ELCT 201 Fall 2022

PROJECT TWO
RESISTIVE SENSORS
OBJECTIVES

This project has the following objectives:

 Learn the basic electrical characteristics of resistive light and temperature sensors.
 Use laboratory instruments to bias and measure the outputs of these sensors and use
datasheet information to relate (calibrate) a measured voltage to a sensed quantity (light
intensity or temperature).
 Use an operational amplifier to build a difference amplifier and then a threshold detector – to
determine whether the sensor output is above or below some reference voltage.
 Use datasheet information to calibrate the detection threshold to a specific condition (light
level, or temperature).
 Use all three sources of the dc power supply, in tracking and non-tracking modes, with
appropriate terminal, common, and grounding connections.
THEORY OF OPERATION

The resistance of every electrical conductor depends somehow on its environment. For example, in
metals the resistance typically increases with increasing temperature. In semiconductors the opposite
occurs -- the resistance usually decreases with increasing temperature. Also, for most semiconductors, the
resistance will decrease when illuminated. Resistors that are intended to be sensors are designed so that
they will be sensitive only, or most strongly, to the one stimulus that they are intended to measure. In this
project, you will work with a resistive temperature sensor (a thermistor, or temperature dependent
resistor) and a resistive light sensor (a photoconductor, or light dependent resistor).
The resistance of our thermistor decreases with increasing temperature, so it is said to have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) of resistance. The graph in Figure 1, illustrates how R varies with
T as graphed from data in the thermistor datasheet. The data sheet also tabulates the coefficients of a
parametric curve that represents the resistance-temperature function.

Figure 1 Thermistor resistance vs temperature.

The resistance of our photoconductor decreases with illuminance, so it is said to have a negative
luminous coefficient of resistance, as shown coarsely* by the graph in Figure 2. (* Notice how broad the

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“line” is.) Its resistance under the illumination of an average classroom (about 500 lux) is about 2000
ohms. The resistance becomes larger if the sensor is shaded and smaller if it is illuminated by a brighter
light such as sunlight.

Figure 2 Photoconductor resistance vs illuminance

One could use these resistive sensors by directly measuring their resistance with an ohmmeter and
then converting the measured resistance to temperature or luminosity, but in practice it is often more
convenient to measure a voltage instead, and then calibrate that voltage to the measured quantity (e.g.
luminosity). A light sensor can thus by created by combining a photoconductor with a biasing resistor to
form a voltage divider, as shown in Figure 3. The output of the resistive voltage divider then tells us
something about the temperature or the light level. Parts a) and b) of the figure illustrate that one can
choose whether the output voltage increases with the measured quantity, or decreases, by placing the
biasing resistor above or below the sensing resistor.

Figure 3 Position of biasing resistor affects whether Vout increases or decreases with increase of
sensor resistance.
Other components can be added to create a circuit that will notify us if the light level or temperature
rises above or sinks below some critical value. For example, we could sound an alarm if a temperature
sensor gets too hot, or turn on a lamp if a light sensor becomes too dark. In this project, you’ll use an
LED as the indicator, and you will precisely detect whether the sensor has become too hot or too cold, or
too light or too dark, by using an op-amp to create a threshold detector. You will start by building just the
sensors, then later add the op-amp as a threshold detector.

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ELCT 201 Fall 2022

PRELAB

Use the data sheet to estimate the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature (20C) and at
body temperature (40C). For the sensor configuration shown in Figure 3a, with Rbias = 10 k,
estimate the sensor output voltages at 20 C and at 40 C. (Assume +5V as the power source voltage).
Repeat for the sensor configuration shown in Figure 3b in which the locations of the bias and sensor
resistors have been swapped.
Use the datasheet to estimate the resistance of the photoconductor at ambient illumination (500 lux)
and at dim illumination (10 lux). For Rbias = 10 k, estimate the sensor output voltages at those two light
levels. (Assume +5V as the power source voltage). Repeat for the sensor configuration shown in Figure
3b.
Submit the requested calculations to the prelab assignment on Blackboard. Commented [DR1]: Create an Excel spreadsheet for
all of the measured data and provide it to the students
IN LAB with the project information. Have students enter
computed voltages or resistances in the spreadsheet
AC AND DC MEASUREMENTS OF RESISTIVE DIVIDER and submit the spreadsheet as the pre-lab assignment.
This will give them exact numbers to compare against
their measurements.
You will become familiar with the sensor by building the simple version of the light sensor circuit
shown in Figure 3a, then use both the DMM and the oscilloscope to measure its response. As described
next, first use the dc power supply to excite the circuit and measure the dc response, then use the function
generator to excite the circuit with an ac waveform and measure its ac response.
Build the circuit as shown in Figure 4. Set the dc power supply to deliver 5 Vdc to the circuit.
Connect both the DMM and the oscilloscope to observe the output voltage as you move the shadow of
your hand across the photosensor. Set the oscilloscope to a slow time scale (about 1 sec/div) so that you
can record the rise and fall of the voltage from one or more motions of your hand as your hand casts a
shadow on the sensor. Of course the readings will depend on how darkly you shade the sensor. Does the
voltage increase with illuminance, or decrease? Write down the values of Vout when shaded and when
unshaded; you will use these values later.

Figure 4. Light sensor excited by dc voltage source and measured simultaneously with DMM and
oscilloscope.
Now replace the dc power supply with the function generator, as shown in Figure 5. Set the function
generator to produce a sine wave at 5 Vrms, 10 kHz, then connect it to the circuit. Connect both the DMM
and the oscilloscope to measure the output voltage Vout. Slowly move the shadow of your hand over the
sensor to get a sense of the variation of the output voltage, then record readings shaded and unshaded,
with both the DMM and the oscilloscope. Submit to the in-lab assignment oscilloscope images
corresponding to unshaded (uncovered) and shaded (covered) conditions.

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Figure 5. Light sensor circuit excited by sinusoidal source and measured with DMM and
oscilloscope.
Now set the DMM to measure current instead of voltage, connect it into the circuit to measure ac
current flowing through the photoresistor and Rbias. Measure the current in both shaded and unshaded
conditions and compare the measured values to those values obtained by dividing the voltages measured
in the previous step by the value of Rbias. Are they similar?
Reverse the locations of the photoresistor and the biasing resistor (i.e. convert to the circuit of Figure
3b) and repeat the voltage measurements. Does Vout now increase with illuminance, or decrease?
Return Rbias to its original location, replace the photosensor with the thermistor, and replace the
function generator with the DC Power Supply, to make the circuit shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Temperature sensor excited by dc voltage source and measured simultaneously with
DMM and oscilloscope.
Measure Vout with the thermistor at room temperature, then grasp the thermistor between your
fingertips and watch the DMM and oscilloscope while the thermistor warms up. Estimate how many
seconds pass before the voltage stabilizes as the thermistor reaches your body temperature. After you
have a sense of that time, let the thermistor cool down, set the time scale of the oscilloscope to an
appropriate time scale (maybe 1 second per division (really slow!)), and initiate a single event recording.
Grasp the thermistor between your fingers. Record the time variation of the output voltage as the
thermistor warms up from room temperature (about 20 C) to your body temperature (about 40 C). Submit
to the in-lab assignment the oscilloscope image that illustrates the warm-up event.
ADJUSTABLE THRESHOLD DETECTION

Next you will develop a threshold sensor that will illuminate an LED depending on the state of the
sensor – whether it is illuminated or dark, or hot or cold. Use an LM324 quad op-amp chip to build the
threshold detector circuit as shown in Figure 7. The two 5 k resistors (Rref1, Rref2) are actually the
upper and lower elements of a 10 k potentiometer (adjustable resistor).

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Figure 7. Simplest circuit, with sensor and opamp both powered by single 5V source.
Initially set the potentiometer to approximately mid-range, apply 5V power to the circuit, and then
adjust the potentiometer so that the reference voltage has a value half-way between the two values you
measured in the first experiment – at ambient illumination and shaded. Now, with the sensor unshaded, is
the LED on, or off? Cover the sensor with your hand. Did the LED change state? Set up the oscilloscope
so that Ch1 will measure the voltage from the light sensor and Ch2 will measure the voltage across the
LED. Set the oscilloscope for a slow single-event recording, then move your hand across the sensor a few
times so that the LED turns on and off about twice during the oscilloscope sweep. Submit the
oscilloscope image of the hand waving events to the in-lab assignment. At the instants when voltage is
applied to the LED or removed from it, is the sensor voltage equal to the measured value of the reference
voltage?
Now replace the photoconductor with the thermistor and set the potentiometer so that the reference
voltage has a value half-way between the two values that you computed for 20C and 40C. Is the LED on,
or off? Now grasp the thermistor between your fingers to warm it up. Does the LED change state? Set up
and capture a scope image that shows warming of the thermistor sensor and the voltage across the LED.
Submit the oscilloscope image of the warm-up event to the in-lab assignment.
IN YOUR REPORT

Describe the calculations that you made in preparation for the project, the circuits that you built, and
measurements from the circuits. Include scope images that show interesting or significant waveforms, and
tables that report important values such as threshold voltages, temperatures, or light levels. Consider
creating a graph from some set of your measurements to illustrate an important project result.
REFERENCES

Ulaby textbook, op-amp comparator, pp 715-716.

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