Materials Joining Technology Notes

Contents
Lecture 02.08.21 ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Lecture 05.08.21 ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Advantages of Welding: ...................................................................................................................... 6
Disadvantage of Welding .................................................................................................................... 7
Basic elements of Welding setup: ....................................................................................................... 7
Grain growth in fusion welding:.......................................................................................................... 9
Microstructural zone in solid-state welding: .................................................................................... 10
Role of temperature and pressure in solid-state/fusion welding..................................................... 10
Mechanisms to obtain material continuity ....................................................................................... 11
Methods by which welding is done: ................................................................................................. 11
Lecture 06.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 12
Consumable and non-consumable welding....................................................................................... 16
Lecture 09.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 16
Lecture 12.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 18
Advantages of DC Welding................................................................................................................ 18
Disadvantages of DC Welding ........................................................................................................... 18
Advantages of AC Welding ................................................................................................................ 18
Disadvantages of AC Welding ........................................................................................................... 18
Lecture 13.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 20
Duty Cycle: ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Lecture 16.08.21- SMAW ...................................................................................................................... 21
Lecture 19.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 24
Lecture 23.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 26
Lecture 26.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 29
Lecture 27.08.21 ................................................................................................................................... 32
Hot wire GTAW ................................................................................................................................. 33
Gas metal arc welding process (GMAW/MIG/MAG): ....................................................................... 34
Lecture 02.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 35
Cold Metal Transfer .......................................................................................................................... 40
Lecture 03.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 41
Pulsed Mode of Metal Transfer: ....................................................................................................... 41
CO2 welding ...................................................................................................................................... 42
 Flux cored arc welding: ..................................................................................................................... 43
Synergic MIG welding ....................................................................................................................... 44
Lecture 06.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 44
Submerged Arc Welding = GMAW + SMW ....................................................................................... 44
Lecture 13.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 48
Resistance Welding ........................................................................................................................... 48
Lecture 16.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 51
Lecture 17.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 52
Lecture 23.09.21 ................................................................................................................................... 54
Lecture 18.10.21 (revisited) .................................................................................................................. 55
Lecture 21.10.21 ................................................................................................................................... 59
Lecture 22.10.21 ................................................................................................................................... 60
Lecture 28.10.21 ................................................................................................................................... 62
Lecture 01.11.21 (need to see from 46:00) .......................................................................................... 64
Lecture 11.11.21 (in notebook) ............................................................................................................ 67
Lecture 12.11.21 ................................................................................................................................... 67
Lecture 13.11.21 ................................................................................................................................... 69
Lecture 15.11.21 (need to re-visit) ....................................................................................................... 72
Lecture 19.11.21 (need not re-visit) ..................................................................................................... 76
Lecture 22.11.21 ................................................................................................................................... 80
Last Lecture ........................................................................................................................................... 82

Lecture 02.08.21
Casting was used to join two materials by pouring the molten metal in between them and solidifying
them. But, it easily failed on application of load

Forge welding - heat the components and beat it to join them - used by blacksmiths. Eg: Sword
handles - archaic technique

Casting and forge welding - not very effective techniques

Welding was a revolution in joining technology

Others include soldering, adhesives, mechanical fasteners( nuts, screws, rivets)

Riveting - butt joint

Weld must be stronger than base metal - important criteria of component.

Boilers in BHEL 1000s of welded joints - it is necessary they sustain the service condition - high
pressure and temperature - for 20-30 years, it needs to support the component - air-line fractures
might fail the material.
Welding finds applications in ship also. In the hull;

Welding - not a lay-man skill. Found invariably in many industries as a secondary process.

Casting → Ingots/sheets → Final products → (welded) Final component

Joining Steel-Al by fusion welding: thermal properties of both are considered (like m.pt)

Al - 660 celsius and steel - 1540 celsius

Inorder to weld, we need to melt both solids

But, if we apply 2000 celsius, Al starts boiling -

As carbon content increases, weldability decreases.

Weldability depends on the rate of cooling of steel.

Cracks may form if there is fast cooling while welding.

Steel is suitable only for low temperature applications (400-450 celsius)

Therefore, Ni based alloys are used. But the joining characteristics/weldability is poor. Solidification
cracks/Hot cracks are formed.

Soldering is important in electronics - it prevents melting of interfaces caused due to heat which is a
result of resistance offered to current flow.

Pacemakers make use of welding technology.

In riveting, stress concentration occurs due to decrease in area. Also the area is susceptible to
corrosion. The extra component increases the weight of the composition. There is chemical
inhomogeneity due to difference in composition.

Aircrafts use rivets only and not welded joints.

70% of joints  welding

30% rest = soldering, brazing + adhesives + riveting

Lecture 05.08.21
(Source: Principles of Welding)

First and foremost is the central point that multiple entities are made one by establishing continuity
in welding. Continuity implies the absence of any physical disruption on an atomic scale, that is, no
gaps, unlike the situation with mechanical attachment or mechanical fastening where a physical gap,
no matter how tight the joint, always remain. Continuity implies continuation of atomic structure.

The key in each case is that even when the material across the joint is not identical in composition
(i.e., homogeneous), it is essentially the same in atomic structure, thereby allowing the formation of
chemical bonds: primary metallic bonds between similar or dissimilar metals, primary ionic or covalent
or mixed ionic-covalent bonds between similar or dissimilar ceramics, and secondary hydrogen, van
der Waals, or other dipolar bonds between similar or dissimilar polymers.

Problem comes about when the materials to be joined are fundamentally different in structure at
the atomic or (for polymers) molecular level.
Ex: For the case of a thermoplastic being joined to a thermoset, a degree of ionic bonding can occur
in the thermoset to cause cross-linking, but not so in the thermoplastic.

Welding applies not just to metals. It applies to certain polymers (e.g., thermoplastics), crystalline
oxide or non-oxide ceramics, inter-metallic compounds and glasses.

Welding is a result of combined action of heat and pressure. Spectrum of combinations of heat and
pressure: from essentially no pressure when heat is sufficient to cause melting, to where pressure is
great enough to cause gross plastic deformation when no heat is added and welds are made cold.

An intermediate or filler material of the same type, even if not same composition, as the base
material(s) may or may not be required.

The tendency for atoms to bond is the fundamental basis for welding

During welding, it is desired to bring the atoms together in equilibrium spacing in large numbers to
produce aggregates. For metals, intermetallics, and most ceramics, this aggregate is crystalline, That
is, all of the atoms comprising the aggregate take up regular positions on a three-dimensional
arrangement of points in space called a crystal lattice. The result of bonding is the creation of
continuity between aggregates or crystals, and the formation of an ideal weld. What makes the weld
ideal is that there is no remnant of any gap, and the strength of the joint would be the same as the
cohesive strength of the weakest material comprising the joint.

What causes dissimilarity in welds?

1. Two materials never have perfectly smooth, planar surfaces, so perfect matching up of all
atoms across an interface at equilibrium spacing never occurs. Peaks and valleys (known
generically as asperities) of several to hundreds or even thousands of atoms high or deep lead
to very few points of intimate contact at which the equilibrium spacing can be achieved.
2. The presence of oxide or other tarnish layers and associated adsorbed moisture layers usually
found on real materials.
3. Any other form of surface contamination, such as paint or grease or oil
How to make a good weld, close to ideal?

1. Cleaning the surface of real materials:

a. chemically, using solvents to dissolve away contaminants or reducing agents to
convert oxide or tarnish compounds to the base metals
b. mechanically, using abrasion or other means to physically disrupt the integrity of
oxides or tarnish layers.
2. Bringing most, if not all, of the atoms of those material surfaces into intimate contact over
large areas.
a. Apply Heat
b. Apply pressure

It is essential that surface that are clean need to be shielded until it is actually welded together with
another component.

Applying heat helps by

1. Driving off volatile adsorbed layers of gases or moisture (usually hydrogen-bonded waters of
hydration) or organic contaminants.
2. Either breaking down the brittle oxide or tarnish layers through differential thermal expansion
or, occasionally, by thermal decomposition (e.g., copper oxide and titanium oxide), or, at least,
disrupting the continuity of these layers.
3. Lowering the yield strength of the base materials and allowing plastic deformation under
pressure to bring more atoms into intimate contact across the interface
Applying pressure helps by

1. Disrupting the adsorbed layers of gases or moisture by macro- or microscopic deformation.

2. Fracturing brittle oxide or tarnish layers to expose clean base material atoms.
3. Plastically deforming asperities to increase the number of atoms, and thus the area, in
intimate contact

Very high heat and little or no pressure can produce welds by relying on the high rate of diffusion in
the solid state at elevated temperatures or in the liquid state produced by melting or fusion.

Little or no heat with very high pressures can produce welds by forcing atoms together by plastic
deformation on either a gross or macroscopic scale (as in forge welding) or on a microscopic scale (as
in friction welding), and/or by relying on atom transport by solid-phase diffusion to cause intermixing
and bonding.

Most real welding processes involve a fair amount of heat and only enough pressure to hold the joint
elements together during welding, but there are processes that predominantly employ pressure.

Advantages of Welding:
1. Exceptional structural integrity.
2. Joints with very high efficiencies.
3. Wide range of processes and approaches that can be selected and the correspondingly wide
variety of materials that can thus be welded. Almost all metals and alloys, many
(thermoplastic) polymers, most if not all glasses, and some ceramics can be welded, with or
without auxiliary filler.
4. There are processes that can be performed manually, semi-automatically, or completely
automatically.
5. Some processes can be made portable for implementation in the field for erection of large
structures on site or for maintenance and repair of such structures and equipment.
6. Continuous welds provide fluid tightness (so welding is the process of choice for fabricating
pressure vessels).
7. Welding (better than most other joining processes) can be performed remotely in hazardous
environments (e.g., underwater, in areas of radiation, in outer space) using robots.
8. For most applications, costs can be reasonable. The exceptions to the last statement are
where welds are highly critical, with stringent quality requirements or involving specialized
applications (e.g., very thick section welding).
Disadvantage of Welding
1. It precludes disassembly.
2. Requirement for heat in producing many welds can disrupt the base material microstructure
and degrade properties. Unbalanced heat input can also lead to distortion or the
introduction of residual stresses that can be problematic from several standpoints.
3. Welding requires considerable operator skill, or, in lieu of skilled operators, sophisticated
automated welding systems. Both of these, along with the aforementioned specialized
applications, can lead to high cost.

Basic elements of Welding setup:

1. Energy source to create union by pressure/heat.
2. Method to remove surface contaminants
3. Protect metal from atmospheric contamination
4. Control of weld metallurgy

American Heritage Dictionary definition for welding: To join (metals) by applying heat, sometimes
with pressure and sometimes with an intermediate or filler metal having a high melting point.
Continuity is obtained between parts for assembly by various means.

Bonding should be metallic in nature in case of joining dissimilar materials.

On surface of metals: oxide layer, oil, moisture and impurities are present.

Out of these, oxide layer is always present generally in metallic surfaces. Reactivity of oxygen with
metals is high. Also, the oxides are more stable than the metals latter being a metastable state.

Oxide layer hiders the bond formation while joining the materials.
Cleaning of oxide layers are done by: Mechanical, chemical; fluxes are used to clean oxide films and
other contaminants to form slag.

Shielding gases like Helium, Argon, etc are used for protecting from atmospheric contaminants.
Alternatively, welding can be carried out in an inert atmosphere.

Weldment – Weld + HAZ + Base metal

Arc melts the material.

Welding is like miniature casting.

(1) overheated section > Tr, (2) grain-refined (normalized) section Tr-Ac3, (3) partly
grainrefined section Ac3-Ac1, (IV) recrystallized section
Deoxidants and alloying elements also control the microstructure of weld.

Grain growth in fusion welding:

Microstructural zone in solid-state welding:

On applying high pressure on both sides of the metal and alloy in the above figure, they both reach
the plastic stage and gets deformed permanently. Joining occurs through Diffusion process.
Temperature involved in this process is always less than the melting point.

Role of temperature and pressure in solid-state/fusion welding

1. Role of Temperature in Fusion/ solid state welding • Drives off volatile adsorbed layers of
gases, moisture, or organic contaminants • Breaks down the brittle oxide through
differential thermal expansion • Lowers yield/flow strength of base materials→ helps plastic
deformation • Promotes dynamic recrystallization during plastic deformation (if T > Tr) •
Accelerates the rates of diffusion of atoms • Melts the substrate materials, so that atoms
can rearrange by fluid flow (if T > Tm) 43

2. Role of Pressure in solid state welding • Disrupts the adsorbed layers of gases/organic
compound or moisture by macro- or microscopic deformation • Fractures brittle oxide or
tarnish layers to expose clean base material atoms • Plastically deform asperities (lattice) to
increase the number of atoms that come into intimate contact (at equilibrium spacing)

Thermal cycle = Heating cycle + cooling cycle

Heat Affected Zone:
A heat affected zone (HAZ) of a weld is that part of the welded joint which has been heated to
a temperature up to the solidus of the parent material resulting in varying degree of influence
on microstructure as a consequence of heating and cooling cycle
The heat affected zone (HAZ) is a non-melted area of metal that has undergone changes in
material properties as a result of being exposed to high temperatures. These changes in material
property are usually as a result of welding or high-heat cutting. The HAZ is the area between
the weld or cut and the base (unaffected), parent metal.
Eutectoid reaction – solid state reaction
Heat affected zone temperature: (A1-Tm)
Unaffected base metal temperature: T<A1
There will be difference in the hardness value from base metal to weld due to difference in the
temperature of heating.
Welding process can induce defects in the material.
Increases in the arc voltage and welding current resulted in increased hardness and decrease
in yield strength, tensile strength and impact toughness.
Let us take a material which is initially cold rolled and has elongated grains. When welded, in
low temperature HAZ, the material undergoes recrystallization. High temperature HAZ has
coarser grains and in the weld.
While there is continuity in the welded parts, in microstructure level, there is difference in the
grain sizes.

Mechanisms to obtain material continuity

(1) Solid-phase plastic deformation, without or with recrystallization → Solid state welding

Cold deformation and lattice strain • Atoms are brought together by plastic deformation •
Sufficiently close to ensure that bonds are established at their equilibrium spacing • Significant
lattice deformation • Lattices are left in the strained state (distorted) in cold deformation Prevailing
mechanism in solid state welding without heat.

hot deformation and dynamic recrystallization • In hot state (0.4-0.5 Tm), the strained lattice
recover from the distorted state • Atomic rearrangement & Recrystallization • Grain growth across
original interface • Eliminates the original physical interface Prevailing mechanism in solid state
welding with heat

(2) Diffusion, → Brazing, Soldering

Transport of mass through atom movement • Can occur entirely in solid phase or with liquid phase
• For dissimilar materials → thin layer of alloy at the interface • Rate of diffusion α Difference in
composition (Fick’s law), Temperature Prevailing mechanism in brazing/soldering

(3) Melting and solidification → Fusion Welding

• Solidifying crystals take up the grain structure & orientation of substrate/unmelted grains •
Prevailing mechanism in most fusion welding process Establishing a bond upon epitaxial
solidification of this liquid

Methods by which welding is done:

1. Heat (greater than melting point) – electric arc (SMAW< MIG< TIG), combustion, power
beam, thermo-chemical reaction(exothermic – thermit welding)
 2. Heat (Temperature greater than melding point) + Pressure (less than yield strength) –
Resistance welding(Spot, Seam welding)
3. Pressure (greater than yield strength) + Heat – Friction, friction stir welding
4. Pressure – Ultrasonic, explosive

Lecture 06.08.21
Energy can be obtained from an electrical or electromagnetic source in three distinct ways:
 An electric arc
 Resistance (12R or Joule losses) due to either the direct flow of current in a circuit or
currents induced in the workpiece.
 High-intensity radiant energy or beams in which the kinetic energy of particles in the
irradiating field or beam is converted to heat by collisions with atoms in the
workpiece.
Fusion welding processes that employ an electric arc as a heat source are called arc welding
processes.
MMAW – Manual Metal Arc Welding is an example of Electric Arc Welding, Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG), Metal Inert Gas Welding (GMAW/MIG), Plasma Arc Welding
(PAW), Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), Electro Gas Welding (EGW), Electro Slag
Welding (ESW).
Important components of the electric circuit for welding: current, voltage and resistance.
An electric welding arc can be operated in three ways:
(1) with a direct current (DC) flow under the emf from a source with fixed polarity, with the
welding electrode made to be negative (-) and the workpiece made to be positive (+)
(2) with a direct current with the welding electrode made to be positive (+) and the workpiece
made to be negative (-)
(3) with an alternating current (AC) flow under the emf from a source with periodically
reversing or alternating polarity, where the welding electrode and workpiece each alternate
between positive and negative.
One terminal of the power source is connected to work table and another to the welding torch.
The ammeter used to measure current in a welding circuit is in reality a millivolt-meter
(calibrated in amperes) connected across a high current, very low resistance, calibrated shunt
in the welding circuit. The voltmeter will measure the voltage output of the welding machine
and the arc, which are virtually the same, once the arc is struck and active. Before the arc is
struck, or if the arc is broken, the voltmeter will read the voltage across the welding machine
with no load applied, that is, with no current flowing in the circuit. This is known as the open-
circuit voltage, and is higher than the arc voltage or the voltage across the welding machine
when current is flowing.
DCEN or DCSP (DC operation under straight polarity) - For DC operation, when the
welding electrode is negative, and electrons move to the positive workpiece, the DC
operation is said to be occurring under straight polarity (or SP)
For DC operation in which the welding electrode is made positive, electrons move from the
negative workpiece to the welding electrode. This is referred to as DC reverse polarity,
DCRP, or DC (welding) electrode positive (or DCEP) or DC(+)
In DCSP, electrons are emitted from the tungsten electrode and accelerated to very high speeds
and kinetic energies while traveling through the arc. These high-energy electrons collide with
the workpiece, give up their kinetic energy, and generate considerable heat in the workpiece.
Consequently, DCSP results in deep penetrating, narrow welds, but with higher workpiece heat
input. About two-thirds of the net heat available from the arc (after losses from various sources)
enters the workpiece. High heat input to the workpiece may or may not be desirable, depending
on factors such as required weld penetration, required weld width, workpiece mass,
susceptibility to heat-induced defects or degradation, and concern for distortion or residual
stress.
In DCRP, on the other hand, the heating effect of the electrons is on the tungsten electrode
rather than on the workpiece. Consequently, larger water-cooled electrode holders are
required, shallow welds are produced, and workpiece heat input can be kept low. This
operating mode is good for welding thin sections or heat-sensitive metals and alloys. This mode
also results in a scrubbing action on the workpiece by the large positive ions that strike its
surface, removing oxide and cleaning the surface. This mode is thus preferred for welding
metals and alloys that oxidize easily, such as aluminum or magnesium.
The DCSP mode is much more common with non-consumable electrode arc processes than the
DCRP mode. There is, however, a third mode, employing alternating current or AC. The AC
mode tends to result in some of the characteristics of both of the DC modes, during the
corresponding half cycles, but with some bias toward the straight polarity half-cycle due to the
greater inertia (i.e., lower mobility) and, thus, greater resistance of large positive ions. During
this half-cycle, the current tends to be higher due to the extra emission of electrons from the
smaller, hotter electrode versus larger, cooler workpiece. In the AC mode, reasonably good
penetration is obtained, along with some oxide cleaning action.
In reality, many of these effects are far less pronounced with other electric arc welding processes
employing consumable electrodes. Most particularly, there is little difference in penetration between
DCSP and DCRP. This is so since the concentration of heat at the electrode with RP aids in melting
the consumable electrode, as is desired, but this heat is returned to the weld when the molten metal
droplets transfer to the pool. On the other hand, the cleaning action of the RP mode at the workpiece
still takes place).

In square-wave AC, solid-state electronic devices reshape the sinusoidal wave provided as
input to the power supply from line voltage to give it a square shape; positive for half a cycle
and negative for half a cycle. This shape turns out to be advantageous during the transition
from one half-cycle to the other, where the voltage and resulting current pass through zero. For
normal sinusoidal waveforms, as this transition is taking place, the voltage just before and just
after the reversal approaches zero relatively slowly compared to the rate of change for a square
wave. The effect of the much more rapid (essentially instantaneous) reversal with a square
wave is to avoid possible momentary loss and subsequent difficulty of reestablishing the arc.
In wave balancing, there is the capability of shifting the relative magnitude of the straight and
reverse half-cycles, thereby shifting the characteristics of the altered waveform. This is done
by applying a DC bias voltage to the AC, whether of sinusoidal or square waveform. The
advantage is the ability to fine-tune the waveform for the particular material being welded,
obtaining just the degree of straight (penetrating) or reverse (cleaning) half-wave behavior
desired. Regardless of mode or waveform, power supplies for GTAW are generally of a
constant current (CC) type.

The electron emission of tungsten electrodes is occasionally enhanced by adding 1-2% thorium
oxide or cerium oxide (or other rare-earth oxides) to the tungsten. This addition improves the
current-carrying capacity of the electrode, results in less chance for contamination of the weld
by expulsion of tungsten due to localized electrode overheating and melting, and allows for
greater arc stability and easier initiation, As mentioned earlier, both argon and helium are
used for shielding with the GTAW process. Argon offers better shielding since it is heavier
and tends to stay on the work. Arc initiation is also easier, since the binding energy (i.e.,
work potential) for electrons in the completely filled outermost electron shell (some of
which must be stripped from this shell to provide a conducting plasma) is lower than for
helium. The advantage of helium is a hotter arc, which is the result of the higher work potential
compared to argon. By using mixtures of these two inert gases, mixed characteristics can be
obtained.
A welding arc is, in reality, a gaseous electrical conductor that changes electrical energy into
heat.
Resulting arcs can be steady (from a direct current power supply), intermittent (due to
occasional, irregular short circuiting), continuously unsteady (as the result of an alternating
current power supply), or pulsing (as the result of a pulsing direct current power supply).
Arc Plasma: Current is carried in an arc by a plasma. A plasma is the ionized state of a gas,
comprised of a balance of negative electrons and positive ions (both created by thermionic
emission from an electrode and secondary collisions between these electrons and atoms in the
gaseous medium being used, whether a self-generated or externally supplied inert shielding
gas) to maintain charge neutrality. Here electrons move from positive terminal (polarity) –
anode [note the difference here] to negative terminal (polarity) – cathode.
Ionization potential - the ease or difficulty of forming positive ions by stripping away
electrons
Shape of the electrodes determines the shape of the arc. Bell shaped is formed between a
rectangular electrode and flat surface i.e the base metal
Air offers resistance to the formation of arc in welding. Therefore, first the electrode touches
the job and withdrawn immediately after the short circuit is created. This creates a conductive
path for the electrons to flow. Ionized gas is formed which is called plasma.
1. Thermionic emission – arc welding
2. Auto electronic emission – touch and withdraw is not required as a secondary power
source present delivers very high voltage (10^4) which helps to ionize the air gap.
3. Photo electric emission – light falling on the electron surface releases the electrons.
4. Secondary emission
Power source:
High current and low voltage is required (10-200 A) & (10-50 V)
Step down voltage is required when getting the current from power station
Reason: High current can be got from low voltage; Also, safety of the user if low voltage is
used.(least resistive path)
Staedy state arc is achieve through DC
DC (positive)/DCEP/Reverse Polarity
DC (negative)/DCEN/Straight Polarity
Consumable and non-consumable welding
In arc welding processes, the electrode used to strike an arc with the workpiece may serve
only as the means for carrying current to the arc, or it can be consumed in the arc,
contributing filler as well as heat to the weld. The first case is referred to as a nonconsumable
or permanent electrode process, and the second case is referred to as a consumable electrode
process.
Example for consumable electrode arc – Gas metal arc welding, shielded metal arc welding,
flux-cored arc welding, Submerged arc welding (SAW) Electrogas welding (EGW)
Electroslag welding (ESW), MMAW
Example for non-consumable electrode arc – GTAW/TIG, PAW
Continuous arc is not established in AC as the current becomes zero twice in one cycle

Lecture 09.08.21
Arc length is proportional to voltage (linear relationship)
Cathode spots: Thermionic, mobile and normal
The area over which the current actually flows into the arc terminals is called anode and
cathode spots. Although far less is understood about these regions than the plasma column,
both have strong effects on the overall arc shape, as well as on the flow of heat into these
terminals. The current density at the workpiece terminal is of particular importance to the size
and shape (especially depth) of the fusion and heat-affected zones produced.
Aluminium and copper has a strong oxide layer and therefore the cathos spot moves in a
random manner.
Tungsten – thermionic emission from a single spot
Though the work function of W is high, it is chosen owing to its very high melting point.
Therefore it doesn’t melt and good non-consumable electrode.
The electron emission of tungsten electrodes is occasionally enhanced by adding 1-2%
thorium oxide or cerium oxide (or other rare-earth oxides) to the tungsten. This addition
improves the current-carrying capacity of the electrode, results in less chance for
contamination of the weld by expulsion of tungsten due to localized electrode overheating
and melting, and allows for greater arc stability and easier initiation.
Electrodes will condense in the anode surface and not at a single spot.
Argon and Helium are shielding gases by preventing oxides, hydrides and nitrides formation
with molten metal. Substitution solid solution strengthening increases the hardness of these
materials (oxides, nitrides…..). Strain field impedes the motion of dislocation.
Ductility is measured using tensile test – difference in length after the fracture and before the
tensile test. Bend test is also used to calculate ductility. If the material is bent, there shouldn’t
be any cracks in it. Even this test can be performed with weld. Toughness is calculated using
Charpy/Izod and using which we can measure the ductility of material.
If the ionization energy is high, the heat developed is also high and therefore large amount of
metal is melted
Trending of welding arc:
First decreases then increases further and after a certain point, a steep increases is observed.
Bell shaped arc of the weld – the magnetic field is directed upward from the page.

The Lorentz force is responsible for the shape which tends to converge the arc
The penetration is more at the centre and the depth slowly decreases as we move away.
OCV – Open Circuit Voltage

Recovery voltage
Phase difference between I and V helps to initiate the current when it becomes 0 due to the
voltage. Introduction of inductance
Power factor: Varc/Vocv = phase difference <1
Recommended to have power factor between 0.95 to 0.99. Using inverters yields a high
power factor.

Lecture 12.08.21
High frequency high voltage = 104 W- It supplies a huge voltage when the current becomes
zero using a separate power source by programming it. Important for arc initiation and its
subsequent maintenance.
MMAW can work on touch and draw method.
Wheras, for TIG welding, we can use HFHV for arc initiation. AC power source helps in arc
maintenance.
Alternating current uses High Frequency High Voltage (HFHV).
DC is the widely used and favourable for welding process.

Advantages of DC Welding
 A smoother welding output than with AC
 A more stable arc
 Less spatter
 DC negative offers faster deposition rates when welding thin sheet metals
 DC positive provides greater penetration into the weld metal

Disadvantages of DC Welding
 DC welding is unable to fix arc blow problems
 Equipment is more expensive as DC currents require an internal transformer to switch
the current

Advantages of AC Welding
 The alternating current between positive polarity and negative polarity allows for a
steadier arc for welding magnetic parts
 Fixes problems with arc blow
 Enables effective aluminium welding
 AC welding machines are cheaper than DC equipment

Disadvantages of AC Welding
 More spatter
 Weld quality is not as smooth as with DC welding
 Less reliable and therefore more difficult to handle than DC welding
Welding of Aluminium alloys is done by AC welding.
Whiel using DC positive (DCRP), the protons hit the job and any oxide layer formed will be
easily broken due to its high mass – oxide cleaning. On the other side, the electrons from the
job hits the electrode and therefore, becomes round in shape and affects the thermionic
characteristics.
In AC current, the profile is alternating and we can alter the duration of half-cycle. As a result,
we can prevent the ball formation in the electrodes – unbalanced AC.
Static and dynamic VI characteristics.
Dynamic VI – arc initiation
All welding power sources have two kinds of operating characteristics viz., static characteristic
and dynamic characteristic. The static output characteristic can be easily established by
measuring the steady-state output voltage and current by conventional method of loading by
variable resistors. Thus, a curve showing the output current versus output voltage for a given
power source constitutes its static characteristic.
The dynamic characteristic of an arc welding power source is determined by recording the
transient variations occurring over a short interval in the welding current and the arc voltage.
Thus, it describes instantaneous variations occurring over a short interval of time say a milli-
second. Arc stability is determined by the combined interaction of the static and dynamic volt-
ampere (V-I) characteristics of the welding power source.
The intrinsic transient nature of a welding arc is the main reason for great importance of the
dynamic characteristic of an arc welding power source. Most welding arcs have continuously
changing conditions which are mainly associated with striking of the arc, metal transfer from
the electrode to the weld pool, and arc extinction and reignition during each half cycle of ac
welding. The transient nature of the welding arc is also due to variation in arc length, arc
temperature and electron emission characteristic of the cathode.
The rate of change of voltage and current in arc welding processes is so fast that the static volt-
ampere characteristic of a power source can hardly be of any significance in predicting the
dynamic characteristic of a welding arc.
Constant Current Characteristics:
A large change in voltage brings a small change in current
Used for MMAW, GTAW and PAW. (Some cases SAW, GMAW – Wire feeding machines)
A conventional arc welding power source is known as the constant current (CC) machine. It
has the drooping volt-ampere characteristic curve and has been popular for use in shielded
metal arc welding.
The constant current curve shows that the welding power source produces maximum output
voltage with no load, and as the load increases, the output voltage decreases. The maximum no
load or open circuit voltage is usually 100 volts.
A constant current type power source may have dc or ac, output. Apart from SMAW it is used
for carbon arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding and stud welding. It can
also be used for continuous wire processes when relatively large diameter wires arc used, for
example, submerged arc welding.
A drooping curve
Constant Voltage Characteristics of a Welding Power Source:
Flat V-I curve, self adjusting arc
It is an automated process; used in SAW, GMAW, FCAW.
A constant voltage (CV) welding power source has essentially a flat volt-ampere characteristic
curve though usually with a slight droop. The curve may be shifted up or down to change the
voltage.

Lecture 13.08.21
Open circuit voltage is the voltage at the electrode before striking an arc (with no current being
drawn).

Why DCRP is common?

Either DCSP (DCEN) or DCRP (DCEP) may be used, depending on the particular wire and desired
mode of molten metal transfer, but the DCRP (DCEP) mode is far more common. The reason is that
in the RP mode, electrons from the negative workpiece strike the positive wire to give up their
kinetic energy in the form of heat to melt and consume the wire. As opposed to GTAW, in GMAW
the heat given up to the wire to melt it is recovered to help make the weld when the molten metal
from the wire is transferred to the workpiece.

Duty Cycle:
Welding machines produce internal heat at the same time they produce the welding current. Except
for automatic welding machines, welders are rarely used every minute for long periods of time. The
welder must take time to change electrodes, change positions, or change parts. Shielded metal arc
welding never continues for long periods of time.

The duty cycle increases as the amperage is lowered and decreases for higher amperages.

The percentage in time a power source supplies current in successive ten minutes interval without
exceeding a predetermined rise in temperature of its components
Lecture 16.08.21- SMAW
SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding/MMAW – Manual Metal Arc welding Process/Stick Welding
Process

Very versatile and easy to handle.

60% welding is done using this process; but lot of environmental concerns regarding this process,
mostly be banned in some countries in the upcoming years.

You have one phase and three phase machines depending on the amperage. Single phase is
preferred as it is economical and simple to use. This process completely depends on the skill of the
welder.

Quality of the weld depends on the person as it is not automated.

Controlling knobs helps in controlling the current supplied. (50 A – 500 A) – Constant current type

Shielding mask protects us from the radiation. Googles are used to see the weld clearly as it is too
bright. Safety shoes, apron and keep a safe distance from the weld.

Industrial shoes are used. Leather shoes prevent any leakage of current.

The person must wear gloves.

Types of electrode in MMAW: Carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, Cu/Ti/Al alloys are
used – Therefore the process is versatile.
Electrode – Weld arrangement

In an electrode, there will be a core wire enclosed within a covering. Core wire is connected to the
holder and current is passed through it. Diameter: 2, 2.5, 3.15, 4, 5, 6 mm (2.5 and 3.15 are
commonly used)

Electrodes are also made out of killed steels (deoxidised low carbon steels)

Length of electrode varies from 250mm, 350 mm upto 400 mm.

Overheating of electrode can lead to removal of the core.

Surface hardness of the electrodes is increased.

Metal droplets transfer and deposit on the base metal.

Gravity and electromagnetic forces are responsible for the deposition of the metal.

Purpose of electrodes:

1. To initiate an arc

2. To shield the molten metal (shielding gas)

3. To produce slag (electrode covering) – a ceramic layer of oxide is formed, which is of low density
that tries to float on the metal.

4. To offer alloying elements – it changes the composition of the weld. Si and Mn are supplied to C
steels inorder to prevent the loss of carbon. Here the former two elements get oxidised thereby
protecting the carbon of steel.
The freezing point of slag is higher than the metal. Therefore, while cooling, it first solidifies as a
solid blanket when weld in is molten state. This blanket formation controls the cooling rate and
avoids the formation of undesirable microstructure.

Characteristic of martensite (a supersaturated solution, BCT structure formed from austenite) – hard
and brittle.

There is a slight increase in c/a ratio of BCT.

Expansion induces residual stresses, leading to cracking and distortion.

Elements get vapourised while welding, leading to loss of material.

Solidified slag is formed on weld metal.

Types of welds and joints:

Fillet weld – L-shaped

Groove weld – flat faces

Slot weld – on gaps

Spot weld

Seam weld – continuous spots of weld

Plug weld – Not complete penetration into the second material.

Joints: (configuration or arrangement of plates)

Butt joint (groove weld) – joining two metals

Lap joint (fillet weld) – overlapping

Corner joint (fillet weld) – To join corners

Tee-joint and Edge joint

Weld positions:

1. Overhead (4G)

2. Flat (1G) – Normal position

3. Horizontal (2G)

4. Vertical (3G)

1G (rotate) – welder is stationary but material rotates

2G

5G – job is fixed but welder moves around

6G - job is fixed but welder moves around an inclined placed job

Lecture 19.08.21
Flat position is a very convenient position and easy for welding.

Horizontal is slightly difficult

In vertical and overhead position, the molten metal might fall off.

Welders are designated with number depending on their expertise in their positions (1G, 2G, 3G,
etc). They will be certified by agencies.

WPS – Weldng Procedure Specification

PQR – Procedure Qualification Record: Here the welding parameters – thickness, position, etc are
recorded in format by welding engineers and given to the welders.

This certification is only for certain period.

5G position is actually a combination of flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead as the welder moves
over the body.

6G welders are highly qualified (3000-4000 rupees per hour)

Higher qualified welders can be employed for lower/easier welding jobs.

Most countries follow AWS specifications

The third digit from left in the electrode represents the position of weld. 1 implies the weld is used in
all positions.

Different types of electrode coverings:

1. Cellulosic type (symbol C) – contains cellulose which has produces hydrogen, carbon-di-oxide and
carbon monoxide. CO2 acts as a shielding gas here and H2 gives better penetration characteristics
(at High temperature, it splits into nascent hydrogen atoms and offers lot of heat. Also, the H is the
smallest element and moves easily into the base metal with high mobility. Heat will also be evolved
during the dissolution and escape of gases. But this type can’t be used for high strength steels,
medium and low carbon steels and tool steels. It is because of the rapid solidification rate leading
to the formation of martensite which induces lot of residual stresses. In that time, if hydrogen is
present in stressed state and trying to escape, it will break open the grain boundaries in the HAZ
leading to cracking of weld – Hydrogen induced/cold cracking. WE can use this type for a normal
steel. The cellulose is added for shielding purpose and rutile (TiO2) produces slag. Deep penetration
can be got by using hydrogen. This welding cover produces a lot of spatter.

These electrodes are composed of large amount of hydrocarbon compounds and calcium carbonates
besides other constituents and are found suitable for

1. All welding positions especially for vertical and overhead welding position and
2. Realizing high mechanical properties in a weld metal of radiographic quality.

These are preferred for vertical downward welding. However, these produce high hydrogen content
in weld metal besides deep penetration.

Carbon is the strongest austenite former, next to Ni and Mn. Nitrogen also stabilizes austenite. As
cabon content increases weldability/workability and castability decreases.

CCT curve shift towards the right if alloying content increases. Low alloy steels – less than 5% of
alloying elements.

2. Acid type (symbol A) –

No hydrogen based elements present. CaCO3 is present. Moisture, oil and grease contains hydrogen,
so we go for drying process, where it is baked or pre-heated (minimum 150-250 degree celcius for
minimum of 2 hours). Then the electrode is placed in a thermal flask and used it for a fixed time
before using for the next cycle. All procedures are done to prevent hydrogen induce into the
electrode. It can’t be used for room temperature leading to porosity. Removes the acidic impurities.
Manganese oxides and silicon di-oxides are present. A honeycomb structure slag layer will be
formed, which is self-detached slag.

1. Easier arc striking than basic electrodes but poorer arc striking than rutile electrodes,
2. Moderate welding speed
3. Smooth weld bead
4. Good slag detachability.

However, acidic electrode has been replaced by rutile electrode and basic electrode for flat and
positional welding respectively. The ductility and toughness weld metal developed by acidic
electrode are better than those developed from rutile electrodes however yield and ultimate tensile
strength are found inferior. This type of electrode results in minimal penetration which is good for
very thin sheet but these are sensitive to moisture pick up.

Lecture 23.08.21
3. Basic type (symbol B)–

Removes acidic impurities, basic glassy slag layer is formed which is adherent; Should be kept in a
dry place. Low hydrogen electrodes. High proportion of calcium fluoride and carbonate are present.
Exclusively used for high strength steels and thicker plates.

These electrodes have basic (alkali) coatings containing calcium carbonate / calcium fluoride. The
basic electrodes are preferred over other electrode for developing weld joints of high strength steel
(480-550 MPa) with weld metal having

1. Low hydrogen.
2. Good low temperature toughness.
3. Resistance to hot and cold cracking.

However, these electrodes suffer from comparatively poor slag detachability. The welding speed and
deposition rate offered by the basic electrodes especially in vertical welding position is much higher
than the rutile and acidic electrode. Basic electrodes can sustain higher welding current even in
vertical welding position.

4. Rutile type (symbol R) –

Titanium oxide is a major component, which is a slag former; A beautiful thick and smooth slag layer
is formed.

These electrodes predominantly contain rutile (TiO2) besides other constituents and are known to
offer almost 100% weld metal recovery, easy arc striking and restriking. These are found suitable for

1. Fillet welds
2. Welding of sheet metal
3. Good gap bridging capability
4. Free from spatter losses
5. All position welding
These are recommended for welding low strength steel (<440 MPa). For welding of high strength
steel (>440 MPa) generally weld metal should have low hydrogen level and therefore weld joints is
developed using basic, rutile, basic-rutile and Zircon based electrode.

If the weld thickness is <3 mm, there is no groove preparation. The plates of square cross-section are
placed close together and welded – square edge.

V-shaped grooves are made which is termed as root. It cannot be filled by single pass and multiple
passes are used. Various bead layers are built in a multi-pass feed.

Width of the HAZ zone will increase as the number of passes increase, which might weaken the
region.

For thickness of 25.4 mm, we need to go for double V weld. There are 10 passes to fill one inch thick
plate of welding.

Electrode length is from 300 to 450 mm. So, it might get consumed before the operation is over. You
need to take a new one and resume the process.

Liquid Penetration Inspection (LPI) is used to check for any surface cracks, before every pass.

Proper clamping must be made inorder to prevent the movement of plates caused due to expansion
while joining the two materials. Tack weld is done – welding is done at periodic intervals (several
tack welds are made at some distance from each other to hold edges together). This will ensure that
the gap between the materials is at the some required distance.

Packing plate is provided beneath the part to be welded, otherwise the molten metal will run away
through the gap. Either same material is used for copper plates are utilised for this purpose.
Advantage of former is it doesn’t affect the quality of weld. Copper has good thermal conductivity
(as it has goof thermal conductivity and grooves can be frozen immediately). Water circulation is
also used inorder to effectively remove heat from the area of weld.

High strength steels like martensite cannot be welded at room temperature. The cooling rate must
be controlled carefully.

1. Preheating is done before (50-250 degree celcius) welding, duration depends on the material
welded.

2. Welding

3. Stress relieving
4. Post welding treatment

Assume a thick plate which take 10 passes to weld. For each pass, you need to follow the above
cycle.

5. Electrodes should be undergone baking process.

All the 5 processes are required to obtain the required microstructure for the material.

Welding of complex parts are done – fuselage, ship components.

Manual welding is a simple process, but we need a skilled labour following strict procedure

Steel 0.8% Carbon – rail steels (eutectoid steels – completely pearlite)

High heat input is provided for joining the steels of rail tracks with lower cooling rate. Also, the HAZ
region is covered with ceramics - asbestos sheets (reason: heat is removed through the HAZ region;
If heat is removed quickly, then martensite is formed. Inorder to prevent this, we go for covering the
HAZ region with ceramics.

Ni alloys, between 1450 C to 1250 C, produces complex microstructural changes – carbides and laves
phases are formed.

Eutectic formation would be a problem - Grain boundaries are last solidified part – liquids will be
present in along these regions during the process of solidification. The grains will shrink and if the
liquids are present, then it leads to crack formation. Inorder to tackle this problem, copper sinks are
placed adjacent to the weld metals as shown below:

Copper quickly sucks the heat and prevents heat dissipation to HAZ.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG)

There is a small difference between GTAW and TIG
1. Flux-slag shielding – MMAW, SAW,FCAW
2. Gas – TIG, MIG, PAW, EGW (Electrogas welding), LBW (laser beam welding)
3. Vacuum – EBW
Argon and Helium are used for shielding purposes
TIG welding uses either Ar/He (they ionise to sustain the arc during welding, do not
alter the chemistry of welding)
Active gases – CO2 (dissociates to give oxygen which interacts with molten metal to
form oxides and change the chemistry of weld)
Tungsten is used as electrode (non-consumable) which offers an arc which will be
sustained between electrode and job.
DC and AC machines are used, while DC is preferred (AC requires high voltage to
sustain the arc)
This process was developed using WW as they need to join Mg and Al – quality weld
couldn’t produce through oxy-acetylene welding/MMAW welding as flux used alters
the chemistry of weld, degrades the corrosion resistance of the weld leading to
failure soon.
TIG welding shielding is supplied through external gases
It is very compact process. TIG Torch, power source, cables, shielding gas chamber
and filament (to produce extra material for deposition during welding)
TIG welding – very important as it need not require inert atmosphere, can be done in
open atmosphere
Root passes are welded using TIG technique.
Various modes are available.
https://youtu.be/DmVCLi6cxok
TIG welding is a slow process (took a minute to go three inches); More skill is
required as both hands should move is coordination. Filament acts as wire feed.

Lecture 26.08.21
A mixture of Ar and He are used.
When the W, non-consumable electrode is connected to the power source, based on the voltage
supplied, it gets heated up and electrons are released.

Properties of gases used in fusion welding:

Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are added 1-10% as a subsidiary to Ar, He and carbon-di-oxide.

Gases like Cs, K, Na, Al…. ionise

Helium has 10 times lower density than Argon. It is also denser than air.

Argon is the most efficient gas to prevent the molten metal coming in contact with atmosphere.
Helium is inert but lesser density than air. So, air can push away the He gas to enter the welding
zone.

He consumption is more than Argon.

But since Helium (24.5 eV) ionisation potential is more than Argon (15.4 eV), it produces a hotter arc.

Characteristic arcs of Argon and Helium:

 Thermal conductivity of argon is lower than helium.
Therefore most of the heat in argon stays at the core of the arc rather than spreading. There is more
penetration in the centre but less in the sides. But in Helium, the heat is distributed uniformily
throughout the arc.

Argon – easily to initiate and stabilise the arc. They are cost effective too

Helium – higher ionisation energy, therefore difficult to initiate.

Ar – He combination is better.

Military applications – good quality is required which is provided by Helium.

Carbon dioxide is not an ideal candidate for shielding gases in TIG welding as it reacts with the
Tungsten to form tungsten carbide which alters the thermionic characteristics of the welding.

Mani purpose of shielding gases – to avoid interaction

Oxygen modifies the surface characteristics – the temperature is very high and consequently surface
tension is lower. The variation of surface tension induces the flow characteristics of the molten
metal. As a result, marangoni convection (The surface tension gradient force is also known as the
Marangoni force) – occurs. This problem is in Argon as Helium produces a hot arc.

Stress risers are induced at the juncture of the reinforcement of the welds, leading to cracks.
Therefore we require a smooth profile.

This can be prevented by adding some surfactants – Oxygen, phosphorous and sulphur which modifies
the surface tension. When we add oxygen, reversal of relation between temperature and surface
tension is observed (higher the temperature, higher the surface tension) – Reverse Marangoni
convection. Oxygen supplied through shielding that modifies the surface the surface tension.

Number of passes = Number of thermal cycles the materials should undergo. The HAZ region will be
wider. Therefore, going for deep penetration processes which decreases the need for higher number
of passes, thereby HAZ region will also be quite narrow.

Activated TIG welding:

Fluxes are used which contains oxides that increase the penetration characteristics of the weld. 15
mm thick stainless steel could be welded by a single pass.

Ti-6Al(alpha stabilizer)-4V (beta stabilizer): It is a two phase alloy, alpha (HCP) and beta (BCC). Oxygen
is an alpha stabilizer here; Beta can develop into martensite which is undesirable. So beta should be
suppressed and alpha is promoted. Therefore oxygen is used for this purpose.

Hydrogen improves the melting charactersitics. Ar + Hygrogen used for Inconel 718 alloys
Nitrogen is used in stainless steel welding. Sensitization/carbide formation is a problem in stainless
steels – along the grain boundaries, chromium is depleted by carbon while other regions are chromium
rich. Cr23C6 is formed. Chromium, responsible for corrosion resistance is lost

The deplete region acts as an anode and Cr rich region is cathode, both combined act as electrolyte,
leading to corrosion.

Carbon content in austenite stainless steel (max 0.08%)

Low carbon stainless steels (304 L SS, where L stands for low) are a solution to prevent the corrosion
of stainless steels in this case. But the strength of the stainless steel comes down. Adding Nitrogen
trough the flux increases the strength of the stainless steel. It is also an austenite stabiliser – the
microstructure of austenitic stainless steel has ferrite + austenite; Hot cracks are produced if ferrite is
not present. Ferrite reduces the corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and sigma formation.

Nitrogen along with argon as shielding gas prevents the austenite formation and stabilises the
austenite.

Oxygen containing mixtures: plain carbon and stainless steel.

Carbon dioxide: Plain carbon and alloy steel. Used in MIG welding.

Hydrogen Induced cold cracking (HICC) in a hardenable ferritic steels due to hydrogen.

Lecture 27.08.21
1.6 and 2.4 mm tungsten electrodes are very famous.

Pure, 0.8% zirconated, 2% thorianted, 1.5% Lanthanated, 2%ceriated electrodes are commonly used.
These oxides are added to improve the thermionic characteristics and life of the electrodes
(prevents damage)
Electrodes are fabricated using powder metallurgy route

Pulsed TIG Welding: Both the upper and lower values are positive. (Pulse and background current
respectively)

The average current of Pulse and Background current. If the average current is less than 50 A, the arc
won’t be stable. Minimum 70 A is required. But higher amperage might destruct the material. SO as a
trade of pulsed TIG welding is used. Thin sheets and root pass welding – applications of pulsed TIG.
Oil tubes of aircrafts are made of Ni based alloys – welded with pulsed TIG welding.

Pulsed TIG is highly advantageous:

 Reduces distortion
 Improved tolerance to dissimilar thickness
 Improved tolerance to dissimilar materials
 Reduce thermal build-up
 Improved tolerance to cast-to-cast variation

Niobium is an alloying element in Ni based superalloys. The Nb reacts with carbon to form NbC. This
carbide might melt around the grain boundary during welding, leading to cracks. If we go for
continuous welding (not pulsed), cracking happens more likely.

But if we go for pulsed current, peak current occurs momentarily only. There is reduced thermal
build-up.

The pulse current takes care of the melting part while background current is responsible for
solidification rate.

The temperature gradient and cooling rate is reduced, thereby producing the required microstructure.

Hot wire GTAW

1. Cold wire – without pre-heating of wire
2. Hot wire – filler wire is supplied with small amount of current and its temperature increases
 Hot wire has higher deposition rate and avoids multipass
welding; Also thicker plates can be welded easily.

Square wave AC – advantageous over sinusoidal wave as arc stabilisation will be better. We need to
incorporate high frequency high voltage when the current becomes zero in sinusoidal, which
increases the cost and causes interference with other devices.

In square wave AC, the positive current is supplied for a shorter duration than negative current
inorder to prevent damage to the electrode. Positive cycle gives you the oxy cleaning. Melting
happens in negative cycle.

We need different durations for positive and negative cycles inorder to get a balanced heat cycle.

TIG welding – heat produced is less as it is consumed by the non-consumable tungsten electrode.
Welding efficiency process is very low; Suitable for thin sheets welding, it is very compact. Quality of
weld is important.

Gas metal arc welding process (GMAW/MIG/MAG):

Metal Inert Gas welding (if 100% inert gas is used); Metal active gas (CO2) welding.

GMAW uses mix of argon, oxygen and carbon-dioxide as shielding gases.

It is the most important process, future of welding.

TIG vs MIG – filler wire is consumable in MIG.

Filler wire has two functions in MIG – produces arc and supplies metal addition, better productivity
Shielding is carried using inert gases.

Power source

Torch – made by cooper based metal inorder to relieve the temperature

Wire will be fed to the rollers

DC positive is most recommended – since consumable electrode. AC is not used we need to use
HFHV. If we use it, the arc becomes very erratic.

Aluminium alloys – oxide cleaning

All the machines are semi-automated/automated – constant voltage machines. 100% duty cycle

50-500 A, even 2000 A are used in MIG welding

<250 A – air cooling >250 A – water cooling

Wire feeding unit is operated by constant current while power source is constant voltage

https://youtu.be/bdDVGX6XqNs

Clean weld without slag is obtained in MIG welding. Speed is also higher with high thickness to be
welded.

Lecture 02.09.21
MIG Welding advantages:
 1. High production rate – filler wire is continuously supplied, there is no stoppage; Frequently
the electrode should be replaced.
2. High deposition rate
3. Used for all position
4. Use for various thickness
5. You can change the mode of metal transfer

Two types of metal transfer – globular, short circuit, spray and pulsed transfer

Globular transfer:

 Transfer by gravity or short circuit

 Requires CO2 shielding
 Drops larger than electrode and hence sever spatter
 Can use low voltage to bury arc and reduce spatter
 High current and voltage, therefore high distortion
 Welding current and wire speed are increased above maximum for short arc
 Droplets of metal have a greater diameter than wire being used
 It can only be used for ferrous metals
 Most effectively done in flat position when using globular transfer
 Speed 110 mm/s

Short circuit transfer

 Require welding voltage <24 V and current < 200 A

 Droplets stay attached and touches pool causing short circuit
 Current rises very quickly giving energy to pinch-off droplet violently
 Akin to blow a fuse – causes a lot of spatter
 Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current falls
 Cycle – 200 times per second
 Advantages of disadvantages:

Spray transfer

 When current and voltage are raised together, higher energy is available for fusion
 Causes a fine droplet of weld metal to be sprayed from the tip of the wire into the weld pool
 Continuous transfer of metal, high voltage – long arc
 High heat input, Fluid weld pool, high deposition and no spatter
 Advantages and Disadvantages:
Pulsed transfer

 A variation of spray transfer mode

 Uses a pulsing current to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten droplet to fall with
each pulse.
 The pulse provides a stable arc with no spatter, since no short-circuting takes place.
 Smaller weld pool gives the variation great versatility, making it to weld in all positions
 Max travel speed (85 mm/s)
 Requires shielding gas – primarily argon with low carbon dioxide concentration
 Requires special power source capable of providing current pulses with frequency between
300-400 pulses per second.
 Requires low heat input and can be used to weld thin workpieces as well as non-ferrous
metals
 Advantages and Disadvanatages
There are various forces that are operating during welding

Gravitational force due to self weight

Electromagentic force – due to passing of current, acts at the tip of the electrode.

Aerodynamic drag

All the above three forces act in downward direction in flat position

Surface tension acts opposite to the three forces

Vapour jet force – like a thrust force which acts upward and opposite to the filling electrode

If there is a balance, no welding occurs

Short circuiting mode

Normally happens at low current and low voltage. Thin sheets, positional welding and less distortion

Some spatter is formed.

Very useful for sheet metal welding.

Important in automobile industries.

Efficient process and environment friendly.

The droplet from the electrode becomes sufficiently large and touches the job. Voltage becomes
zero at that particular instant.

Pinch force – electromagnetic force becomes higher and cuts the droplet. It removes from the
electrode.

On and Off mode

Variation of voltage and current with

welding in short circuiting mode
Inorder to prevent sudden surge in current, impedance is provided which prevent spatter.

Cold Metal Transfer

Steel and Aluminium, dissimilar materials are joined; Operates at low current

Brazing in steel and welding in aluminium.

Fromius – a company that works on this method

Resistance Welding

Globular Metal Transfer

Medium current and voltage

Lot of splashes than short circuiting mode; In the globular transfer, the arc melts the end of the
electrode, forming a molten ball of metal. When the ball of metal becomes so large, its surface
tension cannot hold it onto the end of the wire. It falls across the arc, landing in the molten weld
pool. Because there is little control over where the glob of metal lands and the weld pool tends to be
a small landing target, this process is rarely used by itself. It is used more commonly in combination
with pulsed-spray transfer. With this combination of processes, the molten weld pool is larger and
the glob is more likely to land in the molten pool.

Spray mode:

High current and medium voltage; Droplets detach very easily – Arc force is more and gives deeper
penetration. Suitable for intricate parts

https://youtu.be/KiWQa47r1O0
Lecture 03.09.21
Pulsed Mode of Metal Transfer:
 Thin gauge material (1-2 mm thick)
 Positional welding
 Low carbon/alloy steels use carbon di oxide as shielding gas as it modifies the surface
tension of the welding current – goes through short-circuting mode or globular mode as it
does not produce any spraying.
 MIG welding Argon gas is used for steel, which leads to erratic arc – electrode does not
release droplets that fall on desired locations.
 Better reinforcement, more depth and less spatter in case of carbon di oxide being used.
 Sheet metals – Car bodies

 Increase in current increases the melting rate – it affects the arc length and stability
 Wire feed rate should be balanced with the melting rate. If feed rate increases, it touches
the job and short circuiting occurs.
 The wire feeder is operated by constant current machine operated by a power source
 Welding power source is different and it is operated by constant voltage
 Sensors will be present which will measure the distance of the wire from the job. If it is not
in within the safe range, feedback will be sent to the power sources and current will be
adjusted accordingly.
 Characteristics of pulsed MIG welding:
o Thin sheets where current will be lower than 100 A
o Positional welding
o Balance between wire feed rate and metal transfer
o Spray mode of transfer
 Average current in a pulsed current:
 Frequency = Number of droplets deposited

CO2 welding
100% CO2 gas

Metal active gas welding (MAG) welding

Exclusively used for steels and alloy steels.

Three modes - Short circuit mode, globular transfer is also possible

Dip transfer – filler wire dips in the molten metal and withdrawn – spatter is controlled

Problem – carbon di oxide dissociates to carbon monoxide and oxygen, latter producing nascent
oxygen.
It causes porosity in welding when solidification of the weld molten metal.

Also there are loss of alloying elements and becomes weaker than adjacent region.

So manganese and silicon are provided along the weld through the filler wire which acts as
deoxidisers.

Results in slags that is deposited over the weld – glossy appearance and glass forming oxides like
Manganese oxides and silicon oxides are deposited.

No flux in CO2 welding process but slag is produced.

Flux cored arc welding:

FCAW

Only for ferrous alloys, steels and not-ferrous

Filler wires are tubular wires. Fluxes are present inside in the filler wire

Ferro silicon, ferro manganese, ferro chromium and ferro titanium are added.

High deposition and production rate can be achieved as diameter is bigger and fluxes are used
Shielding gases are not mandatory

The calcium carbonate present can dissociate and act as shielding gas. No separate gas cylinder is
required. Also can be used in open atmospheres.

Continuous feeding is present.

FCAW is better than MIG for steels

Parameters:

1. Current

2. Voltage

3. Wire feed rate

4. Wire position

5. Wire stick out

6. Shielding gas/flow rate

Synergic MIG welding

Thickness and type of metal is given, the mission automatically sets the parameters and starts
welding.

Lecture 06.09.21
Submerged Arc Welding = GMAW + SMW
(Sub Arc/SAW)

Meant for thick plates/sections welding. (thickness > 12 mm)

Thickness that can be weld:

SMAW – 5 mm

GTAW – 2-3 mm

GMAW – 3 mm

Combustion vessels, ship hulls

In SAW, the arc is surrounded/submerged in the molten slag.

Arc efficiency in SAW= 99%

SMAW = 70-80%

GMAW = 60-70%

TIG = 40-60%

Why high efficiency for SAW?

The heat provided is utilised solely for melting the base metal. But in other processes, wire and flux
consumes some of the heat.

Power source: Constant voltage with OCV – 50-60 V; Current – 200 A – 2000A

It can be semi-automatic (movement of torch is manual)/fully-automatic

DCEP is the most preferred polarity

Flux is coated over the wire

Touch and draw method like MMAW is implemented.

Flux will be transferred as slag.

Very high heat input due to high current supplied.

Disadvantage – only flat position; positional welding. For other positions, you need to change the
orientation of the metal.

https://youtu.be/zi_5Pr3HwpY

Multiple wire feeders can also be used

Loose flux is used.

Root gap – the gap between two materials to be welded.

Backing plate is provided between the root gaps. (they can be permanent or temporary and made of
copper based plates)

Self-backing –

Weld Backing:

When full penetration weld is to be made from one side only, use of some type of weld backing may
be imperative to control the amount of reinforcement and the shape of the root surface. Two types
of backing may be used viz., permanent and temporary. Permanent backings are left in place after
welding. These may be in the form of strips or extruded sections of aluminium. Such backings may,
however, sometimes cause lack of fusion at the root of the weld if the backing material is not
properly cleaned or if the fit-up is poor.

Permanent backing should not be used in corrosive service unless all edges of the backing strip are
completely sealed. Otherwise, crevice corrosion may take place at the root of the weld.

Temporary backing is generally in the form of a bar made of copper, carbon-steel or stainless steel.
This bar is normally a part of the fixturing. Care should be taken during welding to avoid meJting the
backing bar and contaminating the AI weld metal.

A groove may be machined into the backing bar to decrease the chilling effect at the root of the joint
for good penetration. The groove should be designed to permit good fusion at the root of the weld
and to provide the root reinforcement of desired height and shape. Groove dimensions usually
range from 4 mm to 13mm wide and 0.25 mm to 2.25 mm deep. The actual dimensions will depend
upon the thickness of the section being welded, the joint geometry, and the welding process.
Backing bars may be used to remove heat from welds in thin sections. This may permit welding with
sufficient current for a stable arc. Water-cooled Cu-bars provide the greatest chilling effect; stainless
steel bars, the least. However, excess chilling may result in lack of chilling at the root of the weld.
Types of fluxes used:

Oxide type fluxes are specially used for steels

Halide/oxide fluxes – non-ferrous alloys, high strength steels

Halide type fluxes – Aluminium and Titanium

Oxide fluxes are of three types –

1. Acidic type- donors of oxygen; the slag is self-detatched, used for low carbon steels

2. Basic type – acceptors of oxygen; slag is sticky – high strength steels

3. Neutral type

4. Fused fluxes – common, no special requirements required

5. Agglomerated fluxes – get the required composition and mix with sodium silicate which acts as a
binder; it is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture

Parameters (refer any textbook for further reading):

1. Voltage

2. Current

3. Speed

4. Wire feed rate

5. Stick out

6. Position of welding

Three positions –
 1. Straight
2. Backward- deeper penetration as welding is carried out in a pre-heated part
3. Forward – shallowest penetration as the weld is carried on a fresh part

Basicity index < 1 – acidic flux

1 – 1.5 – neutral flux

>1.5 – basic flux

Lecture 13.09.21
Resistance Welding
Part of fusion welding technique where temperature is greater than melting point. It is important for
sheet metal industries. Utilises the resistivity of the materials to be joined and converted to heat
(Joule heating effect). The current should be very high(100 A – 1000A) and resistivity of material
should be high too.

For thin sheets:

1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding

3. Projection welding

Air gap in arc welding offer resistance to flow of current

Steels are conveniently joined using resistance welding process. 20000-30000 spots

Not used for aluminium and copper 2000 spots

Used in automotive industry

But lives of electrode is very less and is made of copper

Parameters – force, geometry of electrode

Once plate is placed, a force is exerted through the electrodes

Electrode might get buckled; Inorder to prevent this, Cr is added. In addition, it also provides
resistance.

Addition of chromium, there is drop in conductivity.

Copper is partially soluble in aluminium. Alloying happens on tip of the electrode which will cause
damage.

Steels are galvanised with zinc – coated steels. But zinc again has solubility in copper, which will
affect the electrode and welding capabilities

Heat is directly proportional to current, resistance and time

Very quick process; production oriented

DC and Ac machines are used. Step down-transformer is used.

Copper offers least resistance

1 & 7 – least resistive paths

2 & 6 – slight increase in resistance

3 &5 – further increase; depends on the geometry of the material

4 – it’s a gap; metallic surface is not perfectly flat – maximum resistance is offered – Here the
temperature is also maximum – weld nugget

Copper is a very good conductor which removes the heat

Components of welding cycle –

1. Squeeze time - The electrodes squeeze the plates, ensures process heat and fusion as it controls
the air entrapped between the gaps between two plates.

2. Weld time

3. Hold time – for solidification

4. Off time – movement of electrode occurs

Two parameters – current and force

Continuous spots – seam welding – here the electrode is in the form of wheels

Quenched and tempered steels are used – heat treatable steels

Strength – 1400-1500 MPa

We need to go for stress-relieving treatment for welding that are induced due to sudden drop in
current.

Also the sudden increase in current will causes some issues.

We go for an enhanced welding process where there is gradual increase and decrease

Martensite is formed in quench time.

Lecture 16.09.21
Due to non-uniform thickness and difference in thermal conductivity, there is non-uniform
distribution of heat.

Heat balance can be achieved by:

1. Different diameters of electrode – for larger thickness, we can go for larger diameter electrodes

2. High resistivity caps

Efficiency of welding / percentage weldability

Resistivity / (Thermal conductivity * Melting Point)

If > 2.0 = excellent

0.75 – 2 = moderate

< 0.75 = poor

Aluminium has poor weldability and strong oxide layer is formed.

Cold metal transfer – CMT – you have a device before the wire tip which senses whether the wire
touches the job. The wire moves front and back. Metal transfer occurs through mechanical action.
No spatter problem; Since the temperature of molten metal is less, there is no spatter problem.

If you have aluminium and mild steel on either sides, aluminium undergoes melting while mild steel
undergoes brazing, where the galvanised zinc forms an alloy on reacting with aluminium.

Spot welding – plug welding

A whole is drilled in the upper metal and filled with liquid metal

Gas welding

Very cheap process

Special advantage – doesn’t depend on electric power source.

Lecture 17.09.21
Gas welding – was extensively used earlier.

You can easily take it in a carry bag

It has less power density and heat input – very useful for thin sheets

The temperature rise is also very gradual, unlike other welding process (TIG/MIG)

Used by practicing welding - No sticking problem

Steel cots are joined by this welding process

Important for repair welding – increases life of component. Useful in casting to seal the defects like
cracks.
Operating principle – 2 cylinders (6-7 m3)

Oxygen cylinder – black and fuel gas – black

Oxygen is used for cutting purposes. It assists combustion

Gas welding can use air also.

Propane, butane, LPG, hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases are used as fuel.

Acetylene produces high heat input – so widely used; Temperature – 3480 celcius – very high and
enough to melt most of metals

But acetylene is dangerous, if pressure > 2 bar, the gas will explode if small quantity of oxygen is
added. It is highly flammable.

Two types of cylinders:

1. Dissolved acetylene – not that compressible. It is dissolved in chemicals which are porous
structures, evacuated with air. Acetone is capable of dissolving acetylene

1 part of acetone can dissolve 23 parts of acetylene

2. Acetylene generator

Calcium carbide is the source of acetone

Two types – carbide to water and water to carbide

Walls of oxygen cylinders are made of brass while fuel cylinders are made of steel

Copper reacts with acetylene to produce copper acetylate which may eat away the walls of the
cylinder. Therefore cylinder is made of steel for acetylene based accessories (left handed threads)
while brass for oxygen based accessories (right handed threads). Different threads are used inorder
to prevent mix-up

Two reading pressure gauges are present

1. pressure of gas leaving

2. pressure inside the cylinder

Adjusting knobs vary the pressure

Oxygen hoses are green while fuel gases are red.

Welding torch – controls flow rate and quantum of gases released.

Inside the torch, the gases are mixed. With the help of spark plug, the flame is ignited which is used
to join the plates.
Oxygen and acetylene are mixed

Nozzle tips are made of copper – heat input is immediately relieved.

Flames has three cones (feathers), but only two will be visible.

Cabon monoxide and hydrogen + heat is evolved. (227 kJ/mol from acetylene dissolution).
Fomration of carbon monoxide (448 kJ/mol) – primary combustion

Secondary combustion – oxygen supplied from atmosphere results in carbon di oxide and water
vapour (242 kJ/mol from water and 285 kJ/mol from carbon dioxide).

The heat from both combustion is spread widely. The power internsity is very less

Inner core must have contact with the job as it has higher power density.

CO2 gas produced as shielding apart from providing required heat.

Acetylene and oxygen – if 1:1 neutral flame, acetylene (1.5) – carburising flame and other is oxidising
flame.

https://youtu.be/itjc095Xfpo

Oxyacetylene flame is still used for bending, straightening, pre-heating, braze welding. Used for most
alloy steels and non-ferrous metals

Larger tips use higher pressure. Size of tips varies with the thickness to be welded. Proper pressure
values should be given based on the ratio between oxygen and acetylene.

Oxygen flame – inner white core (6300 F) surrounded by blue flame. Inner core is sharper than
neutral flame. Loud hissing sound. Least used The red hot steel burns rapidly in the presence of
excess oxygen. Sheet brass, cast brass and bronze can be welded.

Neutral flame – malleable iron, wrought iron and high strength steels

Carburizing flames have three zones: intense white inner cone, intermediate white cone with
feathered edges and bluish coloured outer envelope. Intermediate should be twice the length of
inner cone. Temperature of inner cone (5700 F). Used for brazing low carbon steel, cast steel, Nickel
steel, chrome steel, copper and brass

Lecture 23.09.21
Friction Welding
The microstructure of weld – weldment + HAZ is different from the rest of the metal due to thermal
cycles.

During solidification, cracking may occur. Hot cracking/solidification cracking – when liquid metal
transforms to a solid, a crack will be developed in the centre-line. Liquid + solid region: liquation
cracking.

Cold cracking – diffusion of hydrogen

Friction welding – solid state process – there is no transformation to liquid and back to solid
(temperature dealt with is less than melting point [0.6-0.8 melting point]). It uses heat produced by
compressive forces generated by materials rotating together in a friction mode.

There is no need to protect the weld from atmospheric gases. No flux/shielding gases/filler metal.
These also play a role in the microstructure.

Here mechanical energy is converted to heat energy.

Solid state processes:

 Friction welding
 Friction stir welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Explosive welding
 Diffusion welding

Friction welding:

Transmission, underchasse components of automobiles are made of friction welding. Sufficient heat
is generated by rotating two rods. Then after sufficient heat is got, pressure is applied to join tem

 Direct drive friction welding -

 Inertia friction welding – flywheel is used which transfers the energy

Lecture 18.10.21 (revisited)

Various stages in diffusion bonding

1. Asperitis are deformed creating an interfacial boundary.

2. Due to creep action the boundary starts vibrating and carries away some of the pores
3. Due to diffusion, pores are completely eliminated to form one single piece

Temperature involved is less than melting point and stress is very less - No gross deformation

Configuration, profile and dimensions are unaltered in this process.

Diffusion bonding is carried out in a confined atmosphere/ vacuum chamber (contamination

happens in open atmosphere). We need to apply load and heating coils for increasing temperature.

https://youtu.be/7o9CfeS8cxs

Honey comb structure – used for filters. These are fabricated by folding the sheets and placed in a
confined system. Parts are joined to form the structure. Not carried by normal welding process. Its
very complex.
Parameters – pressure, temperature, time. Based on load value, yield strength of materials –
pressure is chosen (lower yield strength is taken in case of dissimilar materials). Role of pressure is
minimal as it is only in the first stage. After sufficient time, pressure is released. Once perfect contact
is established, the pressure is released. Temperature is very significant, critical and crucial
parameter. Exponential relation. Increase in temperature, diffusion barrier can be easily crossed and
faster kinetics. Time – Fick’s law. Lesser distance travelled, lesser time, more diffusion. More time –
formation of intermetallics.

New complex intermetallics formed affect the joining process.

Interlayer – like a filler material. Iron and aluminium forms a complex intermetallic – Fe3Al.

Functions of interlayer:

 Compatible with both the dissimilar metals

 Prevents the formation of complex intermetallics
 Reduces the parameter values required. Fills the gap and provides the diffusion path.

Materials must be oxide dissolving layer, should remove the oxide layer and promotes bonding.
Silver (soft and ductile) – a good interlayer as it dissolves the intermetallic/oxides and promotes
diffusion characteristics. Even Nickel is used

Advantages of Diffusion bonding:

1. Joints can be made with properties and microstructures are very similar to the base metal.
Particularly useful for lightweight fabrication
2. Minimum distortion - thermal cycle involved in the process is very gradual – Thermal
distortion and residual stresses can be avoided. No subsequent machining or forming is
required.
3. Dissimilar alloys can be joined that are not weldable by fusion process or by process
requiring axial symmetry, such as friction welding.
4. Large number of joints in an assembly can be made simultaneously.
5. Members with limited access can be joined.
6. Large joint members of base metals that would require extensive preheat for fusion welding
can be more readily joined. Example thick copper.
7. Defects normally associated with fusion welding are not encountered as thermal related
problems are less
8. Best technique for joining multiple components.
9. Very thin to massive components can be welded.

Titanium and Nickel alloys – the best process

Disadvantages:

1. Time consuming process as the thermal cycle is longer than that of conventional welding
and brazing process. Heating rate. To reach 900 degree celcius, it takes longer time. (100
C/hour). Cooling rate is also high
2. Equipment cost is high. (loading chamber, ram should withstand high temperature –
materials should have good creep resistance, withstand thermal fluctuations) Specialised
alloy steels are used for these processes. We need a big cooling chamber. If the component
is bulk, the cost of the machine is higher. This can limit the maximum size of components
that can be produced economically.
 3. Not adaptable for high production rate although a number of assemblies can be made
simultaneously.
4. Adequate non-destructive inspection techniques for quality assurance are not available,
particularly those that assure design properties in the joint. Reason: Homogenous
microstructure does not allow to pin-point the causes for microstructural aberrations.
5. Suitable filler metals and procedures have not yet been developed for all structural alloys
6. The faying surfaces and the fit of joint members generally require care in preparation than
for conventional got pressure welding or brazing process. Surface smoothness may be an
important factor in quality control in the case of diffusion brazing. If surface roughness is
more, the gap can’t be filled easily and bonding is hindered.
7. The need to simultaneously apply heat and high compressive force in the restrictive
environment of a vacuum or protective atmosphere is a major equipment problem.
8. Surface smoothness is important. Therefore the facing surfaces and the fit of joint members
generally require greater care in preparation than
9. Can’t be used on-site. We cannot carry the process to site locations.

Hot Iso-static process – based on diffusion bonding.

Welding and forming can be done simultaneously using this process. Multiple joints with different
shapes, complex profile with defect free welds.

They place mandrels which apply force + temperature which deforms as shown below:

Titanium – HCP at room temperature, has poor deformation. At higher temperature, it transforms to
BCC. Super plasticity is observed – without much stress, strain occurs prolonged time without failure.

Plasma Arc Welding

Laser beam welding and electron beam welding – Comes under focused energy beam welding
Welding modes:

Melting mode –

Keyhole mode – plasma arc welding technique.

Surface heating: Arc welding, gas welding – power density is relatively low (104-105 W/mm2). WE
need to go for longer duration for welding. Further increase in power density, the area exposed
decreases - minimising the width of power source. Contact area decreases. If density increases more
than 106 W/mm2, melting phenomena changes to keyhole – huge arc pressure forms a hole and
reduces width of weld. Narrow HAZ, thermal distortion and residual stresses are lower. Speed is
increased.

Plasma arc welding – extended version of TIG welding process – non-consumable Tungsten electrode
is used in both cases. It offers the arc and does not melt.

TIG vs Plasma Welding:

In TIG, the electrode is actually protruded outside. Electrode is recessed inside in Plasma

Nozzle diameter is bigger in plasma arc. Two chambers (orifice gas and shielding gas) are used in
plasma arc welding while TIG welding uses only one chamber for supplying shielding gas.

As a result bell shaped arc of TIG transforms to a cylindrical arc – a deeper penetration and modify
the melting nature.

Orifice gas is supplied in the inner chamber.

Plasma Arc welding surface –

 DC, particularly DCEN to safe guard the electrode which otherwise melts for opposite
polarity, is common. But AC is used for aluminium and magnesium.
 Torch is bulky and not compact. More weight so can’t be easily manipulated. Welder find it
difficult so it is usually automated. TIG welding is compact. Torch bodies are metallic bodies.

Two cylinders are used – one being coolant and other being the gases.

Powder Plasma Arc welding – can weld thicker components.

Nickel plates upto 20 mm thick plates can be welded.

Also low thermal conductivity components like stainless steels and nickel based alloys can be welded
using this technique. Heat is not easily transferred.

Aluminium and copper are difficult to weld by plasma arc welding process.

Initially a pilot arc in initiated between electrode and nozzle – this ionises the gas and produces
plasma. This circuit is cut-off and main circuit is triggered. Orifice gas produces plasma by ionising
itself. Argon, Helium or a mix can be used for orifice/shielding gas.

Lecture 21.10.21
What is the speciality over TIG Welding process?

The torch body

Diameter decreases, velocity from orifice increases. Arc force if very high and not a bell-shaped arc
rather a constricted arc. It is very stiff arc which doesn’t alter/fluctuate. The power density
experienced at the point is very high, much superior to the other arc welding techniques – deeper
penetration.

6 mmm thickness steels can be done in single shot.

Machining – extra cost and gas consumption is higher.

Square edge preparation is sufficient – highly advantages

Because of the stiffness of arc, it does not arc blow – arc deflection – distortion of magnetic fields
and electric current.

Arc blow may occur at 1st and final stage and not in the intermediate stages.

R: Magnetic field is uniformly distributed as the material is homogenous. But at the ends, there is
difference in the magnetic field (higher at the end side than interior) – occurs in DC current. But in
AC, there is fluctuation in the current and therefore it will nullify.

Arc blow – an inherent problem

DCEN – most preferred polarity. The arc does not deflect as it is very stiff. The force exerted by
difference in magnetic field is insufficient.

In TIG welding process, the arc length is varied and shape of the arc length also varies. Melting
characteristic of the arc will be deflected. But in PAW process, the arc length doesn’t affect much
and the welder has some advantages.

Arc initiation in TIG welding process, HFHV is used. In other consumable welding, we tough and
draw/scratch and initiate arc. But we cannot use it here as we use Tungsten which can get damaged.

TIG electrode is placed inside the torch. This PAW process does not required HFHV. Initiated by pilot
arc.

Orifice gas – exclusively for producing plasma. 2-5 L/min flow rate is sufficient to produce the arc.

Shielding gas - Argon, Helium, Argon + Helium, Argon + oxygen, Argon + Nitrogen (for cutting
operations – welding of stainless steels), mixture can be used. Ionisation potential should be low.
High quantum of shielding (20-25 L/min)
Plasma Arc cutting – buck cutting – increase in intensity, instead of joining, we can cut the
materials.

We can use plasma arc welding for surfacing operations. Since the gas consumption and cost is 10x
higher, this PAW process is not very popular.

Two types of Plasma Arc welding process:

1. Transferred – here the electrical/power connections one end is connected to the job and
other to the electrode. Constricted arc which gives deeper penetration.
2. Non-transferred – One side is electrode and other is nozzle bode. Job is not part of the
electrical circuit. Non-metallic materials like ceramics can be joined. They do not conduct
electricity. Arc can be established between electrode and torch. The profile of the arc here is
not constricted rather than shallow.

Keyhole welding – constricted arc coupled with high forces. If the power density is very high, a hole
is made on the materials. Arc pressure and recoil pressure results in molten metal coming out of the
material

Surface tension and gravitation

Depth to width ration is high and decreases HAZ width. Reduce in distortion and machining. We
prefer square edge surface. Increase in welding speed and productivity.

Low thermal conductivity can be welded using this technique. Heat doesn’t transfer rather it
accumulates resulting in deeper penetration, Size of the weld is smaller resulting in quick process.
Job alignment is very crucial inorder to get proper fusion. Power density of greater than 106 m2 is
required.

https://youtu.be/VSeEhCmSbEM

K-TIG

Microplasma arc welding – Current range varies from 0.1A – 10A (very low amperage). Arc can be
sustained at low amperage. Arc is thin and small which can be extensively used. Many medical
equipments and tiny components can be joined using microplasma arc welding. We view the
component through microscope and join the component.

PAW – normal, keyhole (15 mm thick stainless steels), microplasma

Lecture 22.10.21
Laser Welding

Monochromatic light having unique wavelength – energy focused in the location will be very high.

Welding, cutting, drilling, surface hardening, etching

Crystals in

Solid, gas, semiconductor, dye lasers

Solid – Ruby lasers, Nd – YAG lasers (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet)

Gas – CO2 lasers

These
L – light is the source. Light falls on the metallic surface which will be absorbed. Most of the light will
be reflected.

Efficiency of the laser welding process is very less - 0.1-0.2

Efficiency of arc welding 0.4-0.9

Aluminium plates acts as reflectors in domes in car headlights

Laser welding on polished surface is difficult as the light mostly gets reflected.

Aluminium – best reflector

We need to make the surface rough

Light is like a photon

Keyhole mode is possible in case of laser welding

Population inversion mechanism in lasers is employed here.

Krypton lamps are used to energise/excite atoms– atoms from chromium will be excited from
ground state to excited state, it releases the energy of photon having unique wavelength which will
be amplified.

Nd-YAG lasers – gas sealed part: electrical shape.

Flash lamp – elliptical shape plays a critical role

Ruby crystal is for a smaller version.

Continuous welding/pulsed welding. Intermittent welding – spot welding

Q-Switch – we can cut off the

By varying the focal length, you can go for surfacing, cutting, welding, surfacing

Good for thin sheets

Heat input is less due to high speeds.

Arc welding

Shielding requirement – need to go for open atmosphere. Argon, Helium gases can be used for
proper protect.

If energy is very high, some of the metal is transferred as vapours – the gas in the surroundings
ionise forming plasma.

The plasma is ionised gas which interfers the laser light. Melting characteristics will be affected by
plasma formation.

Shielding gas has two purposes – shielding and formation of plasma.

Helium has high ionisation potential – preferred. Plasma formation should be hindered. Argon
ionises easily.
The joint designs used for welding aluminium are, in general, similar to those used for steel.
However, smaller root openings and larger groove angles are normally used because AI is more fluid
and welding gun nozzles are larger.

Surface cleaning of the AI takes place when the electrode is +ve, but penetration is poor. Conversely,
penetration is good with a negative electrode, but there is no cleaning action. A.C. can provide good
cleaning action and acceptable penetration, particularly SWAC (Square Wave Alternating Current) of
variable frequency and pulse width. Direct current can provide good penetration (DCEN) or good
cleaning (DCEP), but not both conditions simultaneously.

A SWAC power is designed to produce D.C power with an arrangement to rapidly shift the polarity to
produce a square A.C wave form of adjustable frequency. In addition, the relative percentage of
electrode -ve time within one cycle of current may be adjusted within certain limits. SWAC power
combines the advantages of surface cleaning associated with conventional A.C power and deep
penetration obtainable with DCEN power. However, one is gained at the expense of the other. If longer
electrode positive time is needed for acceptable cleaning, penetration will decrease with a specific
welding current and frequency. The square-wave form enhances arc re-ignition during polarity
reversal.

Constant Current vs Constant Voltage

Constant voltage (CV)—The arc voltage remains constant at the selected setting even if the arc length
and amperage increase or decrease.

Constant current (CC)—The total welding current (watts) remains the same. This type of power is also
called drooping arc voltage (DAV) because the arc voltage decreases as the amperage increases.

The overhead position weld is the most difficult position to work in. The welding will be performed
with the two pieces of metal above the welder, and the welder will have to angle him or herself and
the equipment to reach the joints. It is difficult because the molten filling metal flows downwards
during the welding process, pulled by gravity into the joint cavity.

Disadvantages of SAW:

Restricted to flat position and horizontal fillets— Because the fluxes needed for submerged arc
welding flow easily, welding is restricted to those positions in which the flux can produce a self-
supporting blanket.

Lecture 28.10.21
CO2 lasers

1. Slow axial flow

2. Fast axial flow
3. Transverse

Gold with stainless steels coating

Zinc selenite

CO2, nitrogen and Helium are used

N2 : CO2 : He = 1 : 1: 10

Helium is used for cooling purpose. The laser is mainly influenced by carbon di oxide
Glow discharge should be established which assist the excitation. Current will be passing through the
electrode.

CO2 molecule alone can’t be excited to lower to higher at glow discharge due to position of atoms.

Nitrogen is supplied which moves from lower to higher level

CO2 molecule moves with the help of nitrogen atom. Population inversion occurs.

When it gets back to metastable state, a particular wavelength will be emitted

Very powerful laser. Output power is upto 25 kW

Lasers will be focused mirrors.

Gas laser is used for high power laser.

Diameter of the focus point should be less, which leads to higher power density.

Keyhole mode:

Once the laser strikes with high power density, metal are vaporised and condensed which will again
freezes.

Liquid metal moves opposite to the weld direction

Gases may be entrapped when it tries to vaporise as the liquid metal might fill the crevices. While
the liquid becomes solid, porosity is left behind. This leads to solidification cracking as it doesn’t
allow proper filling of the gap.

Focal diameter is influenced by type of lasers and wavelength used.

Laser looks like a beam rather as spot.

Transverse electromagnetic mode –

1. Pulsed mode
2. Continuous mode

Various types of joints can be made:

1. Square
2. Slant
3. Etc

There is no need for filler wire or fluxes

Various joints – Butt, Lap, Flance and Kissing

900 nm – 1300 nm

CO2

Advantages of laser beam welding:

1. HAZ is less as the heat input is concentrated. Workpiece distortion in minimised.

2. Maximum of 32 mm thick. About 20 kW laser can be employed. 1 kW = 1 crore.
 3. No electrodes are required. Welding is performed with freedom from electrode
contamination, indentation or damage from high resistance welding currents. Because LBW
is a non-contact process, distortion is minimized and tool wear essentially eliminated
4. Laser beams are readily focused, aligned and directed by optical elements. Thus the laser
can be located at a convenient distance from the workpiece and redirected around tooling
and obstacles in the workpiece. This permits welding in areas not easily accessible with
other means of welding.

Limitations of laser beam welding

1. Unfocused light falling on human body

2. Brittleness due to martensitic structure formation caused by rapid solidification.

Lecture 01.11.21 (need to see from 46:00)

Electron Beam Welding:

Electron beam wavelength is small. Its power is very high. Electrons are very tiny.

Gun and work chamber are the two parts

Gun – used for guiding the electron beam

Work chamber – place the job to be welded/cut/other treatments.

Principle – There is a device called emitter cathode (a small setup) which are of two types – directly
and indirectly heated.

Direct heating – current supplied to cathode causes thermionic emission. Electrons are emitted from
cathode surface. Tungsten as electrode. Various forms – ribbon, disk, thin form

TIG welding – Tungsten; Thoria/Zirconia are also added to improve the welding speed.

But in Direct heating, addition of other elements will hamper the process. So, during the welding,
metallic vapours may damage by interacting, thus reducing the quality.

Therefore, only Pure tungsten in used – inert and better than doped. It retains high temperature and
life of electrode is enhanced. Maximum: 100 A (usually 70-80 A) after which you need to replace it.
Indirectly heated:

Lanthanum Hexaboride – induction heating or electrodes are bombarded by external sources on the
surface.

Used for 200-300 hours. Life of cathode is better here.

Electrons given in a particular region (10^18 electrons per second) are liberated, instead of coming
in random direction. Since they are in same charge, they deflect each other. Negative bias is used
(negative polarity) to focus and converged into a small region.

Increase the energy of electron beam = Kinetic energy = 1/2mv^2. But mass is very small, we can
increase the velocity

Anode (like a disk) is operated at high voltages (30-120 kW). Huge potential difference extracts the
electrons, thus accelerating them.

Opening will be present over which electrons come out from anode with sufficient kinetic energy.

But electrons diverge the beam which should again be focused. Magnetic lenses are used. Electrons
carry magnetic field (normally we use DC) which are converged by these lenses. Powder density =
10^6 – 10^8 W/cm^2, it can even drill a hole.

Scanning electron microscope has a relatively lower voltage than above as it simply scans. A detector
gives the image.

Magnetic coils are used for smaller job welds which can change and deflect the beam.

It is not done in open atmosphere as electrons have less mass and can easily diffuse out. Therefore
complete setup is in a vacuum chamber.

Mirrors are used by operators to view the material. Chamber is properly sealed to increase
productivity.

Chamber size should be as small as possible – better productivity and easier devacuuming.

We need many sensors and a trolley to move the setup (rotational, translational)

Leads to a very high cost.

https://youtu.be/grzbTs69wuw

https://youtu.be/z9p_1ieqcXY

This process is done without grooves, filler wires or fluxes. Square edge preparation is sufficient.

Parameters:

1. Beam current
2. Accelarating voltage
3. Spot size
4. Welding speed

High vacuum (high penetration – better hole thickness), partial vacuum, medium vacuum (slight
compromise in quality as some gases are present) and non-vacuum.

Thicker plates require high vacuum for complete penetration.

Non-vacuum – gun in vacuum but job is in open atmosphere.

Small, medium and high vacuum machines

Low medium and high voltage machines are available.

Arc weld vs Keyhole electron beam weld:

Latter is very thin, HAZ is less, less distortion on the base metal, more thin cross section, very quick
process.

Comparison of high-energy welding process.

Quick and high speed process – the retention of heat is very high.

In high end applications like aircraft, it is employed.

Aluminium is reactive – melting capability is high as it is low melting.

Applications:

Aerospace – Fabrication of engine parts. Joining of thick section stator assemblies in Titanium alloys,
compressor dies and compressor rotor shafts. Use of EBW has been promoted by requirement for
high integrity welds with low distortion and minimal thermal damage to material.

Electronics and medical: Encapsulation of sensors and electronic parts. Austenitic stainless steels for
encapsulation of cobalt chromium alloys for fabricating hip joints.

Automotive: Circumferential welding of gears to for complex clusters. Transmission components like
gear cages.

(Start from 46:00)

Advantages:
 1. Extremely efficient
2. Depth is much higher
3. Heat input per unit length – very less. Offers no distrotions
4. Fe deleterious thermal effects
5. Contamination is very less as it is done in a vacuum
6. Very high speed which reduces welding time

Disadvantages:

1. Rapid solidification
2. Time consuming
3. Proper shielding is required
4. Highly sophisticated

Lecture 11.11.21 (in notebook)

Lecture 12.11.21
Surfacing

Power sources used in welding purposes can be used for surfacing.

Corrosion happens at surface which acts detrimental to the material.

Corrosion – induces pits, cracks and uniformly corrode the surface. Elements get oxidise and degrade
the performance of the component.

Damage might induce several issues

Impact wear – one material fall on the other suddenly which results in dents and cracks. Sudden
unexpected collision.

If impact strength is more than strength of component, failure occurs

Abrasion wear – rubbing or grinding hard components over soft ones.

Conveyer belts carrying minerals undergo abrasion wear making scars and scratch lines on the
surface. Components used in mining and fabrication industries lead to abrasion

Mixture of water + sand = slurry might erode components. In mines, water is removed from deep
pits. While trying to pump it out, slurry might damage the machine.

Huge pumps in NLC – it will work for a few hours only.

Erosion – interaction of water with hard particles.

Compression wear – machine beds above which we place heavy parts. When we remove the top
component after a long time, some of bottom part will be removed along with the top one. Cold
welding occurs. This is mostly for heavy components.

Metal-metal wear – Gear, crankshaft, piston cylinders

Hot Corrosion/oxidation – when component is exposed to high temperature, there is a probability

that elements get oxidise and crumble leading to decrease in thickness. This corrosion occurs at the
dry atmosphere. Due to electrochemical reactions, materials undergo losses
Thermal shocks – uneven heating leading to failure of the component

The surface should be protected/modified – Few microns to millimetres we need to modify the
surface of the component

Surfacing techniques –

1. Cladding – one metal over the other. In explosive welding, a thin sheet will be cladded on a
thick part. Improves corrosion resistance. Al-Clad: in aircraft components, 2 series alloys, it is
one of the least corrosion resistance but highly suitable for aircrafts. This is because there is
an intermetallic Al2Cu which act as anodic sites with the surrounding region, undergoing
corrosion. Inorder to safeguard this, it can be clad with 1 series or 7 series alloys.

Different types of cladding are present.

Cladding will not protect from load related failure as the interfaces between cladding and the load
will result in fatigue by acting as a notch. Life of the component will be affected and can’t be
recommended for loading environments. Eventually, no design requirements are required.

2. Hardfacing – hardness of the surface increases multi-fold while core is soft. Wear related
issues can be sorted, a hard layer can be coated on the surface. Earth equipments –
crushers, gears undergo this coating with carbide, nitrides and oxides, thus increasing the
life of component

The heat sources of welding can be used to heat the surface and deposited on the surface.

The surface hardness of low-carbon steels can be increased significantly by diffusing carbon into the
surface layers at elevated temperatures, followed by quenching and tempering. Since the surface
layers have higher carbon contents than the core, the surface layers attain a much higher hardness
than the inner core during heat treatment. The end result is a hard, wear resistant surface with a
tough inner core. This process, called carburizing, is one of several case-hardening processes.
Carburizing is conducted by heating a low carbon steel into the single-phase austenitic field,
generally between 845 and 955oC (1550 and 1750 F), where the steel has a high solubility for
carbon. After holding for the appropriate time, the part is either quenched or cooled to room
temperature. If it is cooled to room temperature, it then must be reheated for quenching. After
quenching, the part is then tempered in the normal manner. Steels used for carburizing usually have
carbon contents of approximately 0.2 wt%, with carburized cases containing up to 0.8 to 1.0 wt% C.

Wherever friction/interaction of hard materials, we need to go for hardfacing operations. You need
not worry about design requirement here too.

3. Build up edges – Life of blades can be increased by 30-40%. Build up edges has to meet the
design loading requirements. Very important for heavy engineering applications. Repair
instead of replace the component.

If you do not properly oil your bike, the engine cylinder may be seized. A hard surface coating can be
deposited and shape may be restored. Repair work is a costly affair.

4. Buttering – metallic surfaces have coating. Welding of dissimilar materials. Ex: stainless and
carbon steels. Suppose we weld them without using any intermediates, the carbon in carbon
steels might diffuse into stainless and chromium diffuse into carbon steels. Due to diffusion,
high carbon content leads to formation of graphite. There is a loss of strength and corrosion
resistance of the stainless.
Solution: Nickel is coated on both the welded material surfaces. Due to presence of nickel, it
prevents carbon and chromium diffusion. All metallurgical issues are averted. This is normally used
for steels and ferrous alloys – carbon and low alloys steels. If we use directly, may metallurgical
problems might be resulted.

Surfacing – modifying surface.

Apart from the 4 techniques, there are many other techniques. But these 4 are based on welding
based processes.

MMAW, GTAW, SAW, PAW, EBW, LBM, Friction welding, FSW – can be used for surfacing. ‘Refer
Palmer book’

Cutting – another process

Lecture 13.11.21
Thermal source to cut the components

Same power source of welding can be used for cutting also. Modifying the heat input and change the
profile of arc, we can cut the components.

Machine cutting – limited applications. Very thick objects cannot be cut

For turning and milling operations, we can’t go for machine cutting as the blade becomes instable.
Thermal cutting is done

Three types of thermal cutting

 Oxy-fuel cutting

Employed for thermal cutting of any material.

Criteria – metal gets oxidised; kindling temperature – metal gets oxidised at this temperature should
be lower than melting temperature of material; If higher, cutting cannot occur. Oxide melting point
formed should be lower than melting point of oxides. Material should possess low thermal
conductivity can be cut by thermal process.

Oxidation of aluminium – huge release of heat

There is a fundamental difference between welding torch and this cutting torch - latter has a small
nozzle.

There is a central hole surrounded by smaller holes at periphery. Acetylene + oxygen is supplied as
neutral flame. Preheating is done through the holes to reach the kindling temperature.

Through the central hole, oxygen alone is supplied which helps for rigorous oxidation, helping to
reach the molten state. It flush the molten metal.

We need to move the torch at appropriate speed. Slow speed results in lot of slags and affects the
neighbouring part of base metal.

Width is important. Appropriate parameters are chosen.

Adjusting oxygen acetylene – preheat – use oxygen to heat up the material.

KEAF – width of the component cut. It should be of minimal value.

Cut surface should be properly machined off. It might take time

A vertical cut to be obtained.

Varieties of oxyfuel cutting – oxygen powder cutting (we supply metallic powders which assist in
oxidation)
Martensite structure might be formed.

Oxygen lance Process:

Lance cutting – the steel stool will be cut. Blast furnace section will be hot.

Riser and gates needs to be cut which can be done by oxygen lance cutting, extensively used even
for deep holes in thicker components.

 Arc cutting

MMAW, TIG, MIG, plasma, Power Beam – few cutting operations

Plasma arc cutting – PAW utilised for cutting, principle remains the same. Buck cutting in industries
where the utilise compressed air, plasma; Uses constricted arc and removes molten metal with high
velocity jet of ionising gas issuing from constricting orifice.

Use for cutting stainless steels; If we go for machine cutting, the chips fored will glue with the cutter,
hindering the performance. Low thermal conductivity – advantageous

Two variations –
Cut surfaces will be very smooth

In stainless steels, chromium oxide will be evolved – dangerous.

Water will absorb the vapours which need to be cleaned.

 Power beam

Very fast, any shape/profile can be made. Distortion is less ad good for thin sheets.

Oxyfuel < Plasma < Laser: Order of improved quality of cut.

Thermal cutting is used for separating components.

Edge preparation in welding is done by thermal cutting. Groove making is done easily.

Lecture 15.11.21 (need to re-visit)

Welding Metallurgy
Discussion Limited to fusion and arc welding

The weld metal gets solidified and heat transfer from weld to adjacent region which modifies the
metallurgical features of the material.

Temperature is higher at the unaffected base material

Tempered zone – slightly higher temperature.

A1 – lower critical transformation temperature. When temperature increases, two phases change
into another phase - eutectoid reactions

Alpha + gamma.

Partiallly transformed zone – some part is transformed to other phases.

Pearlite temperature is sufficient enough to cross the region

In welding, the temperature reaches above melting point quickly. Once power source moves, there
is drop in temperature. Heating cycle and cooling cycle combination = thermal cycle.

Peak temperature, Cooling rate – various parameters involved.

Final microstructure depends on the maximum temperature the zone reaches. How fast the
temperature reaches the peak temperature alters size and phases.

If cooling rate is slow, we end up with ferrite and pearlite. Otherwise other microstructure.
Region close to the weld where peak temperature is high – coarser austenite is resulted.

Grain growth region

Boundary region – delta ferrite + austenite

Delta ferrite + liquid – solid-liquid transformation zone: a two phase mixture. Partially melted
material. Mushing zone/Fusion Boundary

Beyond that, everything is transformed to liquid which will ultimately solidify.

Microstructure of weld represents the cast structure.

Homogenous and heterogenous solidification – these concepts applies to the weld metallurgy.

In casting vs welding:
  Casting – mould wall is very small while in welding, liquid metal is small compared to the
mould wall.
 Cooling rate is very rapid and it immediately gets solidified. Liquid must attach with base
material.

Homogenous solidification

In casting, they have chills which extract heat and aids nucleation.

Cooling rate at the mold wall

Extract the heat and solid nucleus is created which grows.

Cast structure is obtained.

Thermal analysis is done – what is peak temperature around various regions around HAZ region.

Weld – x

If heat treat, we can modify the microstructure.

Prediction of cooling rate at one particular region using welding parameters.

CCT – martensite or pearlite.

Predicting cooling rate and peak temperature is important.

In cold places, the welding produces required microstructure. We should cater to the service
requirements. For cryogenic temperature, we should avoid phase change materials (Ex: ferritic – the
ferrite transforms to martensite). Austenitic materials like austenitic SS, aluminium, copper and Ni
based alloys are recommended as they are austenite at room temperature. There won’t be any
phase change.

Use the austenitic based material.

Cracking happens in austenitic materials.

We need to cover with asbestos or adiabatic materials which prevents heat dissipation/transfer and
suppress the cooling rate.

Ferritic/heat resistant materials

Low cooling rate might cause problems.

Austenite – good formability and ductility.

Brittle transition range – drop in ductility which leads to cracking. Faster cooling rate avoids this
problem

Selection

Heat flow equations –

In earlier days, analytical equations were developed – Adams equation for predicting the peak
temperature.

Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures in welding which will read the temperature
differences. Now thermal cameras are employed.
(Note the Adams Equation from the video)

Lecture 19.11.21 (need not re-visit)

(refer Sind Kuo)

Stress relieving needs to be done after Martensite formation

Microstructure – mechanical properties dictated – developed by heat treatment

Weldability of various materials

Carbon steels –

Three factors: metallurgical factors, mechanical factors and service factors. Weld should meet these
criteria. Compatible microstructure, good design and better lifetime is desired of the weld joint.

60% of components are carbon steels – strong, availability and cheap, heat treatable. It can be
mechanically worked – casting, extrusion, drawing, etc

Oxygen, carbon monoxide – leads to porosity in the components.

Solidification cracking – weldable.

Hydrogen cracking occurs in low temperature region.

Lamellar tearing

Reheat cracking – postweld treatment.

HAZ microstructure of gas-tungsten arc weld of 1018 steel

10 – Manganese content 0.10%

18 – carbon content 0.18%

Corbon content with maximum – 1.2-1.3% is practically viable.

Room temperature microstructure of carbon steels: ferrite – white colour + Pearlite – dark regions.

Alternate regions of cementite and ferrite is formed as the ferrite rejects the excess carbon forming
cementite and this keeps going on.

Figure B – refined pearlite: pearlite transforms to fine austenite. But this doesn’t stay for long and
converts back to pearlite, which is finer than former structure.
Figure C – crosses the two phase region to go to the single phase region – fine austenite.

Figure D – closer to fusion region – Ferrite - Widmanstatten structure, side plate ferrite –

Grain boundary ferrite – austenite in hexagon shape has grain boundaries acting as nucleating sites
for ferrite – found on very slow cooling process.

If cooling rate is slightly fast, you see plate like structure – side plate ferrite

Acicular ferrite is formed when impurities/oxide inclusions are dispersed inside the matrix. Increases
toughness.

Very fine austenite which cannot be resolved by an optical microscope – bainite

Grain boundary ferrite > side plate ferrite > acicular ferrite > Bainite > Martensite – decreasing order
of cooling rate.

Alloying elements, oxygen content and grain size – microstructural features.

HAZ 1018 steel with carbon di oxide laser welding process

Difference in microstructure is due to difference in speed and eventually the cooling rates involved.
Heat input more, cooling rate is less

Low carbon steel does not produce martensite

Wider weld region in GTAW than laser welding

Lecture 22.11.21
Carbon steels are poor in corrosion resistance.

Uniformly the material will be corroded.

Painted steels are not suitable.

Growth of oxide layer – very slow.

Without chromium, iron oxide will dissolve.

Thickness of iron oxide varies from micrometre to millimetre.

Fresh surface will be exposed.

Austenitic, martensitic stainless steels –

Ferritic stainless steels are got by altering the microstructure. We can obtain various phases.

Carbon – strong austenite former. It creates other issues if we add it.

Nickel is added instead, which can enlarge the austenite phases. Others are Manganese.

Chromium – ferrite stabilizer. Enlarge the ferritic region.

Alpha and delta ferrite will be merged.

Adding chromium to the system leads to merging of the alpha and delta ferrite. They will shrink into
loop called gamma loop

Ferritic microstructure

Austenite will transform to martensite.

In austenitic stainless steel, some ferrite will be present which will prevent solidification cracking,
improves ductility and formability.

Ferrite can increase > 15%

Sigma phases – deleterious and reduce mechanical properties. The component will be abruptly
failed.

FCC – no ductile to brittle transition

Stainless steels can be used for high to cryogenic temperature due to the presence of FCC
chromium. Good formability characteristics. Sheets, wires, tubes, etc can be easily drawn. It is non-
magnetic in nature.

Austenitic stainless steels – costly as Nickel is added.

Manganese – strong austenite stabiliser

200 series of stainless steels – undergoes corrosion while 300 does not.

314 L stainless steels. L stands for low.

Martensitic grade – good corrosion resistance.

Martensitic grades of stainless steels - Hardness and wear resistance is very good.

Ferritic group – corrosion resistance at low cost. These alloys are attracted with magnet.

Welding offers many issues – solidification cracking. Weld metal undergoes solidification, crack
occurs. Weld decay – time proceeds, weld properties come down.

Hot cracking in partially melted zone.

Ferritic grade – reduction of toughness as the weld region and formation of martensite. Undergoes
hydrogen induced cracking.

Sensitization – formation of carbides along the grain boundaries of austenitic grains.

Dark spots are seen along the grain boundaries – carbides Cr23C6 carbides.
3 regions:

1. Close to fusion boundary

2. Sensitized region – promotes the formation of chromium carbide.
3. Near base metal

6 seconds to 1 minute – if region is exposed to this time for a particular temperature (650 – 800 C) –
chromium carbide will be formed.

Once carbide forms, the grain boundaries become depleted of chromium. No cracks or porosity is
induced. NDT will not reveal this and component is allowed for service. But due to difference in
chromium content, corrosion will occur preferentially at the grain boundaries. It eats away the
material.

Crack will be developed, leading to failure of the component.

How to prevent? – Selection of process – these are prominent when carbon content values are
higher. Also rapid cooling, try to avoid low heat input processes. Heat treatment process –
chromium carbide will be stable for particular range. Increasing the temperature leads to its
dissolution.

High temperature dissolution + rapid quench can suppress the chromium carbide.

But problems:

1. Solutionising leads to coarse grains which reduce the mechanical properties.

2. Rapid quenching leads to distortion

Alloy development – will be a solution.

Try to avoid 304 L stainless steels. The low carbon will prevent the formation of chromium carbide.

CARBON IS THE MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENT IS STEELS

Stabilized grades of stainless steels – Niobium, Tantalum – strong carbide forming elements.

Niobium carbide, Titanium carbide is formed at low temperature

Chromium carbide will be stable at relative higher temperature. Therefore, those carbide formation
will deplete the carbide and therefore Cr23C6 can be prevented.

Titanium Carbide – dissolution at high temperature leading to titanium and carbon. This will cause
knife-line decay – during stress relieving treatment, it combines with Chromium forming chromium
carbide.

But TiC does not result in deterioration of mechanical properties. For instance, they pin the grain
boundaries and prevents grain coarsening, thus acting as grain refiners.

Last Lecture
Aluminum, copper, titanium, nickel, magnesium

Aluminum – very important role in steel industry. Good workability and castability, can fill intricate
parts of mould. Good thermal conductors.

Transportation sector: 2.67 g/cc.

Aluminum – difficult to weld as we need to remove oxides effectively. Porosity cannot be eliminated.

Solidification cracking is due to thermal conductivity

Softening in HAZ – drop in strength during welding of aluminium.

Types of aluminium alloys

1. Work hardenable: 1, 3 and 5 series alloys; By cold working, they can increase the strength.
2. Heat treatable: precipitation hardenable alloys; 2, 6 and 7 series alloys

4xxx series – welding filler wire (TIG/MIG): Aluminum – Silicon: reduces susceptible to cracking

Theta and theta prime – overaged precipitate

Theta prime – semi-coherent precipitate.

Theta double prime and GP – columnar precipitates.

AW – as welded condition.

Natural ageing and Artifical ageing

AT region 1, there is slight increase in the hardness. But 2 and 3, there isn’t much difference.

In the region 1, new precipitates will evolve.

Annealing – recovery, recrystallization and grain growth.

Undercut and lack of fusion.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. (b)

Arc initiation is easier in Argon.

Higher the arc length for the same type of electrode, higher the voltage.

Helium offers better arc voltage than Argon for the same arc current, owing to the latter’s high
ionization potential.

1. ©

This welding is used in fabrication of nuclear reactor components.

It is used in automotive industry for key, head lamp parts, button and switches etc.

Ultrasonic is used in electronic industries like armature winding, switches etc.

This is clean welding process so it is used in medical industries to make parts like filters, masks etc.

https://blog.blackadvtech.com/transferred-vs.-non-transferred-plasma-arc-welding

Lower thermal conductivity, more the penetration. Thermal conductivity of argon is lower than
helium.
Therefore most of the heat in argon stays at the core of the arc rather than spreading. There is more

penetration in the centre but less in the sides. But in Helium, the heat is distributed uniformily

throughout the arc.

Oxy-acetylene can cut only low- to medium-carbon steels and wrought iron. High-carbon steels are
difficult to cut because the melting point of the slag is closer to the melting point of the parent
metal, so that the slag from the cutting action does not eject as sparks but rather mixes with the
clean melt near the cut.

3. (a)

The ignition temperature of the material must be lower than its melting point otherwise the material
would melt and flow away before cutting could take place

The oxide melting point must be lower than that of the surrounding material so that it can be
mechanically blown away by the oxygen jet

The oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and the metal must be sufficient to maintain the
ignition temperature

A minimum of gaseous reaction products should be produced so as not to dilute the cutting oxygen

Since Eutectic solder melts and solidifies at a specific temperature, it is better for the solder reflow
process than non-eutectic solder. It speeds up the solder reflow process which results in a faster PCB
assembly process and a higher throughput which in turn lowers the effective cost of PCBs.

Other advantages include:

 Eutectic solder flows much better than non-eutectic solder.

  Eutectic lead-free solders are made up of alloys that are less expensive to manufacture.

 When the solder melts and freezes rapidly the quality of the solder joint is good.

 Eutectic solder has a nice chrome finish compared to non-eutectic solder that usually has a
dull and grainy appearance.

 During the solidification process, non-eutectic solder will go through a period of partly solid
and partly liquid states. At this time, if any parts shifts or reflow process is interrupted it can
cause cracks in the solder joints (hot-cracking). These cracks are difficult to detect during the
QC inspection.

Low welding heat input can limit, but not eliminate, sensitization. The best methods of preventing
sensitization are selection of very low carbon base metal (less than 0.03% C), or selection of a grade

stabilized with titanium or niobium (also known as columbium), such as

types 321 or 347. It should be emphasized that sensitization is almost

never a weld metal problem; it is largely a HAZ problem.,

since, SAW has high heat input sensitization is more probable in GTAW
Welding Textbook Notes
Principles of Welding Processes:

Chapter 8
Read from start of chapter age till Page 253

Arc Electrical Features:

The specific impedance at any point in an arc is inversely proportional to the density of the
operative charge carriers and their inherent mobility. The total impedance depends on the radial
and axial distribution of carrier density.

Three regions of electric arc:

1. Cathode fall space (or drop zone)
2. the plasma column fall space (or drop zone)
3. the anode fall space (or drop zone)

There are also intermediate regions involved in expanding or contracting the cross section of the
gaseous conductor to accommodate each of these main regions. As a consequence, welding arcs
assume bell or cone shapes and elliptical or some other noncylindrical contour.

Factors affecting the arc shape:

1. Shape of the arc terminals (i.e., pointed welding electrode producing a narrow arc focused at
the electrode tip and flat workpiece electrode, which causes the arc to spread)
2. Gravitational forces
3. Magnetic interactions ((from both internally generated and externally induced or applied
sources))
4. Interaction between plasma and ambient pressure

The total potential of an arc first falls with increasing current, and then rises with further increases
in current

(Read from page 255 to 258)

Volt-Ampere characteristics for welding:

Arc welding involves low-voltage, high-current arcs between a permanent (nonconsumable) or
consumable electrode and a workpiece. The means for reducing the voltage and simultaneously
stepping up the current to conserve the power, El.

Transient effects in arc welding arise from several sources associated with the continually changing
conditions: (1) during the striking of the arc; (2) during rapid changes in arc length (particularly with
manual welding); (3) during the transfer of molten metal across the arc from a consumable
electrode to the workpiece (discussed in detail in Chapter 9); and (4) in the case of AC welding,
during arc extinction and re-ignition at each half-cycle.

Power supplies overcome these above transients by: (1) storing energy in parallel capacitors or by
DC series inductors; (2) using feedback control in automatically regulating systems; or (3) modifying
wave form or circuit operating frequencies.
(start from 8.2.2.7. Constant-Current Power Sources)

Welding Metallurgy by Sindo

Chapter -1
Classification:

Fusion Welding Processes

The three major types of fusion welding processes are as follows:

1. Gas welding: Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

2. Arc welding: Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Gas–tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Plasma arc
welding (PAW) Gas–metal arc welding (GMAW) Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) Submerged arc
welding (SAW) Electroslag welding (ESW)

3. High-energy beam welding: Electron beam welding (EBW) Laser beam welding (LBW)

Since there is no arc involved in the electroslag welding process, it is not exactly an arc welding
process.

The heat sources for the gas, arc, and high-energy beam welding processes are a gas flame, an electric
arc, and a high-energy beam, respectively. Power density increases from a gas flame to an electric arc
and a high-energy beam.

As the power density of the heat source increases, the heat input to the workpiece that is required
for welding decreases. The portion of the workpiece material exposed to a gas flame heats up so
slowly that, before any melting occurs, a large amount of heat is already conducted away into the bulk
of the workpiece. Excessive heating can cause damage to the workpiece, including weakening and
distortion. On the contrary, the same material exposed to a sharply focused electron or laser beam
can melt or even vaporize to form a deep keyhole instantaneously, and before much heat is conducted
away into the bulk of the workpiece, welding is completed.
Advantages of increasing the power density of the heat source: deeper weld penetration, higher
welding speeds, and better weld quality with less damage to the workpiece.

Weld strength (of aluminum alloys) increases as the heat input per unit length of the weld per unit
thickness of the workpiece decreases.

Higher heat input, lower the strength and lower the power density.

Also these high energy beam welding, electron beam welding produces less angular distortion but
their cost is very high.

 GMAW can be used for all the materials of almost all thickness ranges
 GTAW is mostly for thinner workpieces.
 Any arc welding process that requires the use of a flux, such as SMAW, SAW, FCAW, and ESW,
is not applicable to aluminum alloys

Joints and welding positions:

 The surface of the weld is called the face

 The two junctions between the face and the workpiece surface are called the toes
 The portion of the weld beyond the workpiece surface is called the reinforcement.

Oxyacetylene welding:
Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins metals by heating them with a flame caused by
the reaction between a fuel gas and oxygen. Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) is the most commonly
used gas welding process because of its high flame temperature. A flux may be used to deoxidize
and cleanse the weld metal. The flux melts, solidifies, and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld
metal.
Three types of flames –

1. Neutral flame - This refers to the case where oxygen (O2) and acetylene (C2H2) are mixed in
equal amounts and burned at the tip of the welding torch. A short inner cone and a longer
outer envelope characterize a neutral flame. The inner cone is the area where the primary
combustion takes place through the chemical reaction between O2 and C2H2. The heat of
this reaction accounts for about two-thirds of the total heat generated. The products of the
primary combustion, CO and H2, react with O2 from the surrounding air and form CO2 and
H2O. This is the secondary combustion, which accounts for about one-third of the total
heat generated. The area where this secondary combustion takes place is called the outer
envelope. It is also called the protection envelope since CO and H2 here consume the O2
entering from the surrounding air, thereby protecting the weld metal from oxidation. For
most metals, a neutral flame is used.
2. Reducing flame - When excess acetylene is used, the resulting flame is called a reducing
flame. The combustion of acetylene is incomplete. As a result, a greenish acetylene feather
between the inert cone and the outer envelope characterizes a reducing flame. This flame is
reducing in nature and is desirable for welding aluminum alloys because aluminum oxidizes
easily. It is also good for welding high-carbon steels (also called carburizing flame in this
case) because excess oxygen can oxidize carbon and form CO gas porosity in the weld
metal.
3. When excess oxygen is used, the flame becomes oxidizing because of the presence of
unconsumed oxygen. A short white inner cone characterizes an oxidizing flame. This flame is
preferred when welding brass because copper oxide covers the weld pool and thus prevents
zinc from evaporating from the weld pool.

Reactions in Gas Welding process:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Welding - The main advantage of the oxyacetylene welding
process is that the equipment is simple, portable, and inexpensive. Therefore, it is convenient for
maintenance and repair applications. However, due to its limited power density, the welding speed
is very low and the total heat input per unit length of the weld is rather high, resulting in large
heat-affected zones and severe distortion. The oxyacetylene welding process is not recommended
for welding reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium because of its limited protection power.
Shielded metal arc welding process:

 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating them
with an arc established between a stick-like covered electrode and the metals.
 It is often called stick welding. The electrode holder is connected through a welding cable to
one terminal of the power source and the workpiece is connected through a second cable to
the other terminal of the power source.
 The core of the covered electrode, the core wire, conducts the electric current to the arc
and provides filler metal for the joint.
 For electrical contact, the top 1.5 cm of the core wire is bare and held by the electrode
holder. The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp with an electrically insulated
outside shell for the welder to hold safely.
 The heat of the arc causes both the core wire and the flux covering at the electrode tip to
melt off as droplets.
 The molten metal collects in the weld pool and solidifies into the weld metal.
 The lighter molten flux, on the other hand, floats on the pool surface and solidifies into a
slag layer at the top of the weld metal.
 Functions of electrode covering:
o Protection It provides a gaseous shield to protect the molten metal from air. For a
cellulose-type electrode, the covering contains cellulose, (C6H10O5)x. A large
volume of gas mixture of H2, CO, H2O, and CO2 is produced when cellulose in the
electrode covering is heated and decomposes. For a limestone- (CaCO3) type
electrode, on the other hand, CO2 gas and CaO slag form when the limestone
decomposes. The limestone-type electrode is a low-hydrogen type electrode
 because it produces a gaseous shield low in hydrogen. It is often used for welding
metals that are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, such as high-strength steels.
o Deoxidation It provides deoxidizers and fluxing agents to deoxidize and cleanse the
weld metal. The solid slag formed also protects the already solidified but still hot
weld metal from oxidation.
o Arc Stabilization It provides arc stabilizers to help maintain a stable arc. The arc is an
ionic gas (a plasma) that conducts the electric current. Arc stabilizers are compounds
that decompose readily into ions in the arc, such as potassium oxalate and lithium
carbonate. They increase the electrical conductivity of the arc and help the arc
conduct the electric current more smoothly.
o Metal Addition It provides alloying elements and/or metal powder to the weld pool.
The former helps control the composition of the weld metal while the latter helps
increase the deposition rate.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
o The welding equipment is relatively simple, portable, and inexpensive as compared
to other arc welding processes. For this reason, SMAW is often used for
maintenance, repair, and field construction.
o However, the gas shield in SMAW is not clean enough for reactive metals such as
aluminum and titanium. The deposition rate is limited by the fact that the electrode
covering tends to overheat and fall off when excessively high welding currents are
used.
o The limited length of the electrode (about 35 cm) requires electrode changing, and
this further reduces the overall production rate.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

 Non-consumable Tungsten electrode is used.
 The tungsten electrode is usually in contact with a water-cooled copper tube, called
the contact tube
 Protection from the air is much better in GTAW than in SMAW because an inert
gas such as argon or helium is usually used as the shielding gas and because the
shielding gas is directed toward the weld pool. This is why this process is called as
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. When a filler rod is needed, for instance, for joining
thicker materials, it can be fed either manually or automatically into the arc.
 DCEN – straight polarity
o Most common polarity
o Electrode is connected to the negative terminal
 DCEP – reverse polarity
o Electrode is connected to the positive terminal
o A large-diameter, water-cooled electrodes must be used in order to prevent the
electrode tip from melting.
o The positive ions of the shielding gas bombard the workpiece, knocking off
oxide films and producing a clean weld surface. Therefore, DCEP can be used
for welding thin sheets of strong oxide-forming materials such as aluminium
and magnesium, where deep penetration is not required.
 AC - Reasonably good penetration and oxide cleaning action can both be obtained.
 Tungsten electrodes with 2% cerium or thorium have better electron emissivity,
current-carrying capacity, and resistance to contamination than pure tungsten
 electrodes. As a result, arc starting is easier and the arc is more stable. The electron
emissivity refers to the ability of the electrode tip to emit electrons. A lower electron
emissivity implies a higher electrode tip temperature required to emit electrons and
hence a greater risk of melting the tip.
 Shielding Gas - Since it is easier to ionize argon than helium, arc initiation is easier
and the voltage drop across the arc is lower with argon. Also, since argon is heavier
than helium, it offers more effective shielding and greater resistance to cross draft
than helium. With DCEP or AC, argon also has a greater oxide cleaning action than
helium. These advantages plus the lower cost of argon make it more attractive for
GTAW than helium.
Because of the greater voltage drop across a helium arc than an argon arc, however,
higher power inputs and greater sensitivity to variations in the arc length can be
obtained with helium. The former (Helium) allows the welding of thicker sections and
the use of higher welding speeds. The latter (Argon), on the other hand, allows a better
control of the arc length during automatic GTAW.
 Gas–tungsten arc welding is suitable for joining thin sections because of its limited
heat inputs. The feeding rate of the filler metal is somewhat independent of the welding
current, thus allowing a variation in the relative amount of the fusion of the base metal
and the fusion of the filler metal. Therefore, the control of dilution and energy input to
the weld can be achieved without changing the size of the weld. It can also be used to
weld butt joints of thin sheets by fusion alone, that is, without the addition of filler
metals or autogenous welding. Since the GTAW process is a very clean welding
process, it can be used to weld reactive metals, such as titanium and zirconium,
aluminum, and magnesium.
However, the deposition rate in GTAW is low. Excessive welding currents can cause
melting of the tungsten electrode and results in brittle tungsten inclusions in the weld
metal. However, by using preheated filler metals, the deposition rate can be improved.
In the hot-wire GTAW process, the wire is fed into and in contact with the weld
pool so that resistance heating can be obtained by passing an electric current
through the wire.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Process

 A constricted arc established between Tungsten electrode and metals.
 It uses an orifice and shielding gas.
 Arc in PAW is constricted or collimated because of the converging action of the
orifice gas nozzle, and the arc expands only slightly with increasing arc length.
 Direct-current electrode negative is normally used, but a special variable polarity PAW
machine has been developed for welding aluminum, where the presence of aluminum
oxide films prevents a keyhole from being established.
 The tungsten electrode sticks out of the shielding gas nozzle in GTAW while it is
recessed in the orifice gas nozzle in PAW. Consequently, arc initiation cannot be
achieved by striking the electrode tip against the workpiece as in GTAW.
  Keyholing - In addition to the melt-in mode adopted in conventional arc welding
processes (such as GTAW), the keyholing mode can also be used in PAW in certain
ranges of metal thickness (e.g., 2.5–6.4 mm). With proper combinations of the orifice
gas flow, the travel speed, and the welding current, keyholing is possible. Keyholing is
a positive indication of full penetration and it allows the use of significantly higher
welding speeds than GTAW. For example, it has been reported that PAW took one-
fifth to one-tenth as long to complete a 2.5-m-long weld in 6.4-mm-thick 410 stainless
steel as GTAW. Gas–tungsten arc welding requires multiple passes and is limited in
welding speed. The wine-cup-shaped weld is common in keyholing PAW.
 Advantages and Disadvantages - Plasma arc welding has several advantages over
GTAW. With a collimated arc, PAW is less sensitive to unintentional arc length
variations during manual welding and thus requires less operator skill than
GTAW. The short arc length in GTAW can cause a welder to unintentionally
touch the weld pool with the electrode tip and contaminate the weld metal with
tungsten. However, PAW does not have this problem since the electrode is recessed
in the nozzle. As already mentioned, the keyhole is a positive indication of full
penetration, and it allows higher welding speeds to be used in PAW.
However, the PAW torch is more complicated. It requires proper electrode tip
configuration and positioning, selection of correct orifice size for the application, and
setting of both orifice and shielding gas flow rates. Because of the need for a control
console, the equipment cost is higher in PAW than in GTAW. The equipment for
variable-polarity PAW is much more expensive than that for GTAW.

GAS–METAL ARC WELDING/MIG

 Melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc established between a continuously
fed filler wire electrode and the metals.
 Shielding of the arc and the molten weld pool is often obtained by using inert gases
such as argon and helium – that is why the name metal inert gas welding.
 Non-inert gas – CO2 is also used.
 Most widely used arc welding process for aluminium alloys.
 DCEP is used in GMAW. A stable arc, smooth metal transfer with low spatter loss
and good weld penetration can be obtained. With DCEN or AC, however, metal transfer
is erratic.
 Shielding gas - The arc energy is less uniformly dispersed in an Argon arc than in a He
arc because of the lower thermal conductivity of Argon. Consequently, the Argon arc
plasma has a very high energy core and an outer mantle of lesser thermal energy. This
helps produce a stable, axial transfer of metal droplets through an Ar arc plasma. With
 pure He shielding, on the other hand, a broad, parabolic-type penetration is often
observed.
 With ferrous metals, however, He shielding may produce spatter and Ar shielding may
cause undercutting at the fusion lines. Adding O2 (about 3%) or CO2 (about 9%) to Ar
reduces the problems
 Carbon and low-alloy steels are often welded with CO2 as the shielding gas, the
advantages being higher welding speed, greater penetration, and lower cost. Since CO2
shielding produces a high level of spatter, a relatively low voltage is used to maintain a
short buried arc to minimize spatter; that is, the electrode tip is actually below the
workpiece surface.
 Modes of metal transfer
o Globular - Discrete metal drops close to or larger than the electrode diameter
travel across the arc gap under the influence of gravity. Globular transfer often
is not smooth and produces spatter. At relatively low welding current globular
transfer occurs regardless of the type of the shielding gas. With CO2 and He,
however, it occurs at all usable welding currents.
o Spray - Above a critical current level, small discrete metal drops travel across
the arc gap under the influence of the electromagnetic force at much higher
frequency and speed than in the globular mode. Metal transfer is much more
stable and spatter free. The critical current level depends on the material and
size of the electrode and the composition of the shielding gas.
o Short-circuiting transfer - The molten metal at the electrode tip is transferred
from the electrode to the weld pool when it touches the pool surface, that is,
when short circuiting occurs. Short-circuiting transfer encompasses the lowest
range of welding currents and electrode diameters. It produces a small and fast-
freezing weld pool that is desirable for welding thin sections, out-of-position
welding (such as overhead-position welding), and bridging large root openings.
 Advantages and Disadvantages - Like GTAW, GMAW can be very clean when using
an inert shielding gas. The main advantage of GMAW over GTAW is the much
higher deposition rate, which allows thicker work pieces to be welded at higher
welding speeds. The dual-torch and twin-wire processes further increase the deposition
rate of GMAW. The skill to maintain a very short and yet stable arc in GTAW is not
required. However, GMAW guns can be bulky and difficult-to-reach small areas or
corners.
FLUX-CORE ARC WELDING
 The flux-core arc welding (FCAW) is similar to GMAW.
 The wire electrode is flux cored rather than solid; that is, the electrode is a metal tube
with flux wrapped inside.
 The functions of the flux are similar to those of the electrode covering in SMAW,
including protecting the molten metal from air.
 The use of additional shielding gas is optional.
Submerged Arc Welding process
 Consumable wire electrode
 Arc is shielded by molten slag and granular flux.
 Arc is submerged and thus invisible.
 Flux is supplied from hopper, which travels with the torch.
 DCEP is oftern used; At high currents, AC is preferred to minimize arc blow (Arc blow
is caused by the electromagnetic (Lorentz) force as a result of the interaction between
the electric current itself and the magnetic field it induces).
 Advantages:
o Protecting and refining action of the slag helps produce clean welds in SAW
o Since the arc is submerged, spatter and heat losses to the surrounding air are
eliminated even at high welding currents.
o Both alloying elements and metal powders can be added to the granular flux to
control the weld metal composition and increase the deposition rate,
respectively.
o Using two or more electrodes in tandem further increases the deposition rate.
o Workpieces much thicker than that in GTAW and GMAW can be welded by
SAW due to high deposition rate.
 Disadvantages:
o The relatively large volumes of molten slag and metal pool often limit SAW to
flat-position welding and circumferential welding (of pipes).
o The relatively high heat input can reduce the weld quality and increase
distortions.