when they work
• Usually worked out by groups of
learners; teamwork
 Purposes & Uses
• To achieve many learning objectives
• Effective methodology in the
acquisition of communication skills
• Learn people’s feelings & how to
interact effectively
 Purposes & Uses
• Avenue for attitude change
• Foster decision-making skills
• Can be applied to the teaching of
psychomotor skills; safely practice
repetitively without harming another
person
 Role of the Educator
3 facets:
1. Planning
2. Facilitating
3. Debriefing
 1. Planning
• Choosing or developing an appropriate
simulation that will meet objectives
• Trial or preplanning
• Assign some reading for learners
 2. Facilitating
• function during the actual progress
of simulation
• may coach learners
• encourage critical thinking
• act as an information resource
 3. Debriefing
• Final discussion session
• The most important part
• Should occur immediately following
simulation
 1. Simulation Exercises
• Focus on process learning
• Participants learn how to make
decisions or solve problems or apply
theory
• Help learners apply & master
psychomotor & clinical skills
 Simulation Exercises
• Categorized by their degree of
fidelity
• Fidelity is the degree to which the
simulation accurately mimics the real
world situation that is supposed to
represent
• Three categories of fidelity : low,
medium(intermediate) and high
 Simulation Exercises
• Categorized by the means of delivery
a. Computer simulations (web-based
with video clips)
b. Skill trainer (manikins)
c. Full-scale simulation (using live
standardized patients or full-scale
situation enactments
 2. Simulation Games
• Focus on either content or process
learning
a. Content games - focus on teaching or
reinforcing factual information
(crossword puzzles)
b. Process games – emphasize problem
solving or application of information
(SimCity)
FRAME GAMES – games that follow the
format of establishing board games,
television games and word games
Advantages of Simulation
Games
• Fun
• Turn routine & repetitive information
stimulating & enjoyable
• Use to evaluate learning
• Increases interaction among learners
 Disadvantages of
Simulation Games
• Some experts disagree that they are
simulations
• Some people believe that games are
unprofessional; they dislike
competition
• Some do not enjoy educational games
• Time consuming
 3. Role Playing
• Participants do not have script to
follow; no rehearsal
• Effective in gaining interpersonal
skills
• Develop the quality of empathy
• 3-5 mins
 4. Case Studies
• Used to apply principles discussed in
class; encourage independent study &
critical thinking
• Safely expose learners to real-world
situations
• More complex
 Steps in Case Study
1. Develop objectives
2. Select a situation
3. Develop the characters
4. Develop the discussion questions
5. Lead the group discussion
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
• Involves confronting students with real
life problems that stimulate critical
thinking & self-taught content
• Should prepare students to be good-
problem solvers in their future work
and condition them to become life-long
learners
• The most applicable in academic
settings
 Problem-Based Learning
1. Conducted w/ small groups
2. Students have little background
knowledge of the subject matter
3. Cases are usually brief; presenting
problems are ill structured
Problem-Based Learning

• Advantages
• Disadvantages
 Advantages of PBL
1. Development of long-term knowledge
retention
2. Use of diverse instruction types
3. Continuous engagement
4. Development of transferable skills
5. Improvement of teamwork and
interpersonal skills
 Disadvantages
1. Potentially poorer performance on
tests
2. Student unpreparedness
3. Teacher unpreparedness
4. Time-consuming assessment
5. Varying degrees of relevancy and
applicability
 Self-Learning Modules
• Self-directed learning modules
• Self-paced learning modules
• Self-learning packets
• Individualized learning activity packages
• Self-contained unit or package of study
materials for use by an individual
 Principles from which
Self-directed learning is
based
1. Adults are self-motivated
2. Adults’ prior experience is a
resource for further learning
3. Adults are problem focused &
readily learn material they can
use
 Components of Self-
Learning Modules
• Introduction
• Behavioral objectives
• Pretest
• Learning activities
• Self-evaluations
• Post test
 Introduction &
Instruction
• how to work through the module, use
pretest & self-evaluation guides;
locate resources; what procedures to
use
• capture the interest of the learner
 Behavioral Objectives
• The first step in the devt process
 Pretest
• Include some questions that assess
knowledge of the content of the
module
• Know the level of performance (80-
100%)
 Learning Activities
• visual; auditory; tactile
• Stress abstractions; concrete
information
 Self-evaluation
• guides
• short quizzes
 Posttest
• written examination
 Pilot Testing
• have 1 or 2 people work through the
module
 Advantages
• to learn independently, at one’s own
time
• address a variety of learning styles
• promote active learning
• provide immediate feedback on
performance
 Advantages
• individualized approach
• freed from having to repeat the
same material year after year
• opportunities for creativity
• possible for a curriculum to be
standardized
 Advantages
• reduce time for conferences
• reduce the time to be away
• reduce the cost of in-service
education
 Disadvantages
• some learners may miss learning with
other people
• miss the interactions that take place
in the classroom
• may lead to procrastination
• learners may be less than honest
• take many hours to design & test
 COMPUTER
TEACHING
STRATEGIES
 Why is computer use
increasing greatly?
• hardware costs decrease
• software proliferates
• internet & WWW expand
• changes in HCDS
• to make education cost-effective
 Learning with Computer
Technology
• time-saving
• to teach critical thinking & problem-
solving
• to provide simulations of reality
• to educate from a distance
• supports mastery learning
 Learning with Computer
Technology
• can maximize time on task
• provide instant feedback
• w/ cognitive effects
 Advantages of Computer
Instruction
• Interactivity
• Increased student motivation
• Increased access to information
• instructional consistency
• reduction of teacher’s repetitive tasks
• individualized instruction
• time efficiency
• cost effectiveness
 Greatest Advantages
of Computer Instruction
• allows a person to interact in the
learning situation
• can find information
• respond to questions
• manipulate variables
• solve problems
• create plan strategies
 Disadvantages
• Many educators do not feel
comfortable enough with CAI.
• effect on personal and professional
communication
• Time investment needed to learn how
to use the technology
 Computer-Assisted
Instruction
• CAI
• Applications can be used in
classrooms and lab, clinical units or
homes
• learners have sufficient access to
computers
• w/ sufficient technological support
 Drill and Practice
• the simplest level of CAI
• Teaches mathematical calculations
 Tutorials
• second mode in which CAI must be
written
• most useful in teaching material at
the rule & concept level
 Computerized Testing
• Used to evaluate student learning,
for remediation purposes, or to
assess student preparedness
for licensing exam
 Games
• like board and card games
• good games are not easy to devise
 Simulations
• student is functioning in a controlled
environment
• one of the most exciting & available
• help to solve clinical problems and
make sound decisions
• may branch into tutorial mode
Multimedia Presentations
• Sometimes called hypermedia
• incorporate texts, sound tracks,
graphics, still photos, animation,
video clips, WWW materials
• INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC – older
form
 Evaluating Software
• Criteria
1. Accuracy 4. Appearance
2. Ease of Use 5. Feedback
3. Design 6. Cost Effectiveness
 Computer-Managed
Instruction
• used to manage, prepare, organize &
evaluate educational experiences
• programs designed to construct
examinations
• AUTHORING systems (writing
computer programs)
 Use the Computer as a
Tool
• search tool
• for patient management
 Internet
• mammoth collection of computer
continents, connecting many millions
of computer.
• modem
 E-mail
• used to provide greater collaboration
between teachers and students &
students to students
• Listservs
 News Groups
• similar to listservs
• messages appear in a general mailbox
that everyone views
 World Wide Web
• collection of millions of documents
found on Web pages that interface
to Internet
 WWW Searches
• has millions of sites affiliated with
it
• surf
• search engines
• URL
• metasearch engines - aggregators
 12 Best Search engines
1. Google 7. Excite
2. Bing 8. DuckDuckGo
3. Yahoo 9. WolframAlpha
4. Baidu 10. Yandex
5. AOL 11. Lycos
6. Ask.com 12. Chacha.com
 URL
• Uniform resource locator (URL)
• E.g.
https://www.facebook.com/Learn-
the-Net-330002341216/
• http: protocol (https: secured)
• www: World Wide Web
• facebook.com: domain name
• .com: top level domain (commercial
site)
• Learn-the-net330002341216: path
 Metasearch engines
1. Dogpile – when you want a compilation
of results from all the major search
engines
2. Ithaki – when you want your aggregated
results to be ranked by an internal
algorithm
3. Polymeta – when you want a
superintelligent metasearch engine
that can recognize colloquial language
and uses an algorithm to organize
results
 Metasearch engines
4. SearchSalad – when you want a
combination of search engine results and
information from all the major review
sites
5. Seekz – when you want a metasearch
engine that produces the most relevant
results and removes all duplicates
 Evaluating WWW
• Criteria
1. Purpose
2. Currency
3. Credibility
4. Content Accuracy
5. Design
 Virtual Reality
• computer-based, simulated three
dimensional environment in which the
participant interacts w/ a virtual
world
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
Other Common Teaching
Strategies
Strategies in Teaching
Small Groups
 Small Group Learning
Strategies & Its Application
Ø Objectives
1. To generate ideas and opinions (through buzz groups,
brainstorming, and crossover groups)
2. To clarify and/or build consensus (through tutorials,
group discussions, snowballing, the nominal group
techniques, and fishbowl and roundtable discussions)
3. To practice and/or play certain roles (through role
play, games, and simulation)
1. BUZZ GROUP
Ø Usually larger groups of 10-12 members

Ø Students are broken down into pairs for a few minutes to:
1. Answer a question the teacher has posted
2. Discuss any difficulties in understanding the topic
3. Speculate on what they think will happen next in class

Ø It is a useful means of getting students to process and use new

information to solve problems.

Ø It encourages some form of participation as well as feedback.

Ø It is effective for quieter students.

Ø It redirects the focus of attention of students in a stimulating
manner, allowing the teacher to have an idea of what the students
know and the students to check their own understanding of the
topic.
2. BRAINSTORMING
Ø A technique for activating the student’s knowledge or current
understanding of an issue or theme.

Ø Select the topic for discussion then ask students to share their
ideas about the topic without going in-depth or giving any
criticism on each idea. Later, the group can revisit the ideas to see
which are important or need further discussions.

Ø Steps involved:
1. generation of ideas
2. clarifying of ideas
3. evaluating or critiquing of ideas
4. summarizing of ideas
Ø Free discussion by the members promotes initiative and lateral
thinking.

Ø Usually the FIRST STAGE of a problem-based learning session

whereby learning issues are being identified.

Ø Advantages:
1. The importance given by the group to all personal
contributions
2. The informal and non-intimidating environment that allows
for more silent members to speak freely and participate
3. The ownership of the created output as a group since all the
members are contributors.
Ø Disadvantages:
1. Time-consuming
2. Dominant members may elaborate more than the quieter ones
3. CROSSOVER GROUPS
Ø It is used to maximize crossing over of information in a large
class.

Ø It is a good way to introduce students to each other and is a good

icebreaker.
4. TUTORIALS
Ø The group discusses a material already covered in class or
previously assigned.

Ø Learners are responsible for the session and the concepts to

discuss, but the tutor should always be available to focus and
redirect the discussion based on the work they have prepared.

Ø The tutor should ensure that all the questions are addressed
during the discussion.

Ø This is both time-consuming and labor-intensive for both tutor

and students.
5. FREE GROUP DISCUSSION
Ø Similar to tutorials where the class is divided into groups and
each group is expected to discuss the subject matter.

Ø As a facilitator, you need to probe, direct, focus, and summarize

or ask a member of the group to summarize what has transpired
during the session.

Ø Unlike in tutorials, the group decides on the issues to focus on,

hence, discussion may cover biomedical, ethical, and social
issues of a clinical scenario.
6. SNOWBALLING
Ø Is an extension of the buzz groups wherein pairs are given a
stimulus material for discussion. Each pair then joins with
another pair (4-person group) to compare and contrast
differences in their understanding. This group of four then
combines with a another group of four to perform a similar
activity.
Ø Used to determine the level of the students’ development and
understanding of a subject matter.

Ø It allows for clarification of ideas and values.

Ø Require more time to conduct but quite effective in eliciting

participation among students.
7. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE (NGT)
Ø It is a consensus-planning tool that helps prioritize issues and
which involves FOUR BASIC PHASES:
1. The group leader gives a statement of the problem or issue usually
written on a board then the members generate ideas about the
issue for 10-15 minutes.
2. The members share their ideas in a round-robin fashion, each
written beneath the statement of the problem.
3. Each item contributed by the members is discussed, focusing more
on clarifications.
4. The members rank the TOP FIVE solution they prefer and write
them on index cards that are collected by the group leader. The
leader averages the rankings and relays the results to the members.
5. (optional) short discussion of the vote
6. (optional) revoting if necessary
Ø It is a formal, systematic, and democratic way of deciding on a
solution to a problem or issue.

Ø It encourages participants to confront issues on a problem-solving

basis rather than on personal assault, and it lets the group have a
greater sense of closure and accomplishment.

Ø Disadvantages:
1. It requires an extended advance preparation
2. Tendency to be limited to a single-purpose, single topic meeting,
making it difficult to change topics in the middle of the meeting
3. Its need for agreement from all participants to use the same
structured method which some people might resist
8. FISHBOWL
Ø This is done by arranging an inner group of students tasked to
discuss an issue or topic and an outer group that would observe
and listen. The outer group is also expected to develop patterns
or themes from the discussion and accomplish a behavior
checklist to give feedback to the inner group regarding group
dynamics. The roles later are reversed.
Ø It is conducted to acquire and assess group members’ knowledge
and group dynamics.

Ø It is useful in breaking the boredom in long lectures conducted in

large class (> 30 students).
9. ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSION (RTD)
Ø It is less formal than the nominal group technique. It consists of a
chairperson who assumes a central position and the rest as
participants.

Ø Is a discussion among group members held without the presence

of an audience, with all the members entering into a free
exchange of ideas.
Ø The seating arrangement encourages honesty, sincerity, and
humility among the participants.

Ø Advantageous for groups that want in-depth discussions of the

issue(s) at hand.
10. CIRCULAR QUESTIONING
Ø While group members are seated in a circular arrangement, one
member asks a question to the member opposite him who, in
turn, is given a time limit to answer the question. The Q & A are
continued in a clockwise manner until all the members have
participated.
Ø The students or the teacher may formulate the questions based on
the topic being discussed.
11. ROLE-PLAYING
Ø Students assume various roles and enact a scenario.

Ø It is valuable when exploring communication issues and attitudes.

Ø Students may encounter situations that may be seen in actual

practice.

Ø Feedback, debriefing, and de-roling are done after the role-play so

students may discuss their difficulties in assuming their roles and
the issues that they saw as they portrayed the roles, and also to
clarify (misconceptions) that the roles are not the members’ real
identity.
Benefits of Small Group Learning
Ø For students…
1. It increases student achievement through active
participation, knowledge exploration, and acquisition of
higher-level intellectual reasoning and problem-solving
skills through analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of ideas.
2. It also provides immediate feedback on student’s learning.

3. It encourages critical thinking, self-education, and learning

through curiosity and discovery.
4. It promotes reflective learning, confidence in expressing and
depending one’s ideas, effective communication and conflict-
resolution skills as well as enhancement of interpersonal
skills.
5. It fosters team building, collaborative work, task
prioritization, and time management.
6. Learner-centered and self-directed

7. It allows to develop positive attitudes toward others

(willingness to listen, professional approach, respect,
patience, humility) and the subject area being studied
(complex concept can be understood, or a difficult problem
can be solved).
8. It positively reinforced a student’s capacity to tackle a subject
matter and give evaluation based on their own understanding
of the topic, provided motivation, and made the students
appreciate feedback during the learning process.
9. It allows students to do research on the assigned topic and
study more, enabling them to participate in discussions and
work in teams
Ø For teachers…
1. SGL shifts the instructor’s role from that of a “transmitter of
information” or a content expert to that of a facilitator of
learning.
Ø Entails creating and managing meaningful learning
experiences for students and stimulating their thinking
through problems, cases, or scenarios.
2. It encourages development of observational and group
dynamic skills.
3. It is a “safe” environment to share ideas, concerns, and
perceived problems, ask “dumb” questions, or even admit
ignorance.
4. It entails a physical space which allow group members to
interact significantly and would require seating arrangements
where eye-to-eye contact is always possible.
Strategies in Teaching
Large Groups
Strategies for Teaching Large Groups
Ø From the most formal to the most informal, and from the
most public to the most private these methods include:
1. *Lecture (Traditional strategy)
2. Demonstration
3. Symposium
4. Panel discussion
5. Colloquy
6. Workshop with plenary
7. Dialogue - Debate
1. DEMONSTRATION
Ø Teaching and learning of the procedure, practicing, and
mastering it will require more than a lecture.

Ø In a demonstration, you will be expected to impart not just

knowledge, but skills as well.

Ø Motor skills are effectively taught when there is a match between the
conditions of learning to instructional events and types of
learning.

Ø Teaching starts with demonstrating what the skill involves.

v Important Points to remember when Demonstrating a Skill:
1. The students should always be aware of the objectives of the session and
the task to be done.
2. Make sure that everybody can see and hear what you are demonstrating.
3. Do every step correctly and avoid shortcuts. Otherwise, students will
learn and repeat your mistakes.
4. Explain clearly an ask questions about the steps, the rationale for those
steps, and the common errors that have to be avoided.
5. Demonstrations take time, so do not rush your sessions.
6. Guide them to recall the components of the procedure.
7. Proper ordering of stimuli is important.
8. Elicit the performance and the opportunity to practice with feedback is
ensured.
2. FORUM-SYMPOSIUM
Ø Subject matter can be easily divided into different modes of
management (overview of the management including its
indications, contraindications, and special guidelines for use)

Ø Pattern, order, and duration of presentation are set beforehand

Ø During this time, the speakers do not communicate with one

another. Usually their seats are arranged in a straight line.

Ø Interaction occurs after the resource persons have given their

piece.
Ø During the forum, the audience as well as the speakers and
chairperson may ask questions, raise points for clarification, and
interact with one another.

Ø In symposium, discussants are chosen based on their expertise

or viewpoints that can provide important inputs to the audience.

Ø COMMON method used during conventions or meetings of

experts, inside the classroom or in postgraduate clinical
training programs

Ø Students can act as speakers while teachers could serve as

presenters.
3. PANEL DISCUSSION
Ø Panel – it is composed of the chairperson and the discussants

Ø During symposium, the chairperson opens the session by

introducing the issue or problem and the members of the panel
then starts the informal discussion by probably throwing key
questions or statements that panel members can comment on. The
discussant express their views or supply essential information on
the topic. Throughout the session, the chair periodically restates and
clarifies the issue, redirects the discussion, summarizes key points,
and links one subtopic to the next.
Ø Discussants – has no formal presentation to deliver.
However, they are expected to be knowledgeable about the topic
and should have prepared and anticipated possible topics for
discussion.

Ø From the beginning, the panel members interact with one another.

Ø To provide the audience with the opportunity to ask questions, a

forum may be held after the discussion.
4. COLLOQUY
Ø TWO types: SINGLE-PANEL and TWO-PANEL colloquy

Ø Single panel – is similar to the panel discussion except that in the

former, the audience can ask questions or give comments at
anytime during the session. There is no time allotted especially for
the forum.

Ø Two panel – there is also an expert panel, distinguishing feature

include second panel called lay panel. This panel proceeds with
the session as in the panel discussion. However, when special
information is necessary, questions may be thrown to the panel of
experts to shed light on the matter. Otherwise, the experts do not
have an active role in the discussion phase.
Ø After the discussion, a forum may follow.

Ø A problem or issue can very well be tackled using this strategy.

5. SEMINAR, WORKSHOP, & PLENARY SESSION
Ø This strategy is most useful in the case of faculty members who
need to be trained on a special competence.

Ø During the seminar, experts can give inputs in the form of

lectures dealing with the formulation of objectives and organization
of corresponding topics, all congruent to the principles of sound
instructional design.

Ø After the seminar, workshops may be held where participants will

be given the chance to apply the inputs using their own instructional
settings.
Ø At the end of the workshops, participants are expected to have
completed a task.

Ø Critique and other feedback to improve the workshop outputs

can be done during the plenary sessions. The presence of
seminar lectures during the plenary sessions is preferred to
maintain the quality of the outputs.
6. DIALOGUE
Ø This is simply a discussion between two people.

Ø If there is an audience, it becomes a public dialogue.

Ø Often used in interviews

Ø There are NO prepared speeches and the chairperson directs the

discussion and raises key questions.

Ø Topic should be important to the audience. If you are the leader or

chair, make sure that the discussion remains interesting and well
within the level of the listeners.
7. DEBATE
Ø It means scratching and digging, is a kind of dialogue in which
two or more people are talking about a topic, exchanging ideas to
deliver opinion.

Ø It is meant to explore and exploring the truths through

interactions have a significant impact on the mental aspect of the
human mind.

Ø It includes regular and targeted verbal exchange of

concepts and ideas that can be done by a group of people.

Ø Used in formal systems to collaborative learning processes

v RULES and CONDITIONS that will help promote the debate as a
learning method:
1. Since the learner is considered as the most important agent in learning
process, curriculum planning, how to begin the lesson and how to
continue it should be done from easier to more difficult and from
introduction to the main text.
2. Previous study is an important factor to enhance the quality of the
debate. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage the learners to study the
lesson before participating in the class.
3. The participants should take notes from learned materials during the
debate.
4. A useful debate should follow its aims; the participants should not try to
apply their own ideas without considering the goals of the debate.
5. The debate should be conducted based on the principle of reasoning. It
should be conducted according to scientific documents.
Ø BENEFITS and FUNCTIONS of debate learning method (divided into
TWO categories):
1. INSTRUCTIONAL FUNCTIONS
a. Mastery learning
b. Creating a learning continuum
c. Continuity in the learning
d. Thinking centered learning
e. Creative learning
f. Increasing the speed of learning
g. Promotion of the evaluation power
h. The promotion of entrepreneurial skills

2. EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS
a. Promotion of mental health
b. Development of verbal skills
c. Promotion of social skills
 TEACHING
PSYCHOMOTOR
SKILLS
 PSYCHOMOTOR SKILL
• a well-organized and coordinated
activity requiring manual
manipulation of things,
movement and language
 Terms
• Regulatory stimuli – external
conditions that influence or regulate
skill performance & to which the learner
must pay attention
• Nonregulatory stimuli – external
conditions that do not influence
skill performance
 3 main groups of skills
OBJECT- § Behaviors that consist of manipulating
MOTOR an object
§ E.g. operating an equipment or
performing a procedure
LANGUAGE § Behaviors or activities with symbolic
-MOTOR value and are concerned with
communication
§ E.g. writing, reading
FEELING- § Concerned with communicating
MOTOR attitudes or feelings through
movement
§ E.g. dancing, painting, music
 Terms
• Closed skill – a skill performed under
stable environmental condition & stimuli
• Open skill – a skill performed under
changing environmental condition &
stimuli
• Motor Plan – a general mental
preconception of what movements
will be required to perform a skill
 Terms
• Fixation – practicing the skill in the
same way each timefix a
to
reproducible pattern in memory
• Diversification – practicing the skill
in a variety of ways so that it can be
reproduced in a modified way to meet
changing environments at any time.
 Terms
• Arousal – a state of being stirred to
action
• Intrinsic feedback – awareness of
performance that arises from within the
individual
• Extrinsic (augmented) feedback –
awareness of performance that is
supplied by the external source
 Terms
• Massed practice – continuously
repeated practice sessions with very
short or no rest periods between
trials
• Distributed practice – practice
sessions interspersed with rest
periods
 History of Teaching
Psychomotor Skills
• Skills = motor activity + attention,
concern, compassion to be shown
to patients (Bjork, 1999)
• School-based
• Hospital-based
 Phases of Skill Learning
Gentile’s model

Stage 1: Getting the idea of the

movement
Stage 2: Fixation / diversification
 Stage 1: Getting the Idea of the
Movement
• Initial step is to have a goal. The learner is
confronted with a clear-cut need or
problem
– E.g. Need: Obtain blood sample
Goal: Learn venipuncture
• Regulatory stimuli
• Nonregulatory stimuli
 Stage 2: Fixation /
Diversification

• Unsuccessful in reaching the

goal : repeat stage 1
• Successful in reaching the
goal: proceed to fixation /
diversification
 Attention
The problem for learners is
not limiting attention, but the
difficulty of paying attention
to several essential stimuli at
one time.
 Attention
• Bottleneck theory – proposes that our
information system can handle a
limited number of stimuli at a
time.
• Limited availability of resources
• Arousal – an important internal
influencing factor
• People learn to focus their attention
through coaching and practice
 Strategies to focus attention
while performing a closed skill
1. Prepare by using muscle relaxation
techniques & breathing control
2. Use visualization or mental imagery to
internally experience the skill
3. Person can focus by concentrating on
an important segment of the skill
What is the difference between motor learning
and motor performance?

Motor learning
• Internal process associated with practice
or experiences that results in a relatively
permanent change in a person’s ability to
perform a motor skill.
Motor performance
• Performing skilled actions
 What is the difference between retention tests
and transfer tests?
Retention test
• Evaluation in the same environment used
during a practice or therapy session
• Measures how well performers learn
practiced tasks

Transfer test
• Evaluation in a different environment than
that used during a practice session
• Measures how well performers generalize
learning to perform task unpracticed in a
different environment
 STAGES OF MOTOR LEARNING
Three-phase theory of skill acquisition
(Fitts,1962)
• Recognized as the most influential theory
of skill acquisition
• Skill development occurs in three phases:
1. Cognitive stage
2. Associative stage
3. Autonomous stage
 1) Cognitive stage
Goals of learning:
1. To understand the task
2. To develop strategies to execute the task
3. To determine ways to evaluate task

Performance:
• characterized by inaccuracies, slowness and
movements that appear stiff and
uncoordinated
• requires a high degree of attention and other
cognitive processes
 1) Cognitive stage
Occurs in the following:
1. Learning a new motor task
2. Performing a well-learned task in an
infrequently practiced environment
 1) Cognitive stage
Strategies to promote learning:
1. Emphasize purpose of activity that is
functionally relevant
2. Structuring environment to reduce
distractions
3. Clear and concise instructions
4. Demonstrations of the task
5. Use of feedback
6. Use of practice schedules
 2) Associative stage
Goals of learning:
1. To fine-tune a skill
2. To produce the most efficient action

Performance:
• characterized by slower gains in
performance and reduced variability
 2) Associative stage
Occurs in the:
1. Practice of a skill to increase safety or
efficiency of a task
 2) Associative stage
Strategies to promote learning:
1. Reduce amounts of hands-on guiding or
assistance provided to the patient
2. Structure the environment to gradually
promote variations in practice conditions
and demands
3) Autonomous / Automatic stage
Performance:
• Requires little attention and information
processing
• Learner performs multiple tasks all at the
same time
 INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS IN TEACHING
PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS (Briggs,1981)

INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING E.g. TAKING BP

EVENTS MOTOR SKILL
1. GAINING Introduce Emphasize that every
ATTENTION stimulus patient should have their VS
taken including BP
2. INFORMING THE Demonstrate the Emphasize that the BP taken
LEARNER OF THE expected should be accurate
OBJECTIVE performance of
the skill
3. STIMULATING Recall part skills Briefly review concepts
RECALL OF and execute related to BP including HR
PREREQUISITES subroutines and CO
Review hos the stethoscope
is used from previous lesson
 INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS IN TEACHING
PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS (Briggs,1981)

INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING MOTOR E.g. Taking BP

EVENTS SKILL
4. PRESENTING Introduce stimulus Introduce the
THE STIMULUS events, including sphygmomanometer. Ask
equipment and tools students to bring their own eqpt
MATERIAL
to be used at their Enumerate the steps in taking
proper sequence the BP
Demonstrate how BP is taken
5. PROVIDING Encourage recall of Encourage the students to recall
rules and sequence the steps
LEARNING
of required part skills Ask a pair of students to
GUIDANCE
or subroutines and demonstrate the steps in front of
practice by proper the class and ask others to
prompting explain them
 INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS IN TEACHING
PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS (Briggs,1981)
INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING MOTOR e.g. TAKING BP
EVENTS SKILL
6. ELICITING Ask the learners Ask the students to work in
PERFORMANCE to perform part pairs and take each
and total skills other’s BP
7. PROVIDING Offer immediate Go around check on the
FEEDBACK constructive pairs and give constructive
feedback as to feedback
the correctness Check the correctness of
of the technique and accuracy of
performance of BP readings taken by the
part and total students
skills
 INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS IN TEACHING
PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS (Briggs,1981)

INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING MOTOR E.g. Taking BP

EVENTS SKILL
8. ASSESSING Let the learners Have them submit taken
THE demonstrate BP readings and their
PERFORMANCE performance of answers to questions in the
the total skill manual or guide
according to the
criteria

9. ENHANCING Provide practice Assign of patients to

RETENTION of part and total students and ask them to
AND TRANSFER skills, as well as take the BP of the patient
refresher training
 ERROR DETECTION
Error detection:
• A process that develops with motor
learning
• Require memory of sensory feedback
from previously performed actions
SLOW-POSITIONING FAST-TIMING TASK
TASK
Sensory feedback is Sensory feedback is
used to guide the action used to detect errors
to its endpoint; detect after the action has
errors during the action ended
 FOCUSING ON ACTIONS NOT
MOVEMENTS
• There is little evidence that
learners store and retrieve
memories for individual
segments of actions without
regard for task goal
• Practice tasks or actions not
individual movements
 VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE SKILL
LEARNING
PREPRACTICE PRACTICE VARIABLES
VARIABLES
Motivation Intensity of practice
Goal setting Massed vs. Distributed practice
Constant vs. Variable practice
Contextual interference
Part- and whole-task practice
Mental practice
Use of guidance techniques
Use of feedback
Video feedback
Motivation and reinforcement
Frequency and timing of feedback
Focus of attention
 Practice
• In fixation / diversification, the general
motor pattern is practiced & refined
• Teacher’ role :arrange for or
supervise practice
 Practice
• Essential in order to fix sequential order of
movements in the learner’s memory
• Amount of practice varies with:
a. Complexity of the skill
b. learner’s motivation
c. Knowledge of related skills
 Practice
• Massed practice
• Distributed practice
 Generalizations
1. People learn psychomotor skills best
using a greater number of short practices
sessions rather than fewer long sessions.
2. Distributed practice is generally better
than massed practice.
 Generalizations
3. Practice must be long enough for the
learner to make appreciable progress; rest
periods must be short enough that
forgetting does not occur.
PRACTICE VARIABLE: intensity of practice

• In practice session, the number of

repetitions performed is more critical
than the amount of time spent practicing
• Logarithmic relationship between practice
and rate of improvement
– The rate of improvement at any point during
practice is related to the amount of
improvement left to achieve
– Learners in the early stages of practice are
expected to experience more rapid improvement
than those who have already undergone a large
amount of practice
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: massed vs.
distributed practice
Massed practice Distributed practice
Amount of actual practice Amount of time allotted for
time is much greater than rest is equal to or even
the amount of rest time greater than the amount of
between practice trials time spent for practicing

Beneficial for those with Beneficial for those with

sufficient stamina, attention short attention span or
and concentration poor concentration abilities

Tasks: complex, energy-

consuming
PRACTICE VARIABLE: variable vs. constant
practice
• The ability to generalize learning allows
us to perform tasks under unique or
varied conditions
Variable practice Constant practice
Assist learners in Practice sessions
adapting to novel focused on one version
situations and demand of a single task

Ex. For tasks that will be Ex. For skills that aim at
performed under a exactly replicating a task
variety of conditions
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: contextual
interference
• Refer to intertrial inconsistency that is
generated by practice order
BLOCKED PRACTICE RANDOM PRACTICE
Several trials of one Practice different
task are practiced tasks on consecutive
before initiating trials
practice of a second
task
Produces low Produce high
contextual interference contextual interference
PRACTICE VARIABLE: part-task practice

• For certain tasks, learners may benefit

from breaking down the task and
practicing individual components

• Part-task practice is most beneficial in

the ffg.:
1. Involves a serial skill
2. Involves information (from home to
downtown facility)
PRACTICE VARIABLE: whole-task practice

• Whole -task practice is most beneficial

in the ffg.:
1. Continuous task
2. Task that requires timing for segments
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: mental practice
• MENTAL PRACTICE is an active process in
which learner mentally rehearses a task
(do not physically practice a skill) with the
intent of enhancing motor learning

• Familiarity with the motor task to be

learned will experience greater benefit from
mental practice

• Persons with cognitive deficits may have

difficulties with mental practice techniques
 Mental Practice
• Mental imagery
• Mental rehearsal
• Guided imagery
• Visualization
 Mental Practice

Learners can improve their

skill level not only by
physical practice but also by
mental practice.
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: use of guidance
techniques
• Intervention techniques frequently involve
the use of physical cueing to assist in
learning motor skills
• Physical prompts or hand-over-hand
assist may help those perform tasks
during practice
• Beneficial in the early stages of learning
• Guidance should be withdrawn ASAP to
promote long-term learning
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: use of feedback

• Feedback is an essential aspect of the

learning process
• 2 classes of feedback:
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
From various sensory Acts as supplement to
systems as result of intrinsic feedback
production of movement Provided to the learner
by an outside source
(person, object)
Maybe provided during
or end of task
 Two forms of Augmented
Feedback
a. Knowledge of results (KR) – refers
to external verbal feedback about
performance outcomes
b. Knowledge of performance (KP) –
refers to external information about the
action process involved in the
performance
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: use of feedback
• 2 types of extrinsic feedback:
KNOWLEDGE OF KNOWLEDGE OF
RESULTS (KR) PERFORMANCE (KP)
• Terminal feedback • Feedback regarding
about the outcome of kinematics or quality
a movement as related of movement pattern
to goal of movement used to achieve a goal
• External verbal • External information
feedback about about action process
performance outcomes involved in the
performance
 Feedback

Extrinsic feedback is most

effective when no
interfering activity occurs
between the skill
performance and the
accompanying feedback.
 Feedback

Sheer repetition without

indications of improvement
or any kind of
reinforcement is a poor
way to attempt to learn.
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: video feedback

• Visual feedback in the form of video

replay may assist learning

• Relate to both learner’s skill level and use

of verbal cues
– Advanced learners: does not verbal cues
– Novice learners: require verbal cues
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: motivation and
reinforcement
• Factors that motivate and reinforce learning:
1. Information about performance and results
2. Feedback
• Types of reinforcement:
POSITIVE NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
REINFORCEMENT
Increases the Occurs when an aversive
likelihood that the stimulus is removed
learner will repeat the following performance thus
performance on increasing the chances that
subsequent trials the action will be repeated
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: motivation and
reinforcement

• Punishment: decreases the likelihood

that a response will be repeated

• Positive reinforcement is thought to

generate greater improvements in
learning than negative reinforcement or
punishment
 PRACTICE VARIABLE: frequency and
timing of feedback
• Discourage from becoming dependent
on the feedback

• Strategies:
1. Allow learners time to think about an
action before feedback is provided
2. Ask learners to estimate their own errors
before feedback is provided
3. Withhold feedback on some practice trials
(especially near end of practice)
PRACTICE VARIABLE: focus of attention

• Example:
On playing a ball game: “hit the ball
as if using a whip” instead of “snap
your wrist when hitting the ball”
 Whole Vs Part Learning
• Part mtd = skills that are extremely
complex w/ many parts
• Whole mtd = skills of low complexity or
where the parts are interrelated or
organized
 Approaches to Teaching Skills
Factors:
1. Type of program
2. Number of educators available
3. Number of student body
4. Availability of technology
5. Philosophy of the program
 Independent Learning Vs Teacher
Instruction
• Self-instruction
• Handbook
• Media instructions
• Faculty-taught skills / Instructor’s
demonstrations
 Demonstrations
• Students prefer instructor demonstration
• People learn as they observe other
people’s behavior (Bandura’s theory)
• Mental model
 Elements of Effective Skill
Demonstrations
1. Assemble all equipment ahead of time.
2. Make sure all equipment is in working
order.
3. Do a “dry run” of the procedure and
time the demonstration.
4. Arrange the environment to be as
realistic as possible.
 Elements of Effective Skill
Demonstrations
5. Perform the procedure step by step,
explaining as you go along.
6. When appropriate, give the rationale for
your actions.
7. Refer to handouts or textbooks to show
fine points that may not be visible to the
audience.
 Elements of Effective Skill
Demonstrations
8. Be sure to adhere to all relevant principles
involved.
9. Consider performing the skills a second
time (or having a learner perform a
demonstration) without explanations, to
show the flow of the skill.
 Simulations
• Practicing a skill with equipment in a
laboratory
• E.g. simulated clinical laboratory at Mabini
Rm 207
 Assessment of
Psychomotor Skill Learning
• Skill performance checklist
• Describe the step-by-step progression of
skill activity needed to achieve the goal
• Contains a number of items that are
checked off when completed
 PROMOTING AND
ASSESSING CRITICAL
THINKING
 Additional Skills
• Work collaboratively w/ an
interdisciplinary team
• Provide evidence (research) to
support one’s interactions
• Draw reasoned conclusions
• Document clearly and
comprehensively
 Additional Skills
• Provide leadership that leads to
positive change
• Be unwillingly to merely accept the
status quo or tradition
• Be creative
• Connect ideas, often in unique ways
• Engage in dialogue w/ individuals &
groups
 Additional Skills
• Communicate effectively through
verbal, written & electronic means
• Manage conflicting information
• Make decisions despite gaps in
information & knowledge
• Have a questioning mind
• Be characterized by a “spirit of
inquiry”
 Additional Skills
• Contribute to the ongoing
development of med. Lab. Science
• Be open to new perspectives,
interpretations, & alternatives
• Be reflective & contemplative
• THINK CRITICALLY
 Critical Thinking (Dressel &
Mayhew, 1954)

• ability to define a problem

• select pertinent information needed
to solve the problem
• recognize stated & unstated
assumptions
• formulate or select relevant &
promising hypotheses
• draw valid conclusions
• judge the validity of inferences
 Critical Thinking (Watson &
Glaser, 1964)

• composite of attitudes of inquiry

• knowledge of the nature of valid
inferences, abstractions &
generalizations
• skills in employing & applying these
attitudes & this knowledge
• involves one’s frame of mind or
attitude
• perspective through w/c one views all
situations
 Analysis of the definitions
suggest that…..
1. A critical thinker is nonbiased, reasoned,
and truth oriented
2. Critical thinking involves making judgments
3. Thinking can be judged to be critical if it
holds up to a certain evaluative criteria
4. Critical thinking is tied to belief or action
5. Critical thinking is a spirit, attitude, or an
inclination to think about one’s thinking.
 Critical Thinking
• Uses the powers of the mind to view
the world and to act in a discerning
way. It includes having a questioning
attitude, examining underlying
assumptions, and considering the
validity of alternative solutions, in
order to make reasoned judgments
that are sensitive to context. It is a
way of interacting with the world that
is reflective, open, and generative.
 Critical Thinking
• Interacting with the world
- is described as engaging with
ideas as well as with people, being
curious, appreciating contextual
influences, being broad rather than
narrow, being aware of one’s own
values, being involved, being able to
tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty,
and not having tunnel vision.
 Critical Thinking
• Being reflective
- means having a sound knowledge
base, examining the whole, being
thoughtful, examining assumptions,
being insightful, drawing conclusions,
that are well founded, and
continuously looking at and
investigating ideas and perspectives.
 Critical Thinking
• Being open
- means being flexible and open to
new ideas; considering alternative lines
of reasoning; being creative, having
intellectual curiosity; and continually
rethinking issues, perspectives, and
points of view, including one’s own.
 Critical Thinking
• Being generative
- means creating new ideas,
proposing alternatives, being willing to
grow and take risks, taking
responsibility for initiating change,
and constantly growing and learning.
Aspects of CT (Richard Paul, 1993)
• Judging whether a statement is
actually the application of a certain
principle
• Judging whether an observation
statement is reliable
• Judging whether an inductive
conclusion is warranted
• Judging whether the real problem
has been identified
 Aspects of CT
• Grasping the true meaning of a
statement
• Judging whether there is ambiguity
in a line of reasoning
• Judging whether certain statements
contradict each other
• Judging whether conclusions follow
necessarily
 Aspects of CT
• Judging whether a statement is
specific enough
• Judging whether something is an
assumption
• Judging whether a definition is
adequate
• Judging whether s statement made
by an alleged authority is acceptable
 Engagement w/ CT
• identify & evaluate assumptions that
underlie our conclusions, judgments,
& actions
• consider multiple perspectives
• Can articulate a point of view
• make decisions and commitments
 Engagement w/ CT
• consider the consequences of our
decisions
• justify our beliefs and actions
• willing to modify our beliefs & actions
as new information is received &
processed
 Differentiating CT from
other Concepts
• Problem solving
• Scientific method
• Cognitive/intellectual development
• Creativity
 OBSTACLES TO DEVELOP
CRITICAL THINKING
• Lack of student motivation
• Student resistance to active learning
• Students’ expectations of lecture
format
• Lack of time to prepare and implement
critical thinking activities, and
perceived need to cover content as
major barriers.
Strategies that Enhance CT

• Discussion
• Asking Effective Questions
• Text Interaction
• Problem-Based Learning
• Concept Mapping
• Narrative Pedagogy
 Concept Mapping
• Metacognitive tools that assist
learners to see their own thinking and
reasoning about a topic as they depict
relationships among factors, causes
and effects, identify predisposing
factors, formulate expected outcomes,
etc
 Concept Mapping
• The map should note which factors are
precursors to the situation or precede
other factors, and which ones are the
result or outcome of certain elements.
• Requires that learners draw on an
extensive knowledge base, examine
assumptions that may be made about
concepts or the relationships among
them, and think carefully about how all
the pieces fit together.
 Narrative Pedagogy
• Discovered by Diekelmann
• A discipline-specific pedagogy that
involves students and faculty working
together to engage in “community
reflective scholarship”, where
significant questions are raised, many
perspectives are considered, and
conversations lead to learning.
 Other Strategies
• Case Studies
• Collaborative Learning
• One-minute papers
• Microthemes (writing-to-learn
strategy)
• Focused Reflection (Journals)
• Service Learning
• Self-assessment/evaluation
 Other Strategies
• Use of portfolios
• Imagery
• Structured clinical preparation
• Process-focused learning strategies
• Preceptorships
• Concept analysis/ concept
clarification
CLINICAL
TEACHING
 Purpose of the Clinical
Laboratory
• Where many skills are perfected
• Opportunity for observation
• Where problem-solving & decision-
making skills are refined
• Gain organization & time mgt skills
• Learn cultural competence
• socialization
Misuse of the Clinical Lab
• Gain experience rather than get
active educational objectives
• Novices are given too much
responsibility
• Learners are supervised & evaluated
more than they are taught
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• Infante
• Packer
• Billay and Yonge
• CTA
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• Infante
developed a model that relies
heavily on keeping students in a skill
laboratory until they are proficient
with skills
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• Packer
contends that more information
about clinical practice should be
taught in the classroom before
learners go to the clinical area
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• Billay & Yonge
A student is taught and
supervised by a practicing
professional employed by the health
care agency while an educator
oversees the process and indirectly
supervises the student
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• CTA Model explained by Hunsberger
et al.
- designed for a two-day
experience
- CTA takes the lead on the first
day with orientation to the unit and
to the clinical assignment for a small
group of students & the educator.
 Models of Clinical
Teaching
• CTA Model explained by Hunsberger
et al.
- the CTA focuses heavily on
psychomotor skills
- On the 2nd day, the educator
takes over the teaching and the
supervisory role.
 Preceptorship
• Components of a Comprehensive
Orientation for Preceptors
• Preceptors themselves report some
negative aspects of the preceptorship
model
• The educator is responsible for
overseeing the educational experience
and is ultimately responsible for
student learning outcomes
 Preparation for Clinical
Instruction
• Educators must do a lot of planning
before clinical instruction begins
 Conducting a Clin. Lab
Session
• Preconferences
• Practice Session
 Evaluating Learner
Progress
• Formative & Summative Evaluation
• Norm-referenced & criterion-
reference evaluation
• Grading systems
 Sources of Evaluation
Data
• self
• staff
 Clinical Evaluation Tools
1. The item should be derived from the
course or unit objectives.
2. The items must be measurable in
some way.
3. The items & instructions for use
should be clear to all that must use
the tool.
 Clinical Evaluation Tools
4. The tool should be practical in
design and length.
5. The tool must be valid & reliable
Classroom Assessment
and Evaluation
 Basic Contexts and Concepts

—Assessment - is a continuous
process whose primary purpose is
to improve student learning
(Gronlund 2006).
Reasons for Classroom Assessment
1. To provide feedback to students.
2. To make informed decisions about students.
3. To monitor, make judgments about, and document students’
academic performance.
4. To aid student motivation by establishing short-term goals and
feedback.
5. To increase retention and transfer of learning by focusing
learning.
6. To evaluate instructional effectiveness.
7. To establish and maintain a supportive classroom learning
atmosphere.
 Definition of Terms:
— Assessment – a broad range of processes by which
teachers gather information about student learning
Ø these processes include paper-and-pencil tests,
performance and project ratings, and
observations.
Øpart of a qualitative description - making a
value judgment in response to the question: How
well does the student perform?
Øcan also include testing instruments, such as
standardized or large-scale achievement tests.
— Test – is a particular type of assessment,
usually a set of questions that all students
must answer in a fixed period of time
and under similar conditions to demonstrate
learning.
Øused to determine how well students
perform on a specific set of tasks and
to obtain comparative measurements of
students’ performance.
— Measurement
Øa process that assigns numbers to
assessment results, such as the number of
correct answers or points on a project.
Øa quantitative description and makes
no statement about the quality of a
student’s performance.
Øtypically associated with large-scale
achievement tests
— Norm-referenced standardized test
Ø usually a paper-and-pencil test,
standardized for a large population (called a
“norming group”), and administered
under the same conditions and time limits to
all test-takers
Ø Purpose: to rank each individual’s
score by comparing it with the scores
(using measurement) of the entire
norming group.
—Validity – refers to the degree to which a
test measures what it is intended to
measure.

—Reliability – refers to the consistency

of test results. If the same group of
students could be retested several times and get
about the same scores, then the test can be
considered reliable.
ØFactors affecting reliability:
1. unclear directions
2. insufficient time
3. presence of distractions
4. objectivity of scoring or the degree
of agreement among the raters or
scorers of a test
— Evaluation of student learning –
determining whether the students are
achieving or have achieved the
objectives of the lesson, unit, or subject.
Øresult of identifying, collecting, and
analyzing the necessary data to determine
how much the students have learned.
Evaluation
— Validates the objectives and points out
the effectivity and propriety of the
learning experiences
— Part and parcel of T-L process
—The proof of LEARNING is
seen in TESTING.
Purposes of Classroom Assessment
1. For PLACEMENT
Ø To determine whether the student has
prerequisite skills to begin instruction.
Ø Before beginning instruction, many
effective teachers use a pre-test to
assess their students’ current
knowledge.
Purposes of Classroom Assessment

2. For DIAGNOSIS
Ø To determine causes (physical,
intellectual) of persistent learning
problems.
Ø Diagnostic test – its purpose is to
identify students’ strengths and
weaknesses specifically, what students
need to learn in designated subjects.
3. For FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
Ø To monitor learning progress,
provide feedback to reinforce
learning, and correct learning
errors.
Ø Lets students know how they are doing.
Ø consist of daily quizzes, homework, and
short tests.
4. For SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS:
ØTo determine final achievement for
assigning grades or certifying mastery.
Ø It is an overview of previous
learning.
 Areas Teachers Assess

1. Knowledge and Conceptual

Understanding – cognitive area (memory
work requiring recall of information or explain
the concept in their own words).
2. Thinking – assessment can involve multiple-
choice tests, problems solving exercises, and
oral or written explanations.
 Areas Teachers Assess

3. Skills – assessment can be paper-and-pencil

tests, demonstration or portfolios.
Ø Types of skills: physical, learning, social,
thinking, math, problem solving.

4. Attitudes – in relation to building a group

spirit and sense of interdependence in a class . It
is useful to inquire about students’ feelings
toward one another and about school in general.
Types of Data – Areas of Evaluation

1. Cognitive Domain – knowledge of

content or subject matter and problem-
solving abilities
2. Psychomotor Domain – actual
performance of technical,
interpersonal, and communication skills
3. Affective Domain – attitudes and
values
 Formative Classroom Assessment
— It is a type of classroom assessment devoted entirely to the
enhancement of student learning and achievement.
1. Formative feedback – illustrates the gap between what the
student currently knows and understands and what the
teacher’s expectations are for this knowledge and
understanding.
2. Formative assessment strategies – questioning, peer
assessment, and feedback through grading
3. Formative assessment and student motivation –
clarifying the goal or standard and helping students develop a
representation of this standard for themselves helps students to
take ownership for their success.
 Relationship Between Formative
and Summative Assessment
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Is a process of “summing up”
achievement, or conducting a
status check on accomplishments
at a given point in time.
Data obtained are typically used
for making judgments about
student achievement
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Designed to provide information
to students that they can act on to
close the gap between where they
are and where they need to be
relative to the standard.
Data is more informational in
nature. It is used to provide
feedback to help and support
students.
 Understanding Assessment Tools
A. TEACHER-MADE ASSESSMENTS

Ø Good Reasons:
1. The teacher has monitored the learning experiences in
the class and thus has a much better idea than anyone else
what needs to be assessed.
2. Teacher assess the learning based on what they taught.
3. The teacher is familiar with the students as well as the
instruction, which may affect the what and how of
assessment.
B. LARGE-SCALE ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

Ø Potential Uses and Limitation

1. Assess student performance according to district-wide
and state-wide curricula, monitor student achievement,
and assess student aptitudes prior to high school
graduation.
2. No single test gives (or even claims to give) a complete
picture of a student’s achievement. Test scores must be
supplemented with samples of student work, observation
of students, and the quizzes, tests, and assignments that
you create for your students.
Ø Strengths

1. Technical excellence in questions – written by

specialists
2. Extensive technical data – accompanied by
extensive helpful data on norming, validity, and
reliability
3. Cost-efficiency – can deliver the highest technical
proficiency at the least cost per pupil
4. Easy-to-use data – provide a variety of scores
(percentiles, grade equivalencies, stanines) for
use in comparing each student’s score to the
norming group’s scores. Scores are available
to show mastery or non-mastery of specific
skills and objectives.
5. Ease of administration and scoring

6. Customization
C. STUDENT-LED CONFERENCES

— The student takes major responsibility for discussing

and evaluating his or her current level of achievement
relative to the standard.
— Typically done at midterm as a progress report and
include the student, teacher, and parent(s).
— These assessments are used to discuss a student’s
performance on various projects, essays, tests, or
quizzes. This discussion includes the quality of the
student’s work, the ways in which the student performed
well, and what might be done to enhance his or her future
performance.
Ø Benefits

1. Students learn to take ownership for their

learning and are held accountable for it.
2. Communication among the three
stakeholders in student success—student,
parents, and teacher—is enhanced. It foster
coordination among these individuals, with
student academic well-being as the central
focus.
Constructing Classroom Assessments
Ø Categories and Item Types:

1. For measuring knowledge-level outcomes: Short-

answer, Matching Type, and True-False items
2. For measuring both knowledge-level and more
complex learning outcomes: Multiple-Choice items
3. For assessing complex, higher-level objectives:
Interpretive items
4. For assessing higher-level outcomes: Essay items
 Objective Test Items
— Are so called because they have a single best
or correct answer; no professional
judgment is required to score them.
— TWO types:
1. SELECTION Type - a response is chosen
from among alternatives given
2. SUPPLY Type - the student supplies a brief
response
A. TRUE-FALSE ITEMS
— Of the three (true-false, matching, and short-
answer items), the true-false question or
alternate choice question is perhaps the least
useful.
— Susceptible to guessing; students who guess have
a 50% chance of getting a correct response.
E.g.
1. Children learn by doing. ______
2. Learning ends once you get a degree. ____
B. MATCHING EXERCISES
— Variation on the true-false format; assess mostly recall.
— Best use: Identify relationships within homogeneous
material.
E.g. Identify the type of question being referred to in the
following phrases. Match Column A with Column B.
Column A Column B
1. Has no answer at the time A. factual
2. Makes discussion proceed B. probing
3. Test recall provided with answer C. multiple choice
4. Force learner to explain further D. open-ended
5. Checks learners’ attention E. discussion-
stimulating
C. SHORT-ANSWER and COMPLETION ITEMS
— These are supply-type rather than selection-type
items.
— Generally require the student to provide a word,
phrase, or symbol. Students are asked not simply to
identify a correct choice but to retrieve it from
memory.
— Completion items can measure comprehension
level.

E.g.
According to Thorndike and Skinner, behavior that
is _________ is more likely to reoccur.
D. MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS
— Considered the most useful objective test item.
— It can measure both knowledge and higher-level
learning outcomes.
E.g.
1. It is defined as thinking about one’s thinking:
A. transfer C. learning
B. memory D. metacognition
2. When holding a class, how will you show that you are not
nervous?
A. Play the marking pen while presenting the topic to the
students.
B. Keep the arms folded while talking.
C. Move and maintain an eye contact with the students.
D. Place the hands inside the pockets.
— Multiple-Choice items consist of two parts:
1. Question or problem - called the stem,
may be phrased as either an incomplete
statement or a question.
2. List of possible solutions - possible
responses to the stem are called the
alternatives.
Ø Correct alternative is the answer
Ø Remaining ones are called distractors
E. ESSAY ITEMS
— Excellent way to assess students’ higher thinking
processes -comprehending and analyzing - as
well as skills in organizing and presenting
ideas.
— Can measure complex outcomes

— TWO types :
1. Restricted response
2. Extended response
1. Restricted response – use to assess
students’ abilities to explain, interpret, and apply
information.
Ø It focuses on specifics, and the question must be
phrased to restrict the response in that way.
Ø Uses analytic scoring because of the
restrictions, you can directly compare
responses to the scoring rubric and
assign points.
v E.g. Explain two reasons leading to the conflict in
which Magellan was killed.
2. Extended response – use to assess
the students’ abilities to select, organize,
and evaluate ideas.
Ø Uses holistic scoring – the outcomes
being assessed here are global ones, such
as organization and selection of
relevant material.
v E.g. Compare England’s experience
during the American Revolution to the
U.S. experience in Iraq.
 Characteristics of Good Tests

1. Validity – the extent to which the test

measures what it intends to measure.
2. Reliability – the consistency with which a
test measures what it is supposed to
measure.
3. Usability – the test can be administered
with ease, clarity and uniformity.
— Other Things to Consider:

4. Scorability – easy to score

5. Interpretability – test results can be

properly interpreted and is a major basis
in making sound educational decisions.
6. Economical – the test can be reused
without compromising the validity and
reliability.
Assessing Performance and Products
— Performances – are active demonstrations that
assess student learning (oral presentations and kinesthetic
activities).
— Products – book reviews, term papers,
homework assignments, display boards, and
posters
ØInform students of what will be assessed – form,
content, spelling, design – and then to provide
models or rubrics so students will know what an
acceptable or superior product looks like.
— Tools use to assess performance and product assessment:
rating scales, checklists, anecdotal records,
observations, portfolios, and the rubrics.
Assessment Definition

Rating Scales Provide a list of characteristics

to be observed and a scale showing
the degree to which they are
present.
Checklists Useful when a process can be
(Yes-No rating divided into steps and each one
scales) checked for its presence
 Assessment Definition
Anecdotal Recorded observations of student
records behaviors made during routine class sessions
and perhaps in the halls or on the playground.
Portfolios These are collections of student work.
It is use to monitor student progress and to
share with parents and administrators.
Rubrics It contain two primary components:
1. Criteria - categories that describe what
is being evaluated,
2. Standards - describe the level of
achievement and tasks involved in
reaching that level.
Rating Scale
Checklist
Anecdotal records
Portfolios
Rubrics
 Test Construction

— set of activities involved in

developing and evaluating a test of
some psychological function.
— Things to Remember:
1. Specifying the construct of interest (cognitive
or behavioral function)
2. Deciding the test’s function (diagnosis,
description of skill level, prediction of
recovery)
3. Choosing a method (performance, behavioral
observation, self-report)
4. Designing item content
5. Evaluating the reliability and validity of the test
6. Modifying the test to maximize its utility
 GENERAL STEPS IN TEST CONSTRUCTION

DRAFT
OUTLINE

ORDER

PRODUCE A TOS
ANALYZE
TEST

SUBMISSION
— OUTLINE
v contains unit learning objectives or
v unit content or major concepts to be covered by the
test

— TABLE OF SPECIFICATION (TOS)

vA two-way chart that relates the learning outcomes
to the course content.
vEnables the teacher to prepare a test containing a
representative sample of student behavior in each
of the areas tested.
— TIPS in Preparing TOS
qMost common type of questions used at various
cognitive levels.
Factual Knowledge Application Analysis and
Evaluation
Multiple Choice Multiple Choice Multiple
True/False Short Answer Choice
Matching Type Problems Essay
Fill-in the Blanks or Essay
Sentence Completion
Short Answer
Sample TOS
— DRAFT – questions covering the content in the
outline.
— ORDER – the selected questions logically.
vPlace simpler items at the beginning to ease
students in to the exam.
vGroup item types together under common
instructions.
vIf desirable, order the questions logically from
the content standpoint (chronologically or by
conceptual groups)
— TEST
vHave someone else review the test for
clarity

— ANALYZE – the items to give you an idea

whether the questions were well-written
or poorly written, as well as if there were
problems in understanding the instruction.
General Guidelines for Test Construction
1. Determine how much importance and instructional time
you will give to the major topics to be tested and then
create a proportionate number of test items for each
topic.
2. Decide on the format and item type you will use.
3. Determine a balance between the available testing time
and the number of questions to include.
4. Use a matrix to help organize your planning.
5. Plan an activity for those students who finish early.
6. Develop the test items.
 General Rules in Writing Test Questions
— Number test questions continuously.
— Keep your test question in each test group uniform.
— Make your layout presentable.
— Do not put too many test questions in one test
group.
vT or F: 10 -15 questions
vMultiple Choice: maximum of 30 questions
vMatching Type: 5 questions per test group
vOthers: 5 - 10 questions
— Some Additional Guidelines to
Consider:
ØAvoid humorous items.
ØItems should measure only the construct
of interest, not one’s knowledge of the
item context.
ØWrite items to measure what students
know, not what they do not know.
 Barriers in Test Construction
— Confusing statements
— Difficult vocabulary
— Excessive wordiness
— Complex sentence structure
— Unclear instructions
— Unclear illustrative materials
— Linguistically bound words
— Culturally bound words
 Item Analysis
—provides statistics on overall
performance, test quality, and
individual questions.
— helps recognize questions that might
be poor discriminators of student
performance.
 Item Analysis
—Uses:
1. Improve questions for future test
administrations or to adjust credit on
current attempts
2. Discuss test results with your class
3. Provide a basis for remedial work
4. Improve classroom instruction
— THREE common types of item analysis which
provide teachers with three different types of
information:

1. Difficulty Index
Ø Teachers produce a difficulty index for a test item by
calculating the proportion of students in class who
got an item correct (how easy the item is, not
the difficulty of the item).
Ø The larger the proportion, the more students who
have learned the content measured by the item.
2. Discrimination Index
Ø a basic measure of the validity of an
item.
Ø a measure of an item's ability to
discriminate between those who
scored high on the total test and those
who scored low.
3. Analysis of Response Options
Ø In addition to examining the
performance of an entire test item,
teachers are often interested in
examining the performance of
individual distractors (incorrect
answer options) on multiple-choice
items.
ØBy calculating the proportion of students who
chose each answer option, teachers can
identify which distractors are
"working" and appear attractive to
students who do not know the
correct answer, and which distractors are
simply taking up space and not being chosen by
many students.
ØTo eliminate blind guessing
which results in a correct answer purely by
chance, teachers want as many plausible
distractors as is feasible.
ØAnalyses of response options allow teachers
to fine tune and improve items they
may wish to use again with future classes.
Sample Item Analysis