★ map out all figures/animals (what when where why) [one good detailed example]

★ chapter terms/examples/write while quizleting

☆ map star all italics☆
a. Actively removing protons to regulate pH.
b. Multiple enzymes can covalently bond with cyclic AMP
c. Hydrostatic pressure is physical pressure

Chapter 1: Animals and environments

● 1.2 Define integrative and relate to physiology.
○ Brings together and synthesizes many concepts that can otherwise seem
independent such as pheasants 🦃 🦊 🍥
and fox , salmon migration , and any
Olympic athlete.

○
○ The study of physiology integrates knowledge at all levels of organization
■ ecological/evolutionary
■ Cellular
■ Biochemical
● 1.3 Define mechanism and relate to physiology.
○ MECHANISM = DETAIL
○ Components of actual living animals and the interactions among them that
enable them to perform as they do
○ 🪰 I.e. light production by fireflies is due to microscopic gas-filled tubules
● Understand the possible origins of a mechanism.
○ Natural Selection genes that make it more likely for the animal to survive and
reproduce will appear more frequently
○ Adaptation mechanism or trait that is product of natural selection
○ Adaptive Significance WHY natural selection valued evolution of the trait
○ 🪰 I.e. The males of each firefly species emit light flashes in species-specific
pattern
○ Mechanism and Adaptive Significant do NOT imply each other
 ○ 🐙🐟 i.e. Cephalopods and fish have similar retinas built on different structures;
cephalopods have multiple optic nerves, fish have one
● 1.4 Define the sub-disciplines of physiology.
○ Mechanistic physiology studies mechanism
○ Evolutionary physiology studies evolutionary origins
○ Comparative physiology synthetic study of the function of all animals.
Systematically compares the ways various animals carry out similar functions
○ Environmental physiology how animals respond physiologically to an
environment
○ Integrative physiology synthesis across all levels of biological organization,
such as relations between molecular and anatomical features of organs
● 1.5 Compare and contrast conformity and regulation.
○ Conformity internal and external conditions equal (can lead to death if
external conditions are extreme)
○ Regulation internal constancy in the face of external variation at the cost of
energy
■ Conformity and regulation are extremes–most responses are
intermediate

○
■ Tuna are steaming hot inside
■ All animals become conformers
 ○
● Explain the five time frames in which physiology changes.
○ Acute changes reversible; within minutes/hours of exposure
○ Chronic changes within days/weeks/months, reversible, acclimation (lab) and
anticlimatization (wild)
○ Evolutionary changes alteration of gene frequencies over the course of many
generations after exposure
○ Developmental changes changes in individual physiology occurring in
programmed way
○ Changes controlled by clocks occur with animals’ internal clocks 🕜

○
● Understand why body size is an important trait.
○ Scaling the statistical relationship between a trait and body size is essential for
identifying specializations and adaptations of particular species.
● 1.6 Understand how animals relate to temperature, oxygen and water.
○ Temperature a measure of the intensity of the random motions that the atoms
and molecules in the material undergo. (-70oC to +50oC)
■ Fish (e.g. rock cod) in the sea around the Antarctic have body
temperatures near -1.6oC. Metabolically synthesized antifreeze
compounds stop them freezing.
■ A single temp. can be lethally cold for tropical fish and lethally warm for
polar species.
■ Animals on land experience far greater extremes.
■ Some bacteria can even reproduce at 100oC.
○ Butterfly species diversity is relatively low at cold, high latitudes

○
● Explain the differences between adaptive and nonadaptive evolution. Understand
how adaptation is studied.
○ Nonadaptive evolution an allele with lower probability of
survival/reproduction becomes predominant from chance
■ (chance = genetic drift)
○ Adaptive evolution
● Explain the importance of variation in evolutionary potential.

1.1 Quantifying a Bird’s Energy Cost to Fly

❖ Scientists measure the energy expended by birds in controlled circumstances using
the isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, injecting them into sandpipers before flight,
and tracking the rates of loss as they fly through a wind tunnel
❖ Birds’ energy use while flying was found to be seven or eight times the resting rate
❖ Thus they require stopover periods for refuel (eat) and flight periods (fly nonstop for
long periods)
➢ Stopover periods increase bodyweight by as much as 50%
➢ Stomach and intestines enlarge to aid digestion during stopover, then shrink
when preparing to fly
➢ Heart enlarges while flying

1.3 Mechanism of Light Production by Fireflies

❖ Branching gas-transport tubules bring molecular oxygen to light-producing cells
➢ Oxygen is the switch of this mechanism
❖ Firefly luciferen interacts with with ATP → luciferyl AMP
❖ O2 + luciferyl AMP → excited electron product that emits photons when back to
ground state
❖ When the firefly is not producing light, O2 is intercepted by mitochondria between
gas-transport tubles and luciferin reaction sites
The adaptive significance of all this is to attract a mate

1.5 Conformity and Regulation

1. Animals are structurally dynamic (Rudolf Schoenheimer)
● Unlike inanimate objects, the molecular constituents of an individual’s
body break down and rebuild
● ​the iron atoms of the cells are in dynamic exchange with iron atoms in
the environment.
● A brick wall that maintains size and shape but consistently replaces
the content of the bricks
2. Animals are organized systems that require energy to maintain
3. Both time and body size are of fundamental importance to all animals’ lives

1.6 Environments (Oxygen)

❖ Why do animals require oxygen

Chapter 2: Molecules and cells

● 2.1 Describe the structure of the cell membrane
○ Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
○ Intracellular membranes such as endoplasmic reticulum
○ Mixing polar and nonpolar molecules (determined by electron
distribution) helps form a bilayer
■ Polar head and nonpolar tails
 ○
● The importance of membrane fluidity

○ degree of phospholipid
unsaturation depends on environ. temps. to which various species are
adapted
○ Tropical species are less likely to have membranes cooled & stiffed
■ Evolved relatively saturated phospholipids
○ [Temperature down ↓ , unsaturation up ↑ ]
● 2.1 Describe the 5 functional types of membrane proteins.
○ Channel creates a direct water path from one side to the other of a
membrane (i.e., an aqueous pore) thru which solutes in aqueous solution
 may diffuse or water may undergo osmosis, without bonding at all to the
channel protein.
○ Transporter binds noncovalently with specific molecules/ions to move
them across a membrane intact.
■ The transport through the membrane is active transport if it
employs metabolic energy;
■ it is facilitated diffusion if metabolic energy is not employed.
○ Enzyme catalyzes a chemical reaction in which covalent bonds are made
or broken
○ Receptor protein binds noncovalently with specific molecules and
initiates change in membrane permeability/cell metabolism.
○ Structural Protein attaches to other molecules (e.g.proteins) to anchor
intracellular elements (e.g., cytoskeleton filaments) to cell membrane,
creates junctions between cells, or establishes other structural relations.
● Understand the basic components of an epithelial cell.
○ Epithelium is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or organ, or
lines a cavity.
○ Apical surface (mucosal surface) - facing the cavity or open space
○ Basal surface (serosal surface) - toward the underlying tissue
○ Basement membrane (basal lamina) - thin, permeable, noncellular,
nonliving sheet of matrix
○ Squamous, cuboidal, columnar May have microvilli (increase surface
area)

○
● 2.2 Compare and contrast the types of junctions between cells.
○ Occulding junctions
■ Tight junction where cells are joined such that there is no
extracellular space between them.
 ■ Septate junctions differ from tight junctions in their fine
structure, but they fully encircle each cell. These are mostly seen
in invertebrate groups.
○ Desmosome a junction at which mutually adhering glycoprotein
filaments from two adjacent cells intermingle across the space between
cells.
○ Gap junctions places where two adjacent cells lack cell membrane
boundaries. Small molecules and ions are free to pass through these
connections. important for electrophysiology.

○
● Compare and contrast an enzyme versus a catalyst.
○ Enzyme is the organic catalyst
 ○
○ Enzymes protein catalysts that speed, and often regulate, reactions.
Most biochemical reactions do not take place spontaneously at
significant rates under physiological conditions.
○ substrates initial reactants of the reaction.
● Explain how an enzyme affects a reaction.
○ Modify substrates to proceed the reaction
● 2.5 Understand the characteristics of hyperbolic reaction kinetics.
○ hyperbolic or sigmoid kinetics enzyme-catalyzed reactions
○ enzyme–substrate complex enzyme combined with substrate to catalyze
a reaction
■ weak, noncovalent bonds
■ Substrate is converted to product while united with the enzyme,
forming an enzyme–product complex
■ E + S ↔ E-S complex ↔ E-P complex ↔ E + P
○ Reaction velocity is the amount of substrate converted to product per
unit time.
○ When substrate concentration ↑, the population of available enzymes
saturated–saturation kinetics.
 ○
● 2.5 Explain how maximum reaction velocity is determined.
○ # of enzymes
○ How effective they are at turning the substrate into the product
■ Expressed as Kcat turnover number
■ Partially depends on activation energy

■
● Explain how sub-maximum reaction velocity is determined.
● Enzyme s
 ○
● Explain all of the factors that can affect enzyme conformation.
○
● 2.6 Understand and apply the law of mass action.
○ the rate of any chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the
masses of the reacting substances, with each mass raised to a power
equal to the coefficient that occurs in the chemical equation.

○
○ Upregulated an enzyme that has its catalytic activity increased by a
modulator
○ Downregulated that has its catalytic activity decreased by a modulator
○
● 2.5 Compare and contrast isozymes and interspecific enzyme homologs.
○ Isozymes different molecular forms of an enzyme produced by a single
species.
○ Interspecific enzyme homologs different molecular forms of an enzyme
coded by homologous gene loci in different species.
 ○

The lower the Km, the higher the affinity

LDH and rats and up regulation

Chapter 4: Physiological development and epigenetics

(as many examples as possible for each objective)
● 4.0 Describe the field of study of development physiology.
○ the study of physiology during all stages of individual development
■ From weanling to adult, O2 stores in hooded seals double with
the largest change seen in muscle myoglobin.
 ■
○ individual animal must pass successfully through all maturation stages,
from infancy to adulthood, if ever to reproduce.
● 4.1 Understand how the physiology of young animals differs from adults.
○ the brain accounts for (50%) far more than the adult 20% of total
metabolism because of the rapid, early development
■ Humans
 ■
○ Brain performance
■ Bird migration
○ Newborns are less effective at thermoregulation
■ Baby rats
○ Specific tissue functions
■ Bullfrogs take up O2 with lungs as adults and gills as children
■ Baby fish do not have lungs
● 4.2 Define phenotypic plasticity.
○ is the ability of a single animal (with a fixed genotype) to express two or
more genetically controlled phenotypes.
■ Menarche age, late 20th vs mid 19th century
■ Guatemalan height in USA vs Guatemala (by nutrition)

●
 ■ Mussel shell thickness (predators)
● 4.2 Understand the similarities and differences between polyphonic
development and seasonal polyphenism.
○ Polyphenic development when genetically identical individuals have 2+
distinct body forms, bc of environmental differences (many insects).
○ Seasonal polyphenism specific type of polyphenic development in which
one season species is different in body form from the same species
developing in another season.
■ Butterflies and locusts
● 4.3 Define epigenetics and relate it to phenotypic plasticity.
○ Phenotype is modified by the sort of gene–environment interaction seen
in epigenetics, but in a different way than programmed phenotypic
plasticity.
○ In epigenetics, phenotype is altered because genes are directly modified
in a transmissible marking, which causes their expression to be different
than before environmental effect.
○ Phenotypes arising from epigenetic modification (like phenotypic
plasticity) may, in principle, be adaptive for the organism or not.
○
● Describe the methods of epigenetic marking.
○
● Relate the effects of epigenetic marking to real world examples.
○ Starving mothers yielded offspring with lower methylation
○ Fetal alcohol syndrome

○
● Understand the similarities and differences of epigenetics, environmental
effects, and genetic effects, on development.
● Genotype and environment interact to produce the phenotype of an
animal. Explain comprehensively the types of mechanisms by which this
interaction takes place.
 Chapter 5: Transport of solutes and water
●