UNIT –IV

1. DOORS

The function of a door is to give access to building and to different

parts of the building and to deny the access whenever necessary.
Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of the door
should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the
largest object likely to use the doors.

In case of the residential buildings, the size of the door should not be
less than 0.9 m × 2.0 m. Larger doors may be provided at main
entrance to the building to enhance the aesthetic view. Minimum
sized doors are used for bathrooms and water closets. The size
recommended is 0.75 m × 1.9 m. As a
thumb rule height of door should be 1 m more than its width.

Types of Doors

Types of Doors based on Placing of Components Based on the

arrangement of door components, the doors are classified as
following,
1. Battened and Ledged Doors

 Battens are vertical bonds which are having grooves are

attached together by horizontal supports called ledges as shown
in below figure.
 General Dimensions of batten are 100-150mm width and 20-
30mm thick.
 General dimension of ledges are 100-200mm width and 25-
30mm thick.
 This type of battened and ledged doors suitable for narrow
openings.

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2. Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors

 To make more rigid, braces are provided diagonally in

additional to battens and ledges as shown in figure.
 Braces are having 100-150mm width and 25-30mm thickness
are preferable.
 Braces should place upwards from handing side, then they acts
as struts and take compression.
 These type of doors can be used for wider openings.

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3. Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors

 For the simple battened and ledged door, framework is provided

in the form of two verticals, known as stiles.
 Stiles are generally 100mm wide and as far as thickness is
concerned, the thickness of stile should be equal to the
combined thickness of ledge and batten. Preferably 40 mm.

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4. Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Doors

 In this type, the door made up of battens, ledges, stiles and

braces. So, it is more rigid.
 The braces are connected diagonally between the ledges, at
about 40mm from the stiles.


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Types of Doors based on Method of Construction: Based on the
method of construction, the doors are again classified into five types
and they are:
5. Framed and Panelled Doors

 These are very strong and will give good appearance when
compared to battened doors. These are the widely used doors in
almost all types of buildings.
 Stiles, vertical members and rails, horizontal members are
grooved along the inner edges of frame to receive the panels.

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  The panels are made up of timber or plywood or A.C. sheets or
glass.
 These doors may be single leaf for narrow openings and double
leaf for wider openings.
 Minimum width of stile should be 100mm and minimum width
of bottom and locked rail should be 150mm.

6. Glazed Doors

 Glazed doors are generally provided in interior wall openings or

in hospitals, colleges etc.
 The interior of room is visible through glazed doors and light
passes through glazed portion of the door.

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  These may be fully glazed or partly glazed and partly panelled.
Glass panels are provided for glazed doors.

7. Flush Doors
In flush doors, a solid or semi-solid or core portion is covered on both
sides with plywood or face veneer. Now a day these type of doors are
widely used because of good appearance, economic, ease of
construction and greater durability. There are two types of Flushed
doors:
Solid Core or Laminated Core Flush Door

 The core part in solid core flush door consists of core strips of
timber, which are glued under high-pressure condition.
Similarly, in the laminated core, battens of 25mm width are
glued under high pressure.
 These doors consists of wooden frame with stiles and rails for
holding the core.
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 Finally, plywood sheets or face veneer and cross-bands are
glued under pressure on both side of doors.

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Hollow core and cellular core flush door

 In this case, also stiles and rails are provided for frame. But, a
minimum of two intermediate rails should be provided.
 The inner space of door consists of equally space battens of
width 25mm each. Other space is called void space, which does
not exceed 40% of the area of door.
 Here also face veneer and cross-bands are glued under high
pressure.

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8. Louvered Doors

 The louvers permit natural ventilation when the door is closed

and also provide privacy in the room.
 These are generally used for toilets of residential and public
buildings.
 The door may be fully louvered are partly louvered.
 Louvers are made up of timber, glass, or plywood and these may
be either fixed or movable.

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9. Wire Gauged Doors
Wire gaged doors permits natural ventilation and restrict the entry of
flies, mosquitoes, insects etc. These doors are commonly used in
hotels, restaurants and for cupboards containing eatables.

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Types of Doors based on Working Operations The doors are
classified on the basis of working operations as:
10. Revolving Doors
Revolving doors are only provided in public buildings like museums,
banks, libraries etc., because of constant visitors. It consists mullion at
its centre to which four radiating shutters are attached.

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11. Sliding Doors
In this type, with the help of runners and guide rails the door slides to
the sides. The door may have one or more sliding shutter depending
up on the opening available.

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12. Swing Doors
In this case, the shutter is attached to frame by double action spring,
which helps the shutter to move inwards as well as outwards.

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13. Collapsible Steel Doors
Collapsible steel doors are generally used for workshops, sheds,
warehouses etc. It acts like a steel curtain, which will opened or
closed by horizontal pull or push. Vertical double channel units of
(20x10x2 mm) are spaced at 100 to 120 mm thick and are braced flat
iron diagonals 10 to 20mm wide and 5mm thick.

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14. Rolling Steel Shutter Doors
Rolling steel shutter doors are commonly used for warehouses,
garages, shops etc. These are very strong and offer proper safety to
the property. The door consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin steel
plate inter locked together. A horizontal shaft is provided in the drum,
which helps to open or close the shutter.

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Types of Doors based on Materials: Doors are made up of wood,
glass, metals. Wood doors are already discussed in the 1t
classification and glass doors are nothing but glazed doors. Types of
Metals doors are described below.
15. Mild Steel Sheet Doors
 The doorframe is made up of angle or T-sections.
 Shutter is made up of frame of angle of iron, having 2 verticals
at least 3 horizontal.
 Mild steel plates are welded to the shutter frame.

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16. Corrugated Steel Sheet Doors
These are same as mild steel sheet doors, but in place of mild steel
sheet, corrugated steel sheet is welded.

17. Hollow Metal Doors

Hollow steel sections are used to make these doors. The rails and
stiles etc. are strengthened by welding small T or I sections inside.

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18. Metal Covered Plywood Doors

 This type of door is a composite construction of hollow metal

door and wood door.
 The door is encased in tight fitting sheet metal, having tightly
folded joints to exclude air so that the core of the door does not
ignite. Therefore, it acts as fireproof.

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Table gives the differences between collapsible and revolving doors.

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 2. WINDOWS

Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located
at a height of 0.75 m to 0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid
regions, the window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area.
It is preferable to have at least two openings in two different walls.
Another thumb rule used to determine the size of the window opening
is for every 30 m3 inside volume there should be at least 1 m2
window opening.

Selection Criteria for Windows

The selection of suitable windows in a particular place should be
dependent on the following factors.

 Location of room
 Size of room

 Direction of wind

 Climatic conditions

 Utility of room

 Architectural point of view

Based on the above factors we can select a suitable window for our
structures.

Types of Windows used in Buildings

There are so many types of windows are available based on their
positions, materials, and functioning. Windows are classified as
follows.

1. Fixed windows
2. Sliding windows
3. Pivoted windows
4. Double-hung windows

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 5. Louvered windows
6. Casement windows
7. Metal windows
8. Sash windows
9. Corner windows
10. Bay windows
11. Dormer windows
12. Clerestory windows
13. Lantern windows
14. Gable windows
15. Ventilators
16. Skylights
1. Fixed Windows
Fixed windows are fixed to the wall without any closing or opening
operation. In general, they are provided to transmit the light into the
room. Fully glazed shutters are fixed to the window frame. The
shutters provided are generally weatherproof.

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2. Sliding Windows
In this case, window shutters are movable in the frame. The
movement may be horizontal or vertical based on our requirements.
The movement of shutters is done by the provision of roller bearings.
Generally, this type of window is provided in buses, bank counters,
shops, etc.

3. Pivoted Windows
In this type of windows, pivots are provided to window frames. Pivot
is a shaft, which helps to oscillate the shutter. No rebates are required
for the frame. The swinging may either horizontal or vertical based on
the position of pivots.

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4. Double Hung Windows
Double hung windows consist of pair of shutters attached to one
frame. The shutters are arranged one above the other. These two
shutters can slide vertically with in the frame. So, we can open the
windows on top or at bottom to our required level.

To operate the double hung windows, a chain or cord consisting metal

weights is metal provided which is connected over pulleys. So, by
pulling the weights of cord the shutters can move vertically. Then we
can fix the windows at our required position of ventilation or light etc.

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5. Louvered Windows
Louvered windows are similar to louvered doors, which are provided
for the ventilation without any outside vision. The louvers may be
made of wood, glass or metal. Louvers can also be folded by
provision of cord over pulleys. We can maintain the slope of louvers
by tilting cord and lifting cord.

Recommended angle of inclination of louvers is about 45 o. The

sloping of louvers is downward to the outside to run-off the rainwater.
Generally, they are provided for bathrooms, toilets and privacy places
etc.

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6. Casement Windows
Casement windows are the widely used and common windows
nowadays. The shutters are attached to frame and these can be opened
and closed like door shutters. Rebates are provided to the frame to
receive the shutters. The panels of shutters may be single or multiple.
Sometimes wired mesh is provided to stop entering of flies.

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7. Metal Windows
Metal windows, generally mild steel is used for making metal
windows. These are very cheap and have more strength. So, now days
these are widely using especially for public buildings, private building
etc.

Some other metals like aluminium, bronze, stainless steel etc. also
used to make windows. However, they are costly compared to mild
steel windows. For normal casement windows also, metal shutters are
provided to give strong support to the panels.

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8. Sash Windows
Sash window is type of casement window, but in this case, panels are
fully glazed. It consists top, bottom and intermediate rails. The space
between the rails is divided into small panels by mean of small timber
members called sash bars or glazing bars.

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9. Corner Windows
As in the name itself, corner windows are provided at the corners of
room. That means corner windows has two faces in perpendicular
directions. By providing this type of windows, light or air can be
entered into room in two different directions.

To provide this type of window special lintel is provided in the wall.

Corner windows will give aesthetic appearance to the building.

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10. Bay Windows
Bay windows are projected windows form wall, which are provided to
increase the area of opening, which enables more ventilation and light
form outside. The projection of bay windows are of different shapes.
It may be triangular, rectangular, or polygonal etc. They give
beautiful appearance to the structure.

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11. Dormer Windows
Dormer windows are provided for sloped roofs. These are projected
from the sloping surface as shown in below image. They provide
ventilation as well as lighting to the room. They also enhance
aesthetic sense of room.

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12. Clerestory Windows
If the rooms in a building are of different ceiling heights, clerestory
windows are provided for the room, which has greater ceiling height
than the other rooms. The shutters able to swing with the help of cord
over pulleys. These also enhances the beauty of building.

13. Lantern Windows

Lantern windows are provided for over the flat roofs. The main
purpose of this window is to provide the more light and air circulation
to the interior rooms. Generally, they are projected from the roof
surface so, we can close the roof surface when we required.

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14. Gable Windows
Gable windows are provided for sloped roof buildings. These
windows are provided at the gable end of sloped roof so, they are
called as gable windows. They also improve the appearance of
building.

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15. Ventilators
Ventilators are provided for the purpose of ventilation in the room.
They are provided at greater height than windows nearer to roof level.
It is in very small size. Horizontally pivoted shutters are provided for
ventilators. Sometimes shutter is replaced by wired mesh, in this case
sunshade is provided to prevent against rainwater.

16. Skylights
Skylights or generally provided on the top of sloped roofs. To admit
light into the rooms, skylights are provided. It is provided parallel to
the sloping surface. Skylights can be opened when we required. Lead
gutters are arranged to frame to make it as waterproof.

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 3. ROOFS

Roof is the upper most portion of the building, which protects the
building from rain, wind and sun.
Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:

1. Flat roofs

2. Pitched roofs

3. Shells and folded plates.

Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is
moderate. Pitched roofs are
preferred wherever rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are
used to cover large
column free areas required for auditoriums, factories etc. Brief

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 description of these roofs is
presented below:

1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However, slight slope (not
more than 10°) is given to drain out the rainwater. All types of upper
storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of these roofs
are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing
chemicals in concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of
reliable water proofing techniques such roofs are constructed even in
areas with heavy rainfall.

The advantages of flat roofs are:

(a) The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating
functions.
(b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding
another storey.
(c) They can suit to any shape of the building.
(d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
(e) They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
The disadvantages of flat roofs are:
(a) They cannot cover large column free areas.
(b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development
of cracks. Once leakage problem starts, it needs costly treatments.
(c) The dead weight of flat roofs is more.
(d) In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow
load.
(e) The initial cost of construction is more.
(f) Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.

Types of Flat Roofs: All the types listed for upper floors can be used
as flat roofs.

2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rainfalls and snow fall sloping
roof are used. The slope of roof shall be more than 10°. They may
have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also. The sloped roofs are known
as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned
structures like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all
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these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates
etc. are supported on suitable structures. The pitched roofs are
classified into

(a) Single roofs

(b) Double or purlin roofs

(c) Trussed roofs.

(a) Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following
types of single roofs are used.

(i) Lean to roofs (ii) Coupled roofs

(iii) Coupled-close roof (iv) Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are
main members taking load of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to
support tiles. Figure 8.13 shows various types of single roofs.

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(b) Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters
increase and single roof becomes uneconomical. For spans more than
5 m, double purlin roofs are preferred. The intermediate support is
given to rafters by purlins supported over collar beams. Figure 8.14
shows a typical double or purlin roof.

(c) Trussed Roof: If span is more, a framework of slender members

are used to support sloping roofs. These frames are known as trusses.
A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get wall free longer
halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses, which in turn support roof
sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for larger
spans steel trusses are a must. In case of wooden trusses, suitable
carpentry joints are made to connect various members at a joint. Bolts
and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made using
gusset plates and by providing bolts or rivets or welding.
Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of
trusses are supported on walls or on column. Figure 8.15 shows
different shapes of trusses used. Figure 8.16 shows a typical wooden
truss details and Fig. 8.17 shows the details of a typical steel truss.

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Shells and Folded Plate Roofs: Shell roof may be defined as a
curved surface, the thickness of which is small compared to the other
dimensions. In these roofs, lot of load is transferred by membrane
compression instead of by bending as in the case of conventional slab
and beam constructions. Caves are having natural shell roofs. An
examination of places of worships built in India, Europe and Islamic
nations show that shell structures were in usage for the last 800 to
1000 years. However, the shells of middle ages were massive
masonry structures but nowadays-thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to
cover large column free areas. Figure 8.18 shows commonly used
shell roofs.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Roofs
Advantages of shell roofs are:
(a) Good from aesthetic point of view
(b) Material consumption is quite less
(c) Form work can be removed early
(d) Large column free areas can be covered.

Disadvantages are:
(a) Top surface is curved and hence advantage of terrace is lost.
(b) Form work is costly.

Folded plate roofs may be looked as slab with a number of folds.

These roofs are also known as hipped plates, prismatic shells and
faltwerke. In these structures, also bending is reduced and lot of load
gets transferred as membrane compression. However, folded plates
are not as efficient as shells.
Figure 8.19 shows typical folded plate roofs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs Over Shell

Roofs
Advantages are:

(a) Form work required is relatively simpler.

(b) Movable formwork can be employed.
(c) Design involves simpler calculations.

Disadvantages are:
(a) Folded plate consume more material than shells.
(b) Form work can be removed after 7 days while in case of shells it
can be little earlier.

Roof Coverings for Pitched Roofs

Various types of covering materials are available for pitched roofs

and their selection depends upon the climatic conditions, fabrication

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facility, and availability of materials and affordability of the owner.
Commonly used pitched roof covering materials are:

(a) Thatch (b) Shingle

(c) Tiles (d) Slates
(e) Asbestos cement (A.C.) sheets ( f ) Galvanised iron (G.I.) sheets

(a) Thatch Covering: These coverings are provided for small spans,
mainly for residential buildings in villages. Thatch is a roof covering
of straw, reeds or similar materials. The thatch is well soaked in water
or fire resisting solution and packed bundles are laid with their butt
ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm to 300
mm. They are tied with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The
supporting structure consists of round bamboo rafters spaced at 200
mm to 300 mm over which split bamboos laid at right angles at close
spacing. It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while
straw thatch may last for 20–25 years.

The advantage of thatch roof is they are cheap and do not need skilled
workers to build them. The disadvantages are they are very poor fire
resistant and harbour rats and other insects.

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(b) Shingles: Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin
pieces of wood. Their size varies from 300 mm to 400 mm and length
from 60 mm to 250 mm. Their thickness varies from 10 mm at one
end to 3 mm at the other end. They are nailed to supporting structures.
They are commonly used in hilly areas for low cost housing. They
have very poor fire and termite resistance.

(c) Tiles: Various clay tiles are manufactured in different localities.

They serve as good covering
materials. Tiles are supported over battens, which are in turn
supported by rafters/trusses etc.
Allahabad tiles, Mangalore tiles are excellent inter-locking tiles. They
give good appearance also.

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(d) Slates: A slate is a sedimentary rock. Its colour is gray. It can be
easily split into thin sheets.
Slates of size 450 mm to 600 mm wide, 300 mm long and 4 to 8 mm
thick are used as covering materials of pitched roofs in the areas
where slate quarries are nearby. A good slate is hard, tough, and
durable. They are having rough texture and they give ringing bell like
sound when struck. They do not absorb water.

(e) A.C. Sheets: Asbestos cement is a material, which consists of 15

per cent of asbestos fibres evenly distributed and pressed with cement.
They are manufactured in sufficiently large size.
The width of a A.C. sheet varies from 1.0 to 1.2 m and length from

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1.75 to 3.0 m. To get sufficient strength with thin sections they are
manufactured with corrugation or with Trafford’s [Fig. 8.20]. They
are fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts. The roofing is quite
economical, waterproof. However not very good thermal resistant.
They are commonly used as covering materials in warehouses,
godowns or for larger halls. In auditorium etc., if these sheets are
used, false ceilings are provided to get good thermal resistance.

(f) G.I. Sheets: Galvanised iron corrugated sheets are manufactured

in the sizes 1.0 to 1.2 m wide and 1.65 m length. Galvanisation of iron
makes them rust proof. They are fixed to steel purlins using J-bolts
and washers. They are durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no
maintenance. They are commonly used as covering materials for
warehouses, godown, sheds etc. Table 8.6 gives comparison between
GI and AC sheets for roof covering.

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Roof Treatment Methods
This is a mandatory job in waterproofing to protect roof from
leakage, seepage and heat. There are various methods and unique
techniques approved by many consultants, developers and others.
We will see these methods here.
1) LIME SURKI Roof Waterproofing: An Old method, which is
now obsolete.

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Some of its advantages are:
– Very good waterproofing property
– Very good heat insulation property
– Durable
2) Soil Pot System: This system is very effective to replace the
above system.
Some of its advantages are:
– Very good waterproofing property
– Very good heat insulation property
– Durable

Some of its limitations are:

– Collecting soil pots is important; soil pots are fragile items
– Care should be taken to handle soil pots to avoid damage
3) Cement and Fillers with Polymer Coating: Cementitious
slurry is prepared, which is applied on R.C.C. roof slab and is
covered by a layer of screed concrete.
Some of its advantages are:
– Ease of working
– Economical

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Some of its limitations are:
– When screed concrete is cracked, underneath treatment is
also slowly damaged and holds water in concrete pockets.
– During hot season entrapped water is evaporated, which
causes further development of cracks in screed concrete and
underneath treatment is damaged due to this random crack
development in screed concrete.
– This system is not found durable and repairing job is the only
solution of this problem, which is a just temporary solution.
4) Scratch Resistant White Acrylic Coating on Top of Screed
Concrete:
Some of its advantages are:
– Reflects heat
– Good waterproofing membrane
– Durable
Some of its limitations are:
– Reflects heat till white colour is not affected by dirt or dust
– A warranty period is provided by manufacturer or applicator
which means it has certain longevity Very costly
– Skilled workmanship is required
5) Any Type of Membrane Waterproofing:
Some are covered by screed concrete and some are exposed to
weather.
Some of its advantages are:
– Very good waterproofing
Some of its limitations are:
– If proper workmanship and care is not taken, joint failure
problem is found, which cause water leakage
– Costly
– A warranty period is provided by manufacturer or applicator,
which means it has certain longevity

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6) Mosaic Finish Roof: Waterproof by nature.
Some of its advantages are:
– Ease of laying and finishing a good aesthetic top
Some of its limitations are:
– Cracks are developed on top surface through which water
percolation takes place. Based on this experience concrete is laid
in segments and joints between segments are separated by glass
strip / PVC strip. But both the strips could not show any
satisfactory result. Glass strips are broken due to thermal
expansion and contraction. Also, there is no bonding between
glass, PVC and concrete. Water percolation takes place through
the gap, this is a result of de-bonding between concrete and glass
/ PVC.
7) Bricks laid on Mother R.C.C. Slab for Insulation: Here bricks
are laid as an insulting component on mother R.C.C. slab. In most
cases mother R.C.C. slab is coated with waterproof coating.
Bricks are covered with screed concrete or tiles are laid on top of
screed concrete.
Some of its advantages are:
– Good thermal insulation property
– Due to application of waterproof coating on mother slab,
waterproofing property lasts till the top surface does not allow
water infiltration

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Some of its limitations are:
– Increases maximum dead load on roof slab.
– Once top surface allows water infiltration, water is entrapped
inside pockets and bricks are wet. As a result, dead load is further
increased.
– Water percolation starts from bricks to underneath
waterproof coating. Waterproof cementitious coating starts
swelling and slowly damage is found causes leakage.
– Further, entrapped water evaporates forming gas, which
generates upward pressure and liberates creating new cracks or
gaps on top.

4. LINTELS & CHHAJJA

What is Lintel?
A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc.
in buildings to support the load from the structure above. The width of
lintel beam is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of it is built into
the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material of construction.

Horizontal lintels are easy to construct as compared to arches.

Bearing of Lintel
The bearing provided should be the minimum of following 3 cases.

1. 10 cm
2. Height of beam
3. 1/10th to 1/12th of span of the lintel.

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Types of Lintel used in Building Construction
Lintels are classified based on the material of construction as:

1. Timber Lintel
In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But
now a day they are replaced by several modern techniques in hilly
areas these are using. The main disadvantages with timber are more
cost and less durable and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then it is provided by joining

multiple number of wooden pieces with the help of steel bolts, which
was shown in fig (a). In case of wider walls, it is composed of two
wooden pieces kept at a distance with the help of packing pieces
made of wood. Sometimes, these are strengthened by the provision of
mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as flitched lintels.

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2. Stone Lintel
These are the most common type, especially where stone is
abundantly available. The thickness of these are most important factor
of its design. These are also provided over the openings in brick
walls. Stone lintel is provided in the form of either one single piece or
more than one piece.

The depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a

minimum value of 15 cm. They are used up to spans of 2 meters. In
the structure is subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are formed in the
stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence, caution is
needed.

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3. Brick Lintel
These are used when the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are
acting. Its depth varies from 10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on the
span. Bricks with frogs are more suitable than normal bricks because
frogs when filled with mortar gives more shear resistance of end
joints, which is known as joggled brick lintel.

4. Reinforced Brick Lintel

These are used when loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m. The
depth of reinforced brick lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm or
multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide
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space is left lengthwise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of
mild steel bars as reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up
the gaps.

Vertical stirrups of 6 mm diameter are provided in every 3 rd vertical

joint. Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10
mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at the ends.

5. Steel Lintel
These are used when the superimposed loads are heavy and openings
are large. These consist of channel sections or rolled steel joists. We
can use one single section or in combinations depending up on the
requirement.

When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or

cladded with stone facing to keep the width same as width of wall.
When more than one units are placed side by side, they are kept in
position by tube separators.

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6. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel
At present, the lintel made of reinforced concrete are widely used to
span the openings for doors, windows, etc. in a structure because of
their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease in
construction. These are suitable for all the loads and for any span. The
width is equal to width of wall and depth depends on length of span
and magnitude of loading.

Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom and half of these bars

are cranked at the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse
shear as shown in fig.

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R.C.C lintel over a window with projection is displayed in below fig.

R.C.C boot lintels are provided over cavity walls. These will give
good appearance and economical. A flexible D.P.C is provided above
as shown in fig.

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CHHAJJA
A chhajja is an overhanging eave or roof covering found
in Indian architecture. It is characterized with large support brackets
with different artistic designs. Variation is also seen in its size
depending on the importance of the building on which it features or
the choice of the designer.[1]
Its function is similar to that of other overhangs or eaves in that it
protects and adorns entrances, arches and windows from the outside
elements. Some styles of roof can be considered large chhajja as well.

5. BUILDING PLANNING

What Is Building Planning?

Building Planning is the arrangement of various components or units

of a building in a systematic manner so as to form
a meaningful and homogeneous structure to meet its functional
purpose.

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The arrangement of the various rooms in the building is known
as Planning of Building.

Building planning is a graphical representation of what a building will

look like after construction. It is used by builders and contractors to
construct buildings of all kinds. Building planning is also useful when
it is essential to estimate how much a project will cost and for
preparing project budgets, building planning is also useful.

The basic objective of planning the building is to arrange all the units
of the building on all floors at a given level according to
their functional requirements. By doing this, one can make the best
use of space available for building.

In building planning, privacy can be obtained by judicious planning of

the building with respect to grouping, the position
of doors and windows, mode of the hanging of doors, location
of entrance and pathways, drives, etc. sometimes, provision
of lobbies, corridors, screens, etc.

Factors Affecting to Building Planning

Followings are the factors affecting the planning of the building,

1. Function of building e.g. residential, industrial, public,

commercial etc.
2. Shape and size of the plot
3. Topography
4. Climatic condition
5. Building by-Laws etc.

Principles of Building Planning

These principles are not as rigid as laws of nature, certain

deviations from these principles are necessary and inadequacies in
them are to be met with by an individual.

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Basic principles of building planning

1. Aspect
2. Prospect
3. Furniture Requirements
4. Roominess
5. Grouping
6. Circulation
7. Sanitation
8. Elegance
9. Privacy
10. Flexibility
11. Economy
12. Practical Consideration

1. Aspect

Aspect is the positioning of rooms in buildings with respect to 4

directions in such a way that the occupants of buildings would enjoy
the natural comforts like sunshine, breeze, scenery, etc. to the
maximum possible extent.

A room receiving light and air from any particular direction is said to
have the aspect of that direction. All the rooms of a dwelling need
a particular aspect. Some necessary aspects of commonly constructed
rooms are listed below:

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 Aspect Diagram

1. Living Room: It should have a southern or south-east aspect.

The sun is towards the south during winter and north during
summer which will provide sunshine during winter
and cooler during summertime.
2. Bedroom: It should have a west or south-west aspect, as
the breeze required particularly in summer would prevail from
this side.
3. Kitchen: It should have an eastern aspect so as to admit
morning sun refresh and purify the air.
4. Gallery or Verandah: It should be north or north-east aspect.

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 5. Classroom, Reading Room: It should be laid with the north
aspect as light received from the north will be diffused and
evenly distributed.

2. Prospect

Aesthetic Appearance

Prospect in building planning is the view desired by the occupants

of the building from certain of the house. Prospect is dictated by
surrounding peculiarities good or bad of the selected site like
a flower garden or garbage dumps, It demands the disposition of
doors and windows-like aspect. However, a good layout should not be
disturbed for the sake of good prospects only.

Certain projecting windows or a blind face of the bay with window

openings at sides would help for concealment of inside views of
a building.

3. Furniture Requirements

Furniture is a functional requirement of a room. A living room,

drawing room, kitchen, classroom, office room, laboratory, hospital
room, etc. all have their own furniture requirements.

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 Proper Furniture Placement

A room should have enough space to accommodate all

the furniture required for the maximum number of people
without overcrowding.

4. Roominess

Roominess is obtained by getting the maximum benefit from

the minimum dimension of a room without cramping the plan. By
using every nook and corner of the building advantage, roominess is
derived.

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In residential buildings, considerable storage space is required for
various purposes, which are provided by making space for
wall cupboards, lofts, wooden shelves, etc.

A rectangular room is more useful than a square room in the same

area. The length and breadth ratio of a good room should be
between 1.2 to 1.5. A ratio more than that creates a bad effect. A
small room should not be made unnecessary too high.

5. Grouping

Grouping in building planning means setting different rooms of a

building according to their inter-relationship
of invitation and transition. The rooms arranged in the layout in a
proper correlation of their functions and in due proximity with each
other.

Grouping In Residential Building Plan

 The dining room should be close to the kitchen.

 The kitchen should be kept away from the main living room.

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  Main bedrooms should have independent and separate access
from each room towards the sanitary units.
 In an office building, hospitals, etc. the administrative
department should be located centrally
for convenience and economy of services.

6. Circulation

Access or internal connection between rooms on the same floor or

between floors is known a circulation. Circulation between rooms of
the same floor is called horizontal circulation like- passages,
corridors, halls, etc. Circulation between various floors is known as
vertical circulation, like- stairs, lifts, etc.

Horizontal Circulation should be independent, short, and straight

not invade the property of any room. All the passages should be well
ventilated and lighted.

Stairs should also be well lighted and ventilated and properly

planned in regard to width, rise, and tread. Stairs should not
have winder steps.
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7. Sanitation

Sanitation of building not only associated with urinals, bathrooms,

washbasins, sinks but also the overall lighting and ventilation. All the
parts of a building should have well lighting and ventilation to
maintain good hygienic conditions. This could be done in a natural
way or in an artificial way (air condition).

Necessary provision to facilitate the cleaning of the building be

installed. Washing closets, lavatories,
urinals, bathrooms like sanitary conveniences should be installed
adequate in number in relation to the occupant load.

8. Elegance

Elegance is the overall effect produced by elevation and general

layout of the plan of a building. To get good elegance of a building it
is better if elevation is developed first and then the plan
is adjusted accordingly.

Selection of site or open plot for the construction of building greatly

affects the elegance. Building located in depression will give bad
elegance whereas building on an elevated spot gives an impressive
appearance. Buildings located on backward sloping upwards ground
give good elevation & elegance.

9. Privacy

Privacy is an important part of building planning. Privacy may be

from one part to another of the same building or could be
from neighbouring buildings, streets, etc.

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In residential buildings, every room should have certain privacy,
which can be secured carefully planning the entrance,
pathways, and drives.

Proper grouping of rooms, good positioning of doors and windows,

lobbies, or screens can give required internal privacy. Toilet rooms,
bedrooms, w.c. and urinals should have absolute privacy.

10. Flexibility

Flexibility means planning the rooms in such a way that

though originally designed for a specific purpose, may be used for
other purposes also when desired.
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For designing houses for middle-class, families or other buildings
where the economy is the main consideration flexibility should
always be considered.

If large space is needed in a certain time a house to accommodate

the gathering. It can be obtained by removing a removable partition
wall or curtain between the room and the dining room. Alternatively,
an open yard, garden, or veranda can also be provided.

11. Economy

The economy is a major factor in building planning. To fit the

proposed scheme within the limitations of the resources and funds
certain alterations and omissions in the original plan have to make.
But while considering the economy, the
required strength and durability of the structure should not be
compromised.

Some simple economy achieving approaches in buildings are,

 Simple elevation, dispensing of porches, lobbies, etc.

 Steeper rise to the stair, wider steps in the stair.
 Reducing the story height to a bare minimum.
 Standardization of sizes of various components and materials.

12. Practical Consideration

Besides all the Principles of planning discussed, the

following practical points should be additionally considered,

1. The strength, stability, convenience, and comfort of the

occupants of the building, should be considered first.
2. Provisions for future extensions without dismantling should be
made in the planning.
3. The building should be strong and capable to withstand the
likely adverse effects of natural agencies (earthquake, flood,
storm, etc.)

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 4. Elevation should be simple yet attractive. Too many porches
may give good elevation for some time, but in the end, simple
designs fit better for generations.
5. The larger size of the room should always be considered as far
as possible as it can be shortened by providing partitions but
smaller rooms cannot be enlarged easily.

Essential Elements of Planning of Residential Building

The followings are the required elements for the planning of

the residential building,

1. Integrated Design

Landscape and architectural designs should be integrated with

all project design disciplines in order to enhance the building
performance and aesthetics. Enhancing performance and functional
objectives that impact building orientation, massing, space
adjacencies, material selections and assemblies.

2. Performance Measures and Functional Objectives

Planning shall ensure that the design supports quality-based

performance measures for customer satisfaction, energy
consumption, and reduced operation and maintenance. It should
also identify all expectations and establish alternative features that
support attainment.

3. Environmental Sensitivity

The natural setting of the site, its contour lines, and vegetation shall
be viewed as assets to be preserved in the design as much as possible.
In settings including historic buildings and other infrastructure,
adjoining historic properties, or nearly located historic
properties that will not be affected by construction.

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4. Urban Context

Design facilities and orientation must be consistent with existing and

planned development patterns and nearby uses. The exterior of the
building should be consistent with existing local design guidelines as
per standards. Where appropriate, the project team should help to
develop design guidelines for the project and
neighbouring undeveloped sites.

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