Multiply

Using Multiple Intelligences

atie sings the multiplication facts quietly to called logical-mathematical, naturalistic, bodily-

K
herself. Sam tries to solve problems by tap-
ping his pencil in rhythmic patterns. José
draws pictures from his teacher’s tile-array models.
kinesthetic, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and musical. All people use all these
intelligences in their lives, but through unique rela-
Alima sorts her crayons into groups to help herself tionships between “nature and nurture,” each per-
find the answer. Lin checks his solutions with his son has a particular mix of intelligence strengths at
neighbor. Maria uses logic to extend her knowledge any given time.
of simple facts to harder ones. These children natu- What does multiple-intelligence theory have to
rally express their intelligence strengths as they do with teaching mathematics? It allows teachers
attempt to master their multiplication facts. Their to use eight different possible approaches to math-
teacher knows that children learn in different ways ematical learning and teaching. This multiple-
and seeks to consciously translate these differences instruction approach—
into learning methods that will be meaningful.
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences • results in a deeper and richer understanding
has significant implications for all mathematics of mathematical concepts through multiple
teachers who are looking for diverse instructional representations;
methods that encourage depth of understand- • enables all students to learn mathematics suc-
ing by tapping students’ particular inclinations. cessfully and enjoyably;
As Gardner (1991, p. 13) says, “Genuine • allows for a variety of entry points into mathe-
understanding is most likely to emerge and be matical content;
apparent to others . . . if people possess a num- • focuses on students’ unique strengths, encour-
ber of ways of representing knowledge of a aging a celebration of diversity; and
concept or skill and can move readily back and • supports creative experimentation with mathe-
forth among these forms of knowing.” matical ideas.
In his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The
Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Howard Because the idea of multiple intelligences is a the-
Gardner proposed a revolutionary revision of ory, not a strict educational methodology, it can be
Jody Kenny Willis and
our thinking about intelligence. Traditional applied flexibly and in diverse ways that work for
Aostre N. Johnson
views and testing methods emphasize a uni- particular students, teachers, and contexts (see
tary intelligence capacity based on linguistic table 1). Teachers’ strategies may vary from estab-
and logical-mathematical abilities. Gardner sug- lishing specific times of direct instruction using
gests that intelligence is based on multiple various methods to setting up multiple-intelligence
“frames,” each consisting of unique problem- centers or stations that students visit at flexible
solving abilities. Gardner’s eight intelligences are times throughout the day. Although all children
will benefit from experiences with all intelli-
gences, teachers can encourage students to “lean”
Jody Kenny Willis, jwillis@smcvt.edu, and Aostre Johnson, ajohnson@smcvt.edu, are col- on their strengths to achieve mathematical under-
leagues at Saint Michael’s College in Colchester, VT 05439. Willis’s scholarly interests standing.
include mathematics education, pedagogy, and one-room schooling. Johnson’s research The following application of this multiple-
focuses on curriculum theory and spirituality in education. intelligence theory to mathematics instruction
focuses on building mastery of multiplication facts

260 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS

with MI:
to Master Multiplication

Photograph by Sanders Milens; all rights reserved

as an example. The goal is for children to use their Logical-Mathematical

different intelligence strengths to attain initial con- Intelligence
ceptual understanding of multiplication, then to Logical-mathematical intelligence includes the five
move toward developing their own thinking strate- core areas of (1) classification, (2) comparison, (3)
gies for harder facts, gradually building mastery basic numerical operations, (4) inductive and
through practice and problem solving. Multiple- deductive reasoning, and (5) hypothesis formation
intelligence theory can be adapted to any other and testing—all basic “tools” of the mathemati-
mathematical concept or skill. cian. Although current classroom practices for

JANUARY 2001 261

 TABLE 1
Instructional matrix for multiple intelligences in mathematics

Intelligence Materials Learning Activities Teaching Strategies

Logical- calculators creating or solving: worthwhile tasks

mathematical manipulatives brain teasers connections with previous
games problems concepts
number lines logic puzzles variety of representations
Venn diagrams equations inquiry methods
algorithms
justifying thinking

Naturalistic natural objects using nature demonstrations

models classifying objects outdoor activities
observation notebooks observing patterns naturalistic investigations
magnifying glasses

Bodily manipulatives sequencing movements gestures

kinesthetic models exploring tactile models dramatizations
individual children or groups dramatizing hands-on examples
clapping, tapping, hopping physical models
using concrete materials

Linguistic children’s books reading word problems storytelling

textbooks writing mathematics stories book corners
audiotapes listening to explanations humor and jokes
activity sheets talking about strategies questions
journals assessment tasks
lectures
written or oral explanations

Spatial computers decorating flash cards mental models

graphs drawing diagrams visual cues; e.g., color,
charts creating pictures or circles, boxes, arrows
playing cards other representations guided imagery
manipulatives looking at illustrations graphic organizers
dominoes concept maps or webs
bulletin boards
overheads

Interpersonal games working cooperatively discussions

shared manipulatives participating in simulations people-based problems
interviewing others peer tutoring
engaging in role playing group activities
sharing strategies guest speakers
assessing peers’ work

Intrapersonal self-checking materials writing in journals private spaces

diaries or journals addressing values and attitudes choice time
reflecting on connections empowerment
with students’ lives
conducting self-assessment

Musical tape recorders composing, performing, or listening corners

CDs listening to raps, songs, chants rhythmical activities
instruments using musical notation background music
creating rhythmic patterns

Source: Adapted from a model by Armstrong (1994, p. 52)

262 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS

 FIGURE 1

Three models for multiplication showing the fact 3 × 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

(a) Two examples of the repeated-addition model

Blue bear
Red bear
t Yellow bear
s hir Green bear
iped
Str Blue bear
Plaid shirt Red bear
Yellow bear
Pla Green bear
in
sh
ir t Blue bear
Red bear
Yellow bear
Green bear
(b) Array model (c) Combination model

teaching mathematics frequently focus on rote tiplication’s relationship to other operations,

answers, research encourages children to explore namely, as repeated addition and as the inverse of
various representations for different multiplicative division. This intelligence also underlies the devel-
situations and to investigate the relationships opment and articulation of thinking strategies. For
among these models to obtain a deeper mathemat- instance, students can work from known facts to
ical understanding of the operations (Kaput 1989; reason about multiplication problems: “If 10 × 7 =
Kouba and Franklin 1995; Isaacs and Carroll 70, then 9 × 7 = 70 – 7 = 63,” or “If 3 × 7 = 21, then
1999). 6 × 7 would be double that, or 42.” Such strategies
Logical-mathematical intelligence allows chil- not only encourage problem-solving skills but also
dren to develop an understanding of the three mod- are faster than more immature counting methods
els for multiplication illustrated in figure 1 and to and help children learn facts in relation to other
apply this knowledge to real-life situations. Teach- facts, not as isolated bits of information.
ers usually introduce facts using repeated addition The role of logical-mathematical intelligence in
with manipulatives, such as buttons, candies, or acquiring mathematical skills and concepts is obvi-
Cuisenaire rods. Other possibilities include using ous, yet the seven other intelligences also make
number lines or a calculator’s repeated-addition significant contributions as children select their
function by pressing + 4 + 4 + 4. The array model, own unique strategies to move from initial investi-
which relates to area, can be illustrated with color gations, through increasingly sophisticated levels
tiles, geoboards, pegboards, and graph paper. The of understanding, to mastery.
combination, or Cartesian-product, model of mul-
tiplication requires each member of a group for one
number to be paired with each member of a group Naturalistic Intelligence
for the second number. For example, four bears of Naturalistic intelligence includes the ability to
different colors can be paired with three different relate to the natural world with clarity and sensitiv-
T-shirts in twelve possible combinations in a tree ity; to recognize and classify living things, natural
diagram. objects, and patterns; and to use the information
Effective use of logical-mathematical intelli- gained productively. Ecological and environmental
gence would enable children to conceptualize mul- perspectives are grounded in this type of intelli-

JANUARY 2001 263

 FIGURE 2
Paper-folding task for the facts for 5

gence and use mathematical concepts in their theo- dents to work in authentic ways on subtle and com-
ries and methods. Students who have a particular plex organization and numbering. Sea Squares
ecological strength show a strong interest in the (Hulme 1991) is an example of an effective picture
natural sciences and in the outdoors. book for multiplication ideas. The book uses illus-
Children’s first examples of groups of objects trations of natural creatures to pose multiplication
emerge from the “natural” world around them. For questions, such as how many arms are found on
example, a baby notices the five fingers on each of four starfish or how many legs on six pelicans.
her two hands and the two eyes of her father. Initial Teachers and students can create their own prob-
informal multiplication experiences spring appro- lems and examples using number patterns in
priately from nature. For example, how many eyes nature.
do the four people in a family have? How many
noses, ears, hands, or fingers do they have? All
mathematics curricula connected with this intelli- Bodily-Kinesthetic
gence use as many natural objects and as much Intelligence
time in nature as possible. These curricula provide Children with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelli-
unique opportunities to encourage a sense of won- gence use their bodies in highly differentiated ways
der at the extraordinary mathematical patterns to develop and express concepts. They may natu-
found in the natural world—in plants, pets, insects, rally tap out facts with their fingers, trace facts with
birds, shells, zoo animals, and the children them- their fingers on other body parts, or manipulate
selves. Biological classification systems allow stu- various physical objects to represent different facts.
Instructional approaches that use a variety of
FIGURE 3

manipulatives allow for the expression of both

Visual models of square facts, rectangular facts, and
visual and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences. Even
prime numbers
adult mathematicians might use this intelligence as
they build models in their scholarly pursuits. Ein-
stein described his theorizing as more “visual and
motor” or “muscular” than linguistic (Einstein
1952, p. 43).
Teachers who wish to help students acquire
multiplication facts using bodily-kinesthetic intel-
ligence may have groups of students dramatize
facts by asking them to act out various problems.
For example, teachers could introduce the concept
3×4 of multiplication by physically arranging students
into three basketball teams with five players each.
4×4
Students can also do “multiplication exercises” by
hopping, jumping, or clapping to various facts. The
fact 3 × 4 might be four jumps—rest—four
jumps—rest—four jumps. “How many jumps in
all?” Children can create kinesthetic patterns as
1×7 they count to the number 40, stamping on multiples
of 4 and clapping on every number in between.
Tracing facts in sand, doing finger painting, or
writing facts in glue and decorating the numbers

264 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS

are other possible bodily-kinesthetic activities. books will also engage students who prefer visual
Using the picture book Knots on a Counting Rope models.
(Martin and Archambault 1990) as a model, chil- Oral recitations of facts may be beneficial for
dren can create ropes that represent different facts some students. The facts for 2 and 5 tend to be easy
by knotting strings or by stringing beads. for children who have been introduced to skip
counting at earlier ages. Children can use language
to communicate the results of multiplication tasks,
Linguistic Intelligence to explain the reasoning behind their problem solv-
Linguistic intelligence encompasses a wide range ing, to comprehend other children’s thinking
of language skills, from sensitivity to the meanings strategies, and to assess their progress by explain-
of specific terms to the ability to use language in a ing to their teacher, parent, or another student the
variety of contexts. The NCTM recognizes the facts that they know well and those that they need
importance of language in its Curriculum and to practice.
Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics
(1989), which state that “representing, discussing,
reading, writing, and listening to mathematics are a Spatial Intelligence
vital part of learning and using mathematics” (p. Children who have strong spatial intelligence are
26). Most teachers require children to listen and able to perceive the visual world accurately, create
read during their mathematics lessons; in recent images in their minds in the absence of physical
years, many teachers have begun to initiate more stimuli, and produce effective two-and three-
opportunities for children to speak and write about dimensional representations. Many adult mathe-
their experiences. maticians rely heavily on this intelligence as they
All children should be exposed to a wide variety theorize and represent their findings.
of worthwhile verbal tasks as they encounter the Visual models enhance memory by creating
idea of multiplication and learn their facts. The images that the mind stores for subsequent refer-
teacher may offer a persuasive verbal introduction ence. Many picture books contain excellent
to the exciting uses of multiplication in the world, prospects for teachers to develop spatial intelli-
from the kitchen to the workplace. Children can gence in students. For instance, in the book Made-
also tell or write their own multiplication stories. line (Bemelmans 1939), the picture of six girls in
Many children’s books, such as Anno’s Multiplying each of two straight lines presents an interesting
Jar (Anno 1983) and One Hundred Hungry Ants chance to explore whether the girls could be
(Pinczes 1993), relate to multiplication either grouped in other ways, such as in three lines of
directly or indirectly. Although the text in books four. Flash cards can be decorated by using differ-
may use a verbal-linguistic approach to pose prob- ent colors or pictures or by writing difficult facts in
lems or offer explanations, the pictures in these creative ways, such as in “fat” numerals. Students
FIGURE 4

The commutative and distributive properties of multiplication

(a) Commutative property (b) Distributive property

3×5=5×3

7 × 3 = (5 + 2) × 3
7 × 3 = (5 × 3) + (2 × 3)

JANUARY 2001 265

 could create an advertisement for a multiplication arship and work are increasingly communal, rather
fact, draw a fact picture, or create a bulletin board than individualistic, enterprises.
that illustrates the doubles facts. Children can also Obviously, learning methods designed to
work with models, such as an egg carton for 2 × 6 enhance interpersonal intelligence focus on coop-
or a spider’s legs for 2 × 4. A paper-folding task eration among students. Even when students work
could depict the repeated-addition model as each individually on problems and assignments, they
segment unfolds. Figure 2 shows such a task for can be asked to justify their methods and results
the facts for the number 5. with one another. Partners can work on shared mul-
Spatial intelligence also fosters deeper under- tiplication problem solving or assess each other’s
standing as children solve problems and represent work. Peer tutoring allows students who have more
solutions. Children can explore the shapes that are advanced mathematics skills to assist those whose
formed as they create “boxes,” or array models, skills are not so advanced, resulting in improve-
using colored tiles. They will see that many num- ment for both. Children can collaborate in short- or
bers yield several rectangular shapes, whereas long-term mathematics groups.
prime numbers yield only one row of tiles (see fig. Real-world multiplication problems can be con-
3). Teachers should guide the process by asking, structed using familiar people and situations. Stu-
“Do the multiplication facts that you have modeled dents and teachers might invent multiplication
always form rectangles? Why are some facts called examples that reflect their interpersonal interests.
square facts?” The com- For example, Alima could make up a problem
mutative property can involving the amount of candy collected as she and
be demonstrated by her best friends trick-or-treat on Halloween. Stu-
rotating the tile models, dents can also interview adults in various profes-
In an era that and the distributive sions about how they use multiplication skills on
property can be shown the job.
promotes by splitting an array, as
shown in figure 4.
collaboration, make Another spatial activ- Intrapersonal
sure not to neglect ity that gives practice Intelligence
and involves problem Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to under-
students who prefer solving is to have chil- stand oneself—to recognize one’s own feelings, set
dren color multiples of goals, and make relevant decisions. In an era that
to work alone a number on a hundred promotes collaboration, we must also make sure
chart and look for pat- that we do not neglect the students who prefer to
terns. Children can do work alone. Intrapersonal intelligence thrives on
this activity for multi- quiet spaces and personally challenging problems,
ples of 2 through 9 and as well as time for in-depth explorations. All stu-
compare the patterns that are formed. If this activ- dents benefit from learning to deepen their knowl-
ity is done on transparencies, the children can dis- edge of themselves, their introspection, and their
cover common multiples by placing one sheet on ability to develop appropriate personal strategies.
top of another (see fig. 5). This intelligence has significant implications for
the mathematics curriculum. A curriculum
designed to facilitate a metacognitive perspective
Interpersonal will emphasize personalized experimentation with
Intelligence diverse and meaningful problems. The teacher can
Interpersonal intelligence encompasses under- introduce multiplication to students as a “big idea”
standing and communicating sensitively with other that has extraordinary possibilities for relating to
people. It consists of the ability to notice and make real and imaginary events in their lives. She can
distinctions about people’s moods, temperaments, show how multiplication is used to address issues
motivations, and intentions—and to make relevant of concern to students, such as caring for pets or
decisions based on this knowledge. Children who saving endangered species. Students should be
are adept in interpersonal intelligence may thrive encouraged to set goals for themselves on many
on collaborative problem solving, but compelling levels, such as using their choice of intelligences to
reasons exist to cultivate this form of intelligence memorize multiplication facts, creating their own
in all students. Nurturing students’ social and emo- personally relevant multiplication problems to
tional skills now should produce members of soci- solve, and finding or communicating unique solu-
ety who are more caring and cooperative in the tions to teacher-posed problems. Students can also
future. In the world of adult mathematicians, schol- assess their own mastery of facts, asking them-

266 TEACHING CHILDREN MATHEMATICS

FIGURE 5

Patterns of multiples on a hundred chart using the facts for 3 and 4 and a combination of the two fact patterns

0 1 2 4 5 7 8 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 9 0 1 2 5 7
10 11 13 14 16 17 19 10 11 13 14 15 17 18 19 10 11 13 14 17 19
20 22 23 25 26 28 29 21 22 23 25 26 27 29 22 23 25 26 29
31 32 34 35 37 38 30 31 33 34 35 37 38 39 31 34 35 37 38
40 41
50
43 44
52 53
46 47
55 56
49
58 59 + 50 51
41 42 43 45 46 47
53 54 55
49
57 58 59 50
41 43
53 55
46 47 49
58 59
61 62 64 65 67 68 61 62 63 65 66 67 69 61 62 65 67
70 71 73 74 76 77 79 70 71 73 74 75 77 78 79 70 71 73 74 77 79
80 82 83 85 86 88 89 81 82 83 85 86 87 89 82 83 85 86 89
91 92 94 95 97 98 90 91 93 94 95 97 98 99 91 94 95 97 98

Multiples of 3 Multiples of 4 Combination pattern

selves, “Which facts do I know well; which ones

FIGURE 6

do I need to practice?” Finally, students can keep The facts for 7 put to song
ongoing mathematics journals in which they
record their multiplication goals, activities, and Let’s rap our facts quickly,
self-assessments, as well as their attitudes. Then mathematicians are what we’ll be.
For 0 × 7 here’s a tip:
0 times a number equals zip.
Musical Intelligence 1 × 7 is easy to remember;
1 times anything is just the number.
Pitch, rhythm, tonal quality, and emotional expres-
Doubles facts are easily seen.
sion are all aspects of musical intelligence. The
Two 7s always equal 14.
underlying rhythmical patterns of music are 3 × 7 gives 21.
founded in mathematics, and the musical notation Keep rapping our facts until we’re done.
system is based on fractions and numerical pat- We love math and really can’t wait
terns. Gardner (1983) notes that many composers To state four 7s is 28.
have been sensitive to mathematical patterns and Five 7s gives 35 real quick,
that many mathematicians and scientists are But seven 5s is 35, too! Neat trick!
attracted to music. Six 7s is double three 7s, 21,
In learning multiplication, students can use So 6 × 7 is 42—such fun!
rhythmic groupings of sound to represent problems Keep on rapping; we’re doing just fine.
7 × 7 equals 49.
and solutions. These activities can be either kines-
56 answers 8 × 7.
thetic, involving hopping or clapping, as men-
Knowing our facts takes us to heaven.
tioned earlier, or tonal, using the voice or musical Ten 7s is 70.
instruments. Many adults have learned the alpha- So nine 7s, one less, equals 63.
bet through singing, and multiplication facts can Mathematicians—that’s what we are.
likewise be remembered through music. Although We can rap our facts both near and far!
some children may be able to compose their own
tunes as they sing their multiplication tables,
adapting the facts to a familiar tune may be easier
for many children. The familiar song “Row, Row, Conclusion
Row Your Boat” could be adapted to “Two and two According to Gardner’s theory, children are intelli-
are four. Four and four are eight. Eight and eight gent in multiple ways and have unique combina-
are sixteen. Other facts we’ll state.” Students could tions of intelligence strengths. All these intelli-
compose and perform similar verses. Some stu- gences can be used throughout the mathematics
dents may prefer chants or raps. Learning the facts curriculum. Rather than treat multiplication as
for 7 are often difficult for children. The rap shown memorization of facts or rote computation of irrel-
in figure 6 serves as an example of a device that evant equations, multiple-intelligence theory
might be created to help children remember the enables students to understand it as an exciting,
facts for 7. (Continued on page 269)

JANUARY 2001 267

 ADVANTAGE/RENAISSANCE
LEARNING
BRC
TO BIND BETWEEN
268–269 & STUB
BETWEEN 292–293

ADVANTAGE/RENAISSANCE
LEARNING
4/C
268
 Isaacs, Andrew C., and William M. Carroll. “Strategies for
Multiply with MI Basic-Facts Instruction.” Teaching Children Mathematics 5
(Continued from page 267) (May 1999): 508–15.
Kaput, James J. “Supporting Concrete Visual Thinking in Mul-
relevant way of symbolizing a significant property tiplicative Reasoning: Difficulties and Opportunities.” Focus
of the world around them. When teachers encour- on Learning Problems in Mathematics 11 (winter 1989):
age the use of diverse intelligence strengths in mul- 35–47.
tiplication, they allow students to increase their Kouba, Vicky, and Kathy Franklin. “Multiplication and Divi-
capacities to learn facts by heart, conceptualize the sion: Sense Making and Meaning.” Teaching Children
Mathematics 1 (May 1995): 574–77.
meaning of multiplication, develop thinking strate- Martin, Bill, Jr., and John Archambault. Knots on a Counting
gies, solve problems, and engage intensively and Rope. New York: Trumpet Club, 1990.
creatively in mathematics. As they do so, students National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Cur-
have the opportunity to discover and celebrate their riculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics.
own, and one another’s, unique abilities. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1989.
Pinczes, Elinor. One Hundred Hungry Ants. New York:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1993. ▲

References
Anno, Mitsumasa. Anno’s Mysterious Multiplying Jar. New
York: Philomel Books, 1983. Do You Have
Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. Something to Add?
Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curricu-
Share with readers and the Editorial Panel your opin-
lum Development, 1994.
Bemelmans, Ludwig. Madeline. New York: Viking Press 1939. ions about any of the articles or departments appear-
Einstein, Albert. “Letter to Jacques Hadamard.” In The Creative ing in this issue by writing to “Readers’ Exchange,”
Process, edited by Brewster Ghiselin, pp. 43–44. Berkeley, NCTM, 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA
Calif.: University of California Press, 1952. 20191-9988; or by sending
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple e-mail to tcm@nctm.org.
Intelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1983.
———. The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How
Schools Should Teach. New York: Basic Books, 1991.
Hulme, Joy N. Sea Squares. New York: Hyperion Books, 1991.

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