Ayushmita Choudhury

Scholar ID 2121505

Seminar CE 5513
M. Tech
Water Resource Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology,
Silchar

PROPOSALS FOR
ADVANCEMENTS IN WATER
SCARCITY MITIGATION

1
 ABSTRACT

Water scarcity is a growing threat to our global economy, society and even to the
survival of human beings. The crisis that we face today is mainly due to water pollution
especially in the field of agriculture. Pollution can be anything from oil, to carcasses, to
chemicals and to faecal matter, whatever the cause it majorly affects the global
population. The world is moving towards a direction where water is becoming costly
hence not affordable by the majority of people. The latest world water development
reports from UN observe how the various global crisis reported recently- in climate
change, energy, food security, economic recession and financial turbulence are related
to each other and have impacts on water. As far as India is concerned it is gifted with
many water bodies but due to improper management and unscientific industrial
development. We are staring at the increase in the death of rivers. Erratic development
plans mean our future generation is in major threat, sustainable development plans
mean our future generation is saved from such major threat, sustainable development is
the hour of need. Apart from government policies, the change needs to come from the
grass-root level. This paper highlights the importance and threats of water scarcity and
the challenges that will be faced by future generations, and proposes short-term,
medium-term and long-term solutions for water scarcity mitigation. The study also cites
the water woes of Bengaluru, a fast-growing urban city in India where there is a huge
mismatch between demand and supply of water.

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 CONTENTS

• Introduction 3
• Causes of Water Scarcity 4
• Water Scarcity Management Solutions 9
• Conclusion 15
• References 16

3
 INTRODUCTION

India faces a serious and persistent water crisis owing to a growing imbalance of supply and
demand, as well as poor water resource management and climate change. India is projected
to face severe water stress by 2050. Although industry is the largest contributor to India’s
GDP, agriculture accounts for nearly 90% of water use. Two-thirds of India’s irrigation
needs and 80% of domestic water needs are met using groundwater, contributing to the
significant groundwater depletion rate. Although India has one of the world’s largest
irrigation systems, it is characterised by high levels of inefficient water use. Besides this,
water quality is also an issue. The discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies is the
most important source of water pollution in India; 80% percent of the sewage generated
goes untreated. Finally, lack of access to improved water supply and adequate sanitation
persists. The existing policy framework lacks a clear incentive structure for efficient and
sustainable water use. Low or absent water charging and energy subsidies for groundwater
pumping drive severe depletion of resources. Issues related to intra- and inter-state water
sharing and lack of adequate enforcement and monitoring of existing water policies
undermine water governance. A lack of sustainable financing for water infrastructure results
in poor maintenance of existing infrastructure and limits further investment.

Improving water security is essential for India’s development. With total water demand in
India expected to rise by over 70% by 2025, a huge demand-supply gap is expected in the
coming years. This will act as a potentially significant constraint on economic growth. The
alarming rate of groundwater depletion is also cause for serious concern. Declining water
tables mean increased cost of pumping, salty irrigation water as a result of over abstraction
leading to crop and revenue losses for farmers, and long-term consequences for water
availability. Poor water quality and lack of adequate access to sanitation are also major
causes of disease and poor health.

“Water scarcity” is defined as the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges
on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent
that the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be satisfied fully.
Whenever there is a lack of access to potable water for drinking and sanitation, water is
scarce. Water shortage is a relative concept and can occur at any level of supply or demand.
India is facing a particularly difficult challenge as water crisis is threatening millions of
lives and livelihoods. Some 600 million Indians— about half the population—face high to
extreme water scarcity conditions, with about 200,000 dying every year from inadequate
access to safe water. By 2030, the country’s demand for water is likely to be twice the
available supply. As a result of rapid development, increasing population, and inequitable
distribution, the demand for water far outweighs supply. Nearly 163 million people among
India’s population of 1.3 billion lack access to clean water close to their home.

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Figure 1

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 CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY

Water scarcity is influenced by such factors as social, institutional, and policy

arrangements; lifestyles; and water quality. The main factors affecting water scarcity in
India are regional climatic disparities, over population, and water pollution.
Regional and climatic disparities.
Of the 495 trillion gallons of water reserves, in India, only an estimated 300 trillion
gallons can be exploited because of topographic constraints and distribution effects
(MWR 2006). However, changes in temperature and precipitation have affected
regional water resources and flood risk, exacerbating regional disparities in water
availability across the country. Most Indian cities depend on rainfall for their water
supply. The long-term average rainfall for India is about 46 inches (UNICEF et al.
2013), but owing to physiographic factors, rainfall in India is highly variable.
Changing monsoons and water shortage.
For example, in 2008, rainfall measured from about 19.7 in. in eastern and western
Rajasthan to 150 in. in coastal Karnataka (CWC 2010). More than 80% of rainfall
occurs in the monsoon months of June to September, often causing floods. This is
because significant precipitation occurs over a short period, resulting in a high volume
of runoff. However, acute water shortages are common in many regions during the rest
of the year. For example, the south eastern coastal city of Chennai has suffered water
shortages for decades. The requirement for the city and the adjacent areas is around 388
mgd, which includes commercial and industrial demand. But the city gets a daily supply
of only 158.5 mgd from sources such as lakes and reservoirs, which depend on the
erratic monsoons. In addition, in many areas with sizable populations, the annual
monsoon precipitation occurs over just three to 27 days in a year, according to the India
Meteorological Department as reported in an article in The Indian Express. Many
Indian cities and towns often run out of water during the summer because of the
absence of sufficient surface water systems and infrastructure, leaving groundwater as
the only feasible source. In addition, monsoon rains can account for 70% of a region’s
total annual rainfall; in dry years, this often results in water shortage. Statistics for the
century, so far, back this up: 2018 was the fifth consecutive year to register deficit
monsoon conditions, and 13 of the last 18 years have seen below normal rains. To begin
addressing this shortfall, India recently commissioned a desalination plant to add 26.4
mgd of reclaimed water to the drinking supply.
Overconsumption
Groundwater is typically used to compensate for unreliable rainfall; however, this
practice has become unreliable and inconsistent in some areas. More groundwater
consumption than recharge has drastically reduced groundwater levels over the past 60
years. Of the 5,723 blocks assessed across India by the Central Ground Water
Authority, 839 have been found to be overexploited, 226 are classified as critical, and
550 are deemed semi-critical, meaning that approximately 29% of India’s groundwater

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blocks need better groundwater basin management (CGWB 2019). Increased
groundwater use and limited aquifer recharge lower the groundwater table so much that
yields of many tube-wells and borewells have decreased substantially, particularly
during summer. Because agriculture depends on irrigation, unsustainable extraction of
groundwater is reducing India’s arable land and affecting economic growth.
Overexploitation of groundwater has caused concentration of salts, fluorides, nitrates,
total dissolved solids, metals, and other chemicals found in the groundwater. Inefficient
irrigation practices, severe groundwater contamination, and uncontrolled exploitation of
groundwater are some of the major causes of water scarcity in India.
Overpopulation.
Population growth is causing tremendous stress on water supply. India is the second
most populous country in the world and had a population estimated at 1.31 billion as of
July 2018 (US Census Bureau Current Population 2019), and increased life expectancy
and other factors contribute to rising population and overcrowding in many areas. In
addition, because of various socioeconomic factors, many urban centres have seen large
influxes from rural areas. The resulting development, too often poorly planned, has led
to a loss of ecosystems and biodiversity. Rapid urbanization, with the resulting increase
in paved areas and decrease in reservoir capacity, drainage, and space for recharge
areas, has resulted in an increase in local urban flooding. As the population continues to
grow, and migration of population in already-stressed urban centres continues, demands
for water will put additional strains on overallocated freshwater resources. As shown in
Figure 2, the per capita water availability in 1951 was about 1.4 mil gal but decreased to
0.6 mil gal in 1991; by 2011, it had declined to approximately 0.4 mil gal. About 54%
of people in India are under the threat of water stress, and approximately 600 million
people in the northwestern and southern regions of India are under “extremely high” to
“high” water-stress conditions. Data from India’s Ministry of Water Resources, River
Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation indicate per capita water availability in 2025,
and 2050 is estimated to decrease from 2001 levels by 36 and 60%, respectively. Figure
2 presents the projected population and per capita water supply per year in India until
2050. If India can’t offset these future water demands, its agricultural, industrial, and
domestic water users will likely face increasingly frequent and more severe water
shortages.

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Figure 2

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Water pollution.
India’s increasing population has resulted in excessive air and water pollution along with
deforestation. Sources of water pollution include nonpoint sources, such as pesticides and
fertilizers from farms, along with point sources such as industrial and human waste, a significant
amount of which is directly dumped into rivers without treatment. In India, about 114 tril gal of
groundwater is replenished yearly from rainfall and river flows, but 104 tril gal of that is used
each year, 82% for irrigation and agricultural purposes and 18% toward domestic and industrial
water use. Agriculture remains the predominant sector of employment, engaging more than half
of India’s workforce in some way. The deteriorating state of water management systems, which
serve the multiple needs of livelihood, security, and irrigation for many small-scale farmers, has
been another concerning trend (UNICEF et al. 2013). While oil spills and leakage from landfills
have seeped underground, polluting the groundwater in some areas, the largest source of water
pollution in India is untreated sewage. Untreated urban wastewater is often discharged to
streams, affecting downstream water quality and causing health problems. During summer
months with low-flow conditions, the contaminated discharge reaches high levels. Improper
sanitation and poor hygiene practices are common, and one-third of all deaths of children under
age five in India result from waterborne diseases like diarrhoea and pneumonia (UNICEF et al.
2013). Taken together, ongoing water scarcity in India is a direct cause of hunger, poor health,
poverty, and ecosystem imbalances. Looking forward, higher temperatures will likely increase
electricity demand as a result of higher air conditioning use; at the same time, hydropower
production may be reduced because of decreased precipitation. In the next decade, water
demand is expected to grow by 20%, fuelled primarily by industrial water requirements, which
are projected to double from 6 tril gal to 12 tril gal. By 2025, domestic demand is expected to
grow by 33% from 12 tril gal (in 2014) to 16 tril gal, while irrigation demands are projected to
increase by 10%, growing from 147 tril gal annually (in 2010) to 161 tril gal, and industrial
water demand is expected to increase dramatically by 80%, from 10 tril gal (in 2010) to 18 tril
gal. The situation is challenging because a large portion of available water in India is not potable
as a result of poor water quality.

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 WATER SCARCITY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS

On the basis of current projections, per capita water supply could drop from an average
of 24 to 21 gpd by 2025 and 18 gpd by 2050. However, specific technical and policy
changes could improve the situation by controlling human interventions and behaviour
with institutional responses to natural phenomena.
Gray and green infrastructure
It is important to change institutional approaches from a strictly conservative approach
to more progressive, “green” solutions. Presently, water management remains heavily
dominated by traditional, human-built (i.e., “gray”) infrastructure, and the enormous
potential for working with nature remains underused. Tapping stormwater capture and
treating it by means of green infrastructure can augment a water supply portfolio by
supplying good-quality water to recharge the groundwater basin. Stormwater runoff not
otherwise captured from industrial, municipal, and residential areas; highways; and
construction sites can carry pollutants that degrade water quality and impede the
otherwise beneficial uses of these waters. As reported in the 2018 edition of the United
Nations World Water Development Report (WWAP 2018), some of the management
approaches toward water-shortage challenges in India could be nature-based solutions
(NBSs) across all sectors, including water needed for agriculture, sustainable cities,
disaster risk reduction, and water quality. The green-infrastructure approach under
NBSs promotes the natural movement of water by collecting and managing stormwater
runoff from streets, sidewalks, parking lots, and rooftops and directing it to engineered
systems that typically feature soils, stones, and vegetation. Use of green infrastructure
reduces polluted runoff from reaching water bodies through the separate storm sewer
system. The green-infrastructure approach uses natural processes to enhance water
availability (e.g., soil moisture retention, groundwater recharge), improve water quality
(e.g., natural and constructed wetlands, riparian buffer strips), and reduce risks
associated with water-related disasters and climate change (e.g., floodplain restoration,
green roofs). Green infrastructure expands the low-impact development approach to a
larger community scale and presents similar sustainable opportunities to local
governments and regional projects. To develop a sustainable water supply scenario in
India, the green infrastructure approach can substitute, augment, or work in parallel
with gray infrastructure in a cost-effective manner. Both NBSs for conservation (e.g.,
harnessing the opportunities of the hydrological cycle with rainwater harvesting,
stormwater management, and so on) and gray infrastructure upgrades (i.e., the
improving operations of water distribution system infrastructure) can together play a big
role in better water infrastructure for India. The goal of such sustainable development is
to control human interventions with natural processes and to find the most appropriate
blend of green and gray investments to maximize benefits and system efficiency while
minimizing costs and trade-offs (WWAP 2018). NBSs mainly address water supply
through managing precipitation; humidity; and water storage, infiltration, and
transmission so that improvements are made in the location, timing, and quantity of
water available for human needs. The various regulatory programs have the same goals

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—to use stormwater as a resource and to reduce pollutants, fertilizers, debris, and other
harmful materials draining into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In addition to the benefits to
water quality, green infrastructure beautifies streets and neighbourhoods while
improving water and air quality and aesthetics. Therefore, green infrastructure could
supplement grey infrastructure for water supply in India in a positive, natural way.
National Water Policy
India had revised the NWP in 2002 with the following salient features (Government of
India, 2009. Establishment of National and State level data banks to monitor the
demand and supply. These are some key points for facilitation for the transformation of
available water resources into utilizable water and non-conventional methods for
efficient water use. Supply of water from water surplus areas to water shortage areas.
Judicious allocation of water for different uses and pricing of water is to ensure
sustainable development. Regulation on groundwater exploitation and close monitoring
of water table using modern scientific techniques. Sustainability of existing water
bodies, involving all the stakeholders and local communities. The master plan for flood
control is which mean linking different rivers and promoting soil conservation
measures. Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal / Municipal
Corporation water supply.
Irrigation Techniques
Traditional irrigation techniques result in significant water loss from evaporation,
drainage, percolation, water conveyance, and excessive groundwater use. Potential
solutions include educating farmers on best practices, including micro-irrigation
techniques such as drip and sprinkler irrigation. A model developed by the International
Water Management Institute and Earthscan of water demand and supply for 118
countries, accounting for 93% of the world’s population, estimated that a 50% increase
in demand for water by 2025 can be met by increasing the efficiency of irrigation
(CAWMA 2007).
Augmentation of Water Resources
Increasing the water storage capacity, watershed development, control of water
pollution, desalination of sea water, research and development for respected areas of
effective way for reducing the water scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is the most
important much needed practice in the current situation. It is a technique of collection
and storage of rainwater into natural reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface
water into subsurface aquifers (before it is lost as surface runoff).
Aquifer Recharge
Rapid development has ignored traditional water bodies that have acted as groundwater
recharging mechanisms, so this connection must be reinforced or re-established as areas
grow. Governments and organizations can take measures to recharge aquifers by
infiltrating or injecting treated surface water into the underground aquifers. This may
include restoring watersheds and wetlands and supporting green infrastructure aimed at
reducing impervious surfaces. Permitting further construction of groundwater extraction

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structures and registration of drilling agencies should be made mandatory and enforced
in India.
Stormwater Management and Conservation
To encourage more pervious areas for infiltration, recharge shafts or trenches should be
constructed in paved areas, use of pervious pavement should be encouraged, and
stormwater drainage must be implemented along roads and footpaths. In addition,
dredging operations in large water bodies and reservoirs should be promoted to increase
water storage capacity. The Indian government needs to enhance its investment in
technology and include all stakeholders at the planning level to ensure efficient use of
existing resources. Education and public awareness campaigns must be put in place to
curb the pollution of water sources from domestic solid and sewage wastes and to
promote the conservation of freshwater.
Nonrevenue Water
The amount of nonrevenue water (NRW) is high for several reasons, including
advanced system age, poor maintenance, illegal connections, leakage, and lack of
proper mapping. Average NRW in India has been estimated at almost 32%. In some
Indian cities, NRW is more than half of water produced (ADB 2007). Part of the
problem is a lack of metered connections and the extent of distribution networks with
inadequate pumping facilities. These are major determinants of water utilities’
successful performance. It is estimated that the typical Indian municipal water utility
has the potential to improve water pumping system efficiency by 25%, thereby
increasing supply reliability (ASE 2008). Better water accounting would support more
economically viable water markets for an already stressed water sector, and to this end,
the creation of a robust water accounting framework is integral to a better water policy
for India. By contrast, such policies as providing free electricity to farmers or giving
financial support for groundwater extraction have resulted in uncontrolled exploitation
and waste of resources.
Water Reuse
Water reuse can help alleviate water scarcity. For example, non-potable water (grey-
water) produced from reclaimed water should be used for car washing, landscape
irrigation, industrial processing, and toilet flushing. Desalination of seawater or
brackish groundwater may be considered; however, the high costs of capital, operations,
and maintenance may make wide-scale use of desalination technology unfeasible.
Recycling sewage and grey water as only a fraction of Mumbai’s sewage is treated
today, the sewage dumped into the ocean damages the ecosystems in the coastal areas,
creeks and rivers. Yet treated sewage and grey water might represent a supply of water
that is even cheaper than fresh water, especially compared to the prices of water for
industrial usage. The construction industry, which is growing at 7-8% per year in India
and requires large quantities of water, could be a big user of treated greywater and
sewage. Today, the construction industry uses drinking water supplied by MCGM or
ground water. Its official water costs are Indian rupees 43.20 per 1000 litres whereas
sewage treatment costs are estimated at Indian rupees 5-6 per 1000 litres. Since the

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MCGM and ground water board’s permission is required to use water, authorities could
impose regulation that requires switching to treated greywater/sewage for such
purposes. Cities like Bangalore and Chennai already recycle city sewage for industrial
purposes on a large scale and Mumbai has commissioned a plant featuring a sewage
treatment capacity of 1.5 million litres per day (MLD) to supply water for the green belt
of Raj Bhavan, Kamala Nehru Park, Priyadarshani Park, State Ministers’ Garden and
other nearby areas. Major companies such as Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
(BPCL) and Rastriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (RCF) already treat city sewage
and recycle for industrial use and are building a new 22.75 MLD sewage treatment
plant. Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Pvt. Ltd (HCCBPL) has funded a 1 MLD
sewage treatment plant at Mahim Causeway Pumping Station. Treated sewage water
will be distributed by tankers for green belt development, cleaning of public places and
other non-drinking and non-household purposes for which fresh water is currently being
used. To make a more significant impact on the 2680 MLD of sewage Mumbai
produces every day and to use it as a resource to improve the water supply situation,
many more of these initiatives would be needed.
Restrictions on Overdevelopment
Unplanned and unrestricted expansion of urban centres must be curtailed. Leaks in the
water distribution systems as well as in homes and businesses must be minimized.
Water conservation needs to be promoted among all water users. Specific proposals for
water conservation in India include widespread education and increased use of green
infrastructure like rainwater harvesting and stormwater capture. Investments must be
made to upgrade water distribution systems, data management, and metering
infrastructure. The utility budgets should include a billing system put in place to ensure
water use of all service users are fully accounted for. For a middle-income and water-
stressed country like India, efficient use of water resources in the most sustainable way
is the way forward.
Technology Based Solutions
As the main issues of water scarcity are related to water security, water quality, water
sanitation, and water resource management. It is possible to group all the water related
issues under these categories. Advanced technologies are capable of providing a
solution to these issues provided the Government is prepared to invest in water
infrastructure for the city. Pricing policy has to be devised so that people are responsible
for water consumption for Industrial, domestic and irrigation purposes. Some of the
technology solutions which have been successfully implemented across the globe in
various organizations and countries have been taken as a benchmark to propose the
solution given here under the four perspectives related to water.
Block chain can be extensively used with respect to data generation and sharing. The
data could be collected by installing smart meters in households. This would be help in
the right pricing for the right person instead of inflated bills. With water trading coming
into play, Block Chain will play a major role in the responsible pricing aspect. As data
is shared across networks for water consumption and wastewater re-use the technology
brings in data transparency too.
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 Figure 3

Sensors fitted in various devices and pipes will help the consumers as well as authorities
to identify locations where water leak could happen. IoT devices are the origin of data
generation and data measurement. These sensors ensure right measurement of
consumption of individual consumers and can enable the pricing strategies based on
over consumption or shortage. Due to excess rain, if there is a need to store water
sensors could be activated to rationalize the storage process across locations leading to
water sharing.

Figure 4

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Machine Learning is one of the most important concepts under Industry 4.0. These
techniques help authorities predict water demand in multiple locations. There is a
disparity between water availability across geographical regions and through
optimization techniques this can be sorted out. Measuring the amount of wastewater and
the impurities would help authorities ensure water purification before sending it as a
supply to the consumer. Water pipes which are interlinked across the city can be tuned
for their optimum performance through machine learning models.

Figure 5

Fog Collection
Fog water harvesting is a very new concept in the region. Recently, a number of fog
collection tests were conducted in Nepal, by Nepal Water for Health, and several simple
community-based fog collectors are in the process of being set up. This method seems
to be very promising in areas between 1900 and 3500 m, where orographic fog can be
expected. However, there is resistance from users who have difficulty believing that fog
can provide them with an adequate supply of water on a regular basis.

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 CONCLUSION

In the fast-changing global scenario, it is observed that water resources are under serious threat. This is
applicable especially to the surface water bodies which are exploited by humans. Water availability,
poor water quality, and lack of sufficient wastewater treatment systems are some of the greatest
challenges being faced by the consumers. The groundwater withdrawal rate as compared to available
supplies is extremely high due to the population growth and rapid industrialization. To address the
growing concern, there is an urgent need to develop water infrastructure. Along with that, advanced
technologies need to be deployed for measuring consumption leading to responsible pricing, peer-to-
peer trading to bridge the gap between supply and demand. This will enable participatory water
management to achieve sustainable water reuse and recycling. Since water has become an issue that
cannot be neglected, policymakers need to adopt best practices and technologies to address this at the
earliest. Another significant solution could be privatising the water management leading to better
technology implementation. Water scarcity, being a global issue needs to have a common solution at
the global level as it impacts economic, political and health of the citizens. Water Security, Water
Sanitation, Water Quality and Water Resource Management must be the focus area of all developing
countries. The conflict between supply and demand of water is in need of a governing body leading to
good governance taking into account the benefits of all parties involved. Future solutions related to
Water issues is expected to be towards water being treated as a commodity. As a commodity, water
trading would lead to water being sold and bought at a price instead of it being taken for granted.
Future research in this topic could be conducted based on the primary data collected from the
consumers once the technology implementation is done. Research could be on data transparency on
water resource management, water quality and sanitation issues as consumers are entitled to this. This
would lead to responsible water consumption, storage and harvesting leading to a safe water economy.

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