ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Understanding Air Pollution

Air pollutants
 Any substance found in the ambient air that is not part of its natural composition or any
substance whose concentration is higher than the concentration found in the air’s natural
composition.

 Air pollutants come from natural activities, such as volcanic eruptions, or human activities,
such as burning of fossil fuels.

 Can be in the following two physical forms:

‒ particulate matter (e.g., ash, dust, smoke, etc.)

‒ gases (e.g., sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc.)
Classification of air pollutants
 Primary pollutants

‒ Found in the atmosphere in the same chemical form as when it was emitted
from its source.

‒ Example: carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide,

sulfur dioxide, halogen compounds such as chlorides, fluorides, bromides,
particulate matter.

 Secondary pollutants

‒ Not directly emitted into the atmosphere but formed in the air as a result of
chemical transformation of other primary pollutants.

‒ Example: nitrogen dioxide formed from nitric oxide, ozone formed from
photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds,
sulfuric acid droplets formed from sulfur dioxide.
Classification of air pollutants
Sources of air pollutants
 Human inputs of air pollutants come from mobile sources (such as cars) and stationary
sources (such as industrial and power plants).
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution
Example 2.1: CO2 emissions from coal combustion
Calculate the CO2 emissions from bituminous coal on the basis of emissions per unit
of energy released, assuming that the coal contains 67% C by weight with an
energy content of 28,400 kJ/kg.

Solution:

The overall reaction is the oxidation of carbon to CO2, where air is the usual source
of O2.

C + O2  CO2

Thus, 12 g of C produces 44 g of CO2.

Because the coal contains 67% C by weight, there is 670 g of C in 1 kg of coal.

Thus, 1 kg of coal produces

 44 g CO2   1kg 
 CO2 coal  (670 g C)   
 12 g C  1000 g 

 2.46kg CO2 / kg coal burned

Each kg of coal burned releases 28,400 kJ of energy. Hence, CO2 emitted per unit
of fuel energy is given by

2.46 kg CO2 / kg coal

 CO2 coal   8.66 ×10-5 kg CO 2 / kJ fuel energy
28, 400 kJ / kg coal
Example 2.2: SO2 emissions from a coal-fired power plant
A 500 MW power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year. Calculate the annual
emission of SO2 from the power plant, assuming that the coal contains 1.5% sulfur
by weight and that 97% of the sulfur is converted to SO2.

Solution:

The relevant chemical reaction is

S + O2  SO2
Thus, 32 g of S produces 64 g of SO2.

The mass ratio of SO2 to S is therefore

Mass SO2 64 g
= =2
Mass S 32 g
Because the power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year, the total mass of S
entering the plant is

msulfur = (0.015)  2 × 108 kg / year  = 3 × 10 6

kg / year

Of this, 97% is converted to SO2.

The total annual mass of SO2 is therefore

 kg SO2 
mSO2  (0.97) (3  10 kg S / year)  2
6

 kg S 
 5.82 × 106 kg SO 2 / year
Example 2.3: NOX emissions from a coal-fired power plant
Assume that the power plant in Example 2.2 emits NOX at a rate of 0.260 g NO2/MJ
of fuel energy input to the plant. Estimate the total amount of NOX emitted per year
by this power plant if the annual energy input is 5.68  109 kJ.

Solution:
Annual energy input = 5.68  109 kJ/year

Thus, the annual mass of NOX emitted is

 g NO2   kJ  1 kg   1 MJ 
mNOX   0.260   5.68 × 10
9
  
 MJ  year  1000 g  1000 kJ 
 1.48 × 10 3 kg NO 2 / year
Note: Although NOX consists of a mixture of NO and NO2, the total mass is expressed as
equivalent NO2 because NO2 is the criteria air pollutant.
Example 2.4: Particulate emissions from a coal-fired power plant

If the ash content of the coal in Example 2.2 is 9.8% by weight, calculate the annual
atmospheric emissions of particulate matter (PM) from the power plant assuming
that 80% of the ash in the coal is entrained in the combustion exhaust gas, while the
remaining 20% (called bottom ash) is collected as a solid waste at the combustor.

Solution:

Because the power plant burns 2  108 kg coal per year, the total mass of ash
entering the plant is

mash = (0.098)  2 × 108 kg / year  = 1.96 × 10 7 kg ash / year

Thus, the annual atmospheric emissions of PM

mPM = (0.80) 1.96 × 107 kg / year  = 1.57 × 107 kg PM / year

Clean Air Act
 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in December 1970 in the United
States to address the Nation’s environmental problems. In the same year the Clean Air
Act (CAA) was passed to safeguard public health.

 The CAA is the comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary
and mobile sources.

 It authorizes the EPA to set standards to protect public health and public welfare and to
regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants.

 The CAA is one of the United States’ first and most influential modern environmental laws,
and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world.

 Numerous countries around the globe have enacted similar legislation to achieve healthy
air quality.
Criteria pollutants
 A group of six common air pollutants that are the most prevalent and the most
harmful to human health and the environment.

 Harmful to humans if concentration in ambient air is above certain levels.

 In the United States, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) sets
limits for each pollutant based on health and welfare standards.
Criteria pollutants
 NAAQS have been established for the following six ‘criteria pollutants’.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Description: Colorless, odorless gas; forms during incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels.

 Major human sources: Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels. About 77%
(95% in cities) comes from motor vehicle exhaust.

 Health effects: Reacts with hemoglobin in red blood cells and reduced the ability of blood
to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues. This impairs perception and thinking; slows
reflexes; causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, and nausea; can trigger heart attacks
and angina; damages the development of fetuses and young children; and aggravates
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and anemia. At high levels, it causes collapse, coma,
irreversible brain cell damage, and death.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Description: Reddish brown irritating gas; can be converted to nitric acid (HNO3), a major
component of acid deposition.

 Major human sources: Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%), and power plants and
industries (46%).

 Health effects: Lung irritation and damage; aggravates asthma and chronic bronchitis;
increases susceptibility to respiratory infections such as the flu and common colds
(especially in young children and older adults).

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees,
soils, and aquatic life in lakes.

 Property damage: HNO3 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings; statues,
and monuments; NO2 can damage fabrics.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 Description: Colorless, irritating; forms mostly from the combustion of sulfur containing
fossil fuels such as coal and oil; in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), a major component of acid deposition.

 Major human sources: Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes
(10%).

 Health effects: Breathing problems for healthy people; restriction of airways in people with
asthma; chronic exposure can cause a permanent condition similar to bronchitis.

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees,
soils, and aquatic life in lakes.

 Property damage: SO2 and H2SO4 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings;
statues, and monuments; SO2 can damage paint, paper and leather.
Particulate matter (PM)
 Description: Variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) small and light enough to remain
suspended in the atmosphere for short periods (large particles) to long periods (small
particles); cause smoke, dust and haze.

 Major human sources: Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel
and other fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture (plowing, burning off fields), unpaved roads,
construction.

 Health effects: Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, and bronchitis; aggravates
bronchitis and asthma; shortens life; toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium and dioxins)
can cause mutations, reproductive problems, cancer.

 Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 droplets can damage
trees, soils, and aquatic life in water bodies.

 Property damage: Corrodes metal; soils and discolors buildings, clothes, fabrics and
paints.
 Larger particles may be trapped in the nose or eliminated through
coughing and sneezing. Fine particles can penetrate deep into the
lungs, and ultrafine particles may even enter the blood stream. These
particles can carry toxic chemicals which are linked to cancer.

Phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages

Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The movement of a particle in a fluid is

determined by a balance of the viscous drag
forces resisting the particle movement with
gravitational or other forces that cause the
movement.

A force balance called stokes law is used to

determine the relationship between particle
size and its settling velocity.
 Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The buoyancy force FB is a net upward

force that results from the increase of
pressure with depth within the fluid.
The buoyancy force is equal to
gravitational constant times the mass
of the fluid displaced by the particle.
𝜋
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝐷𝑝3 g
6
The gravitational force Fg, is equal to Where ρf is the fluid density.
the gravitational constant g times the
mass of the particle, mp. In terms of
particle density ρp and the diameter
Dp, mp is equal to (ρpπ Dp3/6).
𝜋
𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝3 g
6
 Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

Most particle settling situations involve

creeping flow conditions (Reynolds
number less than 1).

In this case Stoke’s drag force can be

used as:
𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
Where
μ is the fluid viscosity
Vr is the downward velocity of the
particle relative to the fluid.
Particulate matter (PM): Gravitational settling

The net downward force acting on the

particle is equal to the vector sum of all
forces acting on the particle.

𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐷
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝3 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑓 𝐷𝑝3 𝑔 − 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
6 6
𝜋 3
= (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 𝐷𝑝 𝑔 − 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑟
6

The particle will respond to this force

according to the newton’s second law.
Thus,

𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑚𝑝 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑣𝑟
= 𝑚𝑝 × 𝑑𝑡
Particulate matter (PM)
Gravitational settling

When the particle terminal velocity

is reached, it is no longer
accelerating so (dv/dt=0).

Thus Fdown=0 and noting that Vr is

equal to the settling velocity at
terminal velocity.
𝜋 3
(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 𝐷𝑝 𝑔 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑠
6

𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐷𝑝
18𝜇
Particulate matter (PM) – Settling velocity estimate
Question:

Find the settling velocity of a spherical droplet of water with diameter 2µm, and
estimate the residence time of the particle suspended in air at an altitude of 1000m.

Solution:

Density of water, ρp = 1000 kg m-3 = 106 g m-3

Density of air, ρf = 1.2 kg m-3 = 1200 g m-3 (We can neglect it)

Viscosity of air, µ = 0.0172 g m-1 s-1

Diameter of particle, Dp = 2 x 10-6 m

𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑓 ) 2
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐷𝑝
18𝜇
=1.27 x 10-4 m s-1
Using simple box model to estimate the residence time of particles uniformly
distributed in a box of atmosphere with height h (m),

Residence time = h/v = 1000/(1.27 x 10-4 m/s) = 7.9 x 106 s = 91 days

Ground level ozone
 Description: Highly reactive, irritating gas with an unpleasant odor that forms in the
troposphere as a major component of photochemical smog.

 Major human sources: Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (VOCs, emitted
mostly by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides to form photochemical smog.

 Health effects: Breathing problems; coughing; eye, nose, and throat irritation; aggravates
chronic diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease; reduces
resistance to colds and pneumonia; may speed up lung tissue aging.

 Environmental effects: Ozone can cause more damage to plants than any other
pollutants; smog can reduce visibility.

 Property damage: Damages rubber, fabrics, and paints.

Lead (Pb)
 Description: Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere to
particulate matter.

 Major human sources: Paint (old houses), smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture,
storage batteries, leaded gasoline (being phased out in developed countries).

 Health effects: Accumulates in the body; brain and other nervous system damage and
mental retardation (especially in children); digestive and other health problems; some lead-
containing chemicals can cause cancer.

 Environmental effects: Can harm wildlife.

Air quality index
 The air quality index (AQI) is an index for reporting air quality on a daily basis.

 It is a measure of how air pollution affects one's health within a short time period.

 The AQI is based on measurement of PM2.5 and PM10, O3, NO2, SO2 and CO emissions.

 Every day, monitors record concentrations of the major pollutants. These raw
measurements are converted into a separate AQI value for each pollutant PM2.5 and PM10,
O3, NO2, SO2 and CO) using standard formulae developed by the US EPA.

 The purpose of the AQI is to help people know how the local air quality impacts their health.
It quickly disseminates air quality information in real-time.

 The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health
concerns.
Environmental impacts

Local Impact

Regional Impact

Global Impact
Photochemical Smog
(Local Impact)
Ozone in the atmosphere
Bad ozone
 Ground level or “bad” ozone is not emitted directly into the atmosphere but is created by
chemical reactions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in
the presence of sunlight.
Bad ozone makes photochemical smog
 Noxious mixture of pollutants (mostly ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacetyl nitrate) formed
when NOX, VOCs, and hydrocarbons, mainly from motor vehicle and industrial emissions,
react in presence of sunlight, creating a reddish brown haze above cities.
Bad ozone makes photochemical smog
Effect of photochemical smog on plants
 Ground level ozone causes more damage to plants than all other air pollutants combined.

 Ozone enters leaves through stomata during normal gas exchange. As a strong oxidant,
ozone causes several types of symptoms including chlorosis and necrosis.

 High concentrations of ozone cause plants to close their stomata, slowing down
photosynthesis.

 Prolonged ozone exposure reduces health and productivity of crops.

 High ozone concentrations can also affect soil fertility. Plants that are exposed to high
ozone concentrations metabolize less carbon dioxide, so less carbon is available in the
soil, and fewer soil microbes grow and thrive.
Effect of photochemical smog on humans
 Ozone air pollution causes over 150 thousand premature deaths every year, and millions
more chronic diseases, particularly in children and the elderly.
Preventing photochemical smog
NOX Control: Selective Catalytic Reduction
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is an advanced NOX emissions control technology that
injects a liquid-reductant agent through a special catalyst into the exhaust stream of a diesel
engine. The reductant source is usually automotive-grade urea, otherwise known as diesel
exhaust fluid (DEF). The DEF sets off a chemical reaction that converts NOX into nitrogen
and water, which is then expelled through the vehicle tailpipe.
Acid Deposition
(Regional Impact)
Acid deposition (acid rain)
 The accumulation of acids or acidic compounds on land, in water, or in the tissues of
vegetation, as a result of acid precipitation or of the settling or absorption of such
compounds directly from the atmosphere.
Acid deposition is a regional problem
Chemistry of acid deposition
 Both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are acidic oxides and react with water to form
acids.

 Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid.

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

 Substances in the upper atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between sulfurous acid
and oxygen to form sulfuric acid.

2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

 Similarly, nitrogen dioxide reacts with moisture to form a mixture of nitric acid and nitrous
acid.

2NO2 (g) + H2O (g) → HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

 Substances in the atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between nitrous acid and oxygen
causing the formation of more nitric acid.

2HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g) → 2HNO3 (aq)

Effect of acid rain on terrestrial ecosystems
 Acid rain causes demineralization of soil. Base cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ are
leached away and replaced by acid cations such as H+, Al3+ ions.

 Nitrogen fixation ability of nitrifying bacteria diminishes rapidly below pH 6.

 Acidification of soil adversely affects soil fauna and lead to reduced forest productivity.

 Acid rain also retards the growth of vegetables, such as pea, beans, raddish, spinach, etc.
Effect of acid rain on aquatic ecosystems
 Many bacteria and blue green algae are killed due to acidification, disrupting the whole
ecological balance.

 Acidic water can also leach aluminium from the soil. This runoff carry dissolved aluminium
to lakes, rivers and streams causing massive fish death by clogging their gills and thus
them depriving of oxygen.

 Fresh water lakes are fairly alkaline with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and HCO3– as the dominant ions.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are affected by acidity of water.

 Snails, clams, oysters etc. having their shells of calcium carbonate are among the first
animals to die in acidic lakes.
 Acid rain is responsible for the destruction of thousands of lakes
and streams in the United States, Canada and parts of Europe.
Effect of acid rain on vegetation
 Acid rain does not kill trees directly. Instead, it weaken trees by damaging their leaves,
limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them to toxic substances slowly
released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death of trees is a result of these effects of
acid rain in combination with one or more additional threats.
 Acid rain increases the concentration of Al3+ in groundwater, thereby
adversely affecting plant growth. Large sections of established
forests have been severely damaged in many areas of the eastern
United States.
Effect of acid rain on architecture
 Acid rain causes extensive damage to monuments and stone sculptures of marble,
limestone, slate etc. The damage caused to rocks and marble by acid rain is called as
marble-leprosy or stone-leprosy.

CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

 Acid rain corrodes houses, buildings, bridges, fences and railing that require huge cost for
maintenance every year.

Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

 Acid precipitation causes damage to steel, oil based paints and automobile coatings. It
also disintegrates textile, paper etc.
 The shiny white marble facade of the Taj Mahal, one of the seven
wonders of the modern world, is turning yellow due to acid rain.
Effect of acid rain on humans
 Acid rain does not directly affect human health.

 The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects.

 The particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides), however,
effect the human nervous system, respiratory system and digestive system.

 Acidification of drinking water reservoirs and concurrent increase in heavy metal

concentration can have serious health effects.
Preventing acid deposition
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization
 Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology employs a slurry of pulverized limestone
mixed with water to remove SO2 from the combustion exhaust gas of power plants via
chemical reactions that take place in a vessel commonly known as scrubber.

CaCO3 + H2O SO2 + (CaCO3 +

2H2O) + 1/2O2 →
CaCO3 + H2O
CO2 + (CaSO4.2H2O)

CaSO4.2H2O
Example 2.5: SO2 removal with an FGD system
The power plant described in Example 2.2 decides to install a wet limestone FGD
system to reduce its current SO2 emissions by 95%. The FGD system requires a
reagent stoichiometry of 1.03 (i.e., 3% more limestone than theoretically needed to
remove a mole of SO2). Calculate (a) the new annual SO2 emissions and (b) the
annual quantity of limestone required by this power plant.

Solution:

(a) From Example 2.2, the current SO2 emissions are 5.82  106 kg/year. The FGD
system will reduce SO2 emissions by 95%. Thus, the new emissions will be 5
percent of the current value.
 SO 2 removed = (0.95)  5.82 × 10 6 kg / year 
= 5.53 × 106 kg / year

SO 2 emissions with FGD = (0.05)  5.82 × 106 kg / year 

 2.91 × 105 kg / year

(b) SO2 is removed according to the following reaction:

1
SO2  (CaCO3 + 2H 2O)  O 2  CO2  (CaSO 4 .2H 2O)
2
The theoretical reagent requirement is 1.00 mol Ca/mol SO2 removed.
However, the actual requirement is 1.03 mol Ca/mol SO2 removed.
Thus a stoichiometric ratio of 1.03 corresponds to a mass ratio of

mCaCO3  mol Ca   100 g CaCO3 / mol Ca 

= 1.03  
mSO2  mol SO 2   64 g SO 2 / mol SO 2 

g CaCO3 kg CaCO3
= 1.6094 1.6094
g SO2 removed kg SO 2 removed

The annual mass of limestone required is thus

mCaCO3 = (1.6094) (5.82  106 )  9.37 × 106 kg CaCO 3 / year

Preventing outdoor air pollution
Ozone Depletion
(Global Impact)
Ozone depletion
 Gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer caused by the release of certain chemical
compounds from industry and other human activity that contain gaseous chlorine.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS)

such as hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs), halons, methyl chloroform and carbon
tetrachloride are mainly responsible for man-made chemical ozone depletion.

 Dramatic loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere was first noticed in the early 1970s. The
thinning was most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica and has
been called ozone hole.

 Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it increases the amount of

ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, increasing the rate of skin cancer,
eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage.
Ozone depletion
 Satellites observed the largest ozone hole over Antarctica in September, 2006. The center
of this image shows a large area where the concentration of ozone decreased by 50% or
more.

24 September 2006
Stratospheric ozone depletion
Ozone hole is a springtime phenomenon
 The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no ozone is present, but is actually a
region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens
at the beginning of Southern Hemisphere spring (August–October).

 The hole forms in the Antarctic because cold air is trapped as a result of the polar vortex
― strong, circulating winds.

 The cold temperatures allow the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), or ice
clouds.

 These PSCs are conducive to the breakdown of chlorine-containing compounds, which

are there because of our production of CFCs. This makes the area especially susceptible
to ozone depletion.

 When the sun hits the PSCs in early spring, large amounts of chlorine are from CFCs and
ODS.

 Fortunately, by early summer, ozone from other areas comes in to help fill this hole.
However, due to continued CFC production, the hole returns next year.
Environmental effects of ozone depletion
Reversing ozone depletion
 The Montreal Protocol on ‘Substances that deplete the ozone layer’ is a landmark
international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.

 The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992.

 The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that
deplete ozone in the stratosphere are to be phased out by 2000.

 The Montreal Protocol has, contributed to a significant drop in total global production and
consumption of ozone depleting substances used in agricultural, consumer and industrial
sectors around the world.

 It has also generated climate benefits as some of these substances are greenhouse
gases, too.
Recovery stages of global ozone
Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air pollution
 Indoor air contains higher concentrations of pollutants than outdoor air.

 Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.

 Developed countries – chemicals used in building materials and products.

 According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), four most dangerous indoor
air pollutants in developed countries include tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, radioactive
radon-222 gas and very small (ultrafine) particles.

 Less-developed countries – indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, coal,
and other fuels in open fires.
Important indoor air pollutants
Preventing indoor air pollution
Preventing air pollution
EV10003: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture #7

Solid and Hazardous Waste

Management
Dr. Shamik Chowdhury
School of Environmental Science and Engineering
E-mail: shamikc@iitkgp.ac.in

15 February 2021
We are living unsustainably
 Most urban areas are unsustainable systems.
Solid waste
 Solid waste refers to any unwanted or discarded material resulting from industrial,
commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and from community activities.

 Two types of solid waste:

o Industrial solid waste refers to waste produced by mines, agriculture and

industries that supply people with goods and services (e.g., chemical solvents,
paints, sandpaper, paper products, metals, and radioactive wastes).

o Municipal solid waste comprises the combined solid waste produced by homes
and workplaces (e.g., paper, cardboard, waste food, cans, bottles, wood, e-
waste, etc.).
Hazardous waste
 Hazardous waste threatens human health or the environment because it is
poisonous, dangerously chemically reactive, corrosive, or flammable.

 Examples include industrial solvents, medical waste, car batteries, dry-cell batteries,
household pesticide products, ash from incinerators and coal-burning power plants.

 Two types of hazardous waste:

o Organic compounds (such as various solvents, pesticides, polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins)

o Toxic heavy metals (such as lead, mercury and arsenic)

Managing solid waste
 The waste hierarchy sets out a set of priorities that are based on sustainability with an
order of preference for actions to reduce and manage waste.
Dealing with solid waste
 Waste management
o Attempt to manage wastes in ways that reduce their environmental harm
o Involves mixing wastes together and then transferring them from one part of the
environment to another

 Waste reduction
o Involves producing much less waste and pollution
o Wastes produced are considered to be potential resources that can be reused,
recycled, or composted

 Integrated waste management

o Involves a variety of strategies for both waste reduction and waste management
Waste management
 Does not attempt to reduce the amount of waste produced.

 Involves transferring wastes from one part of the environment to another, usually by
burying them, burning them, or shipping them to another location.

 Technologies for burning and burying solid wastes are well developed.

 Burning contributes to pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

 Buried wastes can eventually contribute to air and water pollution and land
degradation.

 Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and
developing nations), regions (urban and rural area), and sectors (residential and
industrial).
Burning solid waste (incineration)
 A waste-to-energy incinerator with pollution controls that burns mixed solid wastes
and recovers some of the energy to produce steam used for heating or producing
electricity.
 Despite being an attractive technological option for energy production and
waste management, direct combustion of solid waste has been largely
criticized since it emits heavy metals, dioxins and furans. However, the
concerns over the health effects of dioxin and furan emissions have been
significantly lessened in recent years by advances in emission control
designs and very stringent new governmental regulations that have resulted
in large reductions in the amount of dioxins and furans emissions.
The good and bad of incineration
Gasification of solid waste
 Gasification involves conversion of waste into syngas – a mixture of CO and H2 – by
reacting it with steam or by heating at 1300°C in an oxygen-limited atmosphere. The
syngas is then reacted with steam to convert CO to CO2 and H2. Finally, CO2 is
separated from the CO2/H2 mixture, by contact with physical solvents in an absorption
column, and the resulting H2 is burnt to produce power, leaving H2O as the main
gaseous product emitted to the atmosphere.
Plasma gasification
 Plasma gasification uses electrical energy to create high temperature (>2000ºC) plasma arc for
waste gasification. The plasma arc effectively breaks down the waste material into elemental
molecules and produces syngas and inert vitreous slag as outputs.

 The syngas, which contains dust (particulates) and other undesirable elements like mercury,
undergoes a clean-up process to make it suitable for conversion into other forms of energy
including power, heat and liquid fuels.

 The slag has the potential for use as rock wool, landfill cover, reclamation purposes, base material
for construction, landscaping blocks, asphalt road and pavement aggregate among other possible
applications.
Burying solid waste (sanitary landfills)
 Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe,
i.e., when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically.
The good and bad of sanitary landfills
Waste reduction
 Waste reduction is based on three R’s:

 Reduce: consume less and live a simpler lifestyle

 Reuse: rely more on items that can be used repeatedly instead on throwaway
items, and buy necessary items secondhand or borrow or rent them

 Recycle: separate and recycle paper, glass, cans, plastics, metal, and other
items, and buy products made from recycled materials
Reusing solid waste
 Reuse involves cleaning and using materials over and over, thus increasing the
typical life span of a product.

 Decreases the use of matter and energy resources, cuts pollution and waste,
creates local jobs, and saves money.

 Reuse strategies include yard sales, flea market, secondhand stores, and online
sites such as e-bay and craigslist.

 Current available technology allows reuse of many items.

 Encourage the use of refillable containers and reusable bags.
Reusing solid waste
Recycling solid waste
 Recycling involves reprocessing discarded solid materials into new, useful products.

 Two types of wastes can be recycled:

 Preconsumer / Internal waste: generated in a manufacturing process.

 Postconsumer / External waste: generated by consumer use of products.

 Such materials can be reprocessed in two ways:

 Primary / Closed-loop recycling: materials are recycled into new products of the
same type. e.g., used aluminum cans can be turned into new aluminum cans.

 Secondary recycling: waste materials are converted into different products. e.g.,
used tires can be shredded and turned into rubberized road surfacing.
Recycling household solid waste
 We can mix or separate household solid wastes for recycling.

 Materials recovery facilities (MRFs) involve machines or workers to separate the mixed
wastes to recover valuable materials for sale to manufacturers as raw materials. The
remaining wastes are either recycled or burned to produce steam or electricity.

 Source separation approach encourage households and businesses to separate their trash
into recyclable categories such as glass, paper, metals, certain types of plastics, and
compostable materials, thus saving more energy and reduces environmental pollution.

 Pay-as-you-throw (PAUT) or fee-per-bag waste collection system charges households and

businesses for the amount of mixed waste picked up, but does not charge for pickup of
materials separated for recycling or reuse.
Recycling biodegradable solid waste
 Composting is a form of recycling that mimics nature’s recycling of nutrients.

 Composting involves using decomposer bacteria to recycle yard trimmings, food scraps,
and other biodegradable organic waste.

 The resulting organic material can be added to soil to supply plant nutrients, slow soil
erosion, retain water, and improve crop yields.

 Large-scale composting program must be located carefully and odors must be controlled,
especially near residential areas.

 Composting programs must also exclude toxic materials that can contaminate the compost
and make it unsafe for fertilizing crops and lawns.
Recycling plastics
 Conversion of high value engineering plastics from complex streams of goods such as
computers, electronics, appliances, and automobiles into pellets.

 Plastic pellets are cheaper than virgin plastics since the processing technology uses 90% less
energy than that needed to make a new plastic.

 Also the raw material is cheap or free junk.

 Environment friendly since greenhouse gas emissions are much lower than those from making
virgin plastics.

 Recycling waste plastics further reduces the need to incinerate them or bury them in landfills.
Plastics recycling sequence
Plastics have several lives
The good and bad of recycling
Promoting reuse and recycling
 Governments can encourage reuse and recycling by adopting the following
strategies:
 increase subsidies and tax breaks for reusing and recycling materials.

 decrease subsidies and tax breaks for making items from virgin sources.

 greatly increase the fee-per-bag waste collection system.

 encourage or require government purchases of recycled products.

 pass laws requiring companies to take back and reuse or recycle packaging
and electronic waste discarded by consumers.

 informing the public about the merits of reuse and recycling.

Waste reduction
 Seven strategies that industries and governments can use to reduce resource use,
waste and pollution:

 redesign manufacturing processes and products to use less material and energy

 redesign manufacturing processes to produce less waste and pollution

 develop products that are easy to repair, reuse, remanufacture, compost or recycle

 eliminate or reduce unnecessary packaging

 use fee-per-bag waste collection systems

 establish cradle-to-grave responsibility laws

 restructure urban transportation systems

Integrated waste management
 Wastes are reduced through reuse, recycling, and composting, or managed by burying them
in landfills or incinerating them.
Dealing with hazardous waste
 Priorities suggested by the US National Academy of Sciences for dealing with hazardous
waste.
Dealing hazardous waste
 Detoxification
 Bioremediation: bacteria or enzymes help destroy toxic and hazardous waste or
convert them to more benign substances.

 Phytoremediation: involves using natural or genetically engineered plants to absorb,

filter and remove contaminants from polluted soil and water.

 Incineration: heating many types of hazardous waste to high temperatures – up to

2000°C – in an incinerator can break them down and convert them to less harmful or
harmless chemicals.

 Plasma arc torch: passing electrical current through gas to generate an electric arc
and very high temperatures can create plasma which can decompose liquid or solid
hazardous organic material.
Dealing hazardous waste
 Various types of plants can be used as pollution sponges to clean up soil and water and
radioactive substances (left), organic compounds (center), and toxic metals (right).
The good and bad of phytoremediation
Dealing hazardous waste
 Storing hazardous waste
 Deep-well disposal: liquid hazardous wastes are pumped under pressure into dry
porous rock far beneath aquifers.

 Surface impoundments: excavated depressions such as ponds, pits, or lagoons into

which liners are placed and liquid hazardous wastes are stored.

 Long-term retrievable storage: some highly toxic materials cannot be detoxified or

destroyed. Metal drums are used to stored them in areas that can be inspected and
retrieved.

 Secure landfills: hazardous waste are put into drums and buried in carefully designed
and monitored sites.
The good and bad of deep-well disposal
The good and bad of surface impoundments
Reducing hazardous waste
Transition to a low-waste society
 Grassroots actions: Keep large numbers of incinerators, landfills, and hazardous
waste treatment plants from being built in local areas.

 Environmental justice: Every person is entitled to protection from environmental

hazards without discrimination.

 International treaties: Calls for phasing out the use of harmful persistent organic
pollutants (POPs).

 New vision:
 Everything is connected
 There is no away, as in to throw away, for the wastes we produce
 Polluters and producers should pay for the wastes they produce
 Hazardous waste and recyclable waste should not be mixed
 Mimic nature by reusing, recycling, or composting
EV10003: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture #5

Climate Change: Scientific Basis,

Mitigation & Adaption
Dr. Shamik Chowdhury
School of Environmental Science and Engineering
E-mail: shamikc@iitkgp.ac.in

11 January 2021
Climate Change: A Primer
 Climate is the statistical description of weather conditions and their variations, including
both averages and extremes.

 Climate change is the alteration in the average weather pattern over a long period of time.

 Greenhouse gases (GHGs) play an important role in determining climate and causing
climate change.

 These gases act like an insulating blanket, keeping the Earth’s surface warmer than it
would be if they were not present in the atmosphere, a phenomenon known as
greenhouse effect.

 GHGs include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O)
and some industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Science of Climate Change
The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect
The Earth’s Climate in the Past
 During the past million years, the average temperature of the Earth’s surface has risen
and fallen by about 5 oC. The millennium before the industrial revolution have been
relatively stable.
Estimating Past Temperatures
 Past temperature changes are estimated by analysis of radioisotopes in rocks and
fossils, plankton and radioisotopes in ocean sediments, tiny bubbles of ancient air
found in ice cores from glaciers, pollen from bottoms of lakes, tree rings, and
historical records.
The Earth’s Climate in the Recent Past
 The upward trend since the early 1960s indicates global warming.

Global surface mean temperature anomalies.

Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet
CO2 is the Major Cause of Global Warming
BREACHES

400 ppm
on May 9
2013

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations and global annual average temperatures (as measured over both land and oceans)
over the years 1880 to 2010. Red bars indicate temperatures above and blue bars indicate temperatures below the
average temperature. The black line shows atmospheric CO2 concentrations in parts per million (ppm).
Keeling Curve
 The Keeling Curve, devised by Dr. Charles David Keeling of the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, represents the concentration of CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere since
1958, as recorded at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
Where Humanity’s GHGs Come From?
Global Warming Potential
 Global warming potential
(GWP) and CO2-equivalence
are used to compare the
potential warming influence
of emissions of the same
mass of different GHGs.

 GWP compares the warming

effect of a given mass of
GHG to the same mass of
CO2 over a specified time. As
GHGs do not have the same
life time in the atmosphere,
the GWP depends on the
time-horizon chosen.
Impacts of Climate Change
Melting of More Ice and Snow

 Over the past 30 years, more

than 20% of the polar ice cap
has melted away, and the
melting trend is accelerating.

 September 2012 had the

lowest sea ice extent ever
recorded: 44% below the
1981–2010 average for that
month.

 The September 2015 sea ice

extent was more than
700,000 square miles less
than the historical 1981–2010
average for that month.
Sea Level Rise
 Many low-lying coastal land areas are expected to be gradually submerged by rising
sea levels.
 For a low-lying island nation like the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, even a
small rise in sea level could spell disaster for most of its people. About
80% of the 1192 small islands making up this country lie less than 1
meter above sea level.
Coastal Flooding
 Sea level rise will magnify the adverse impact of storm surges and high waves on the
coast.
Ocean Acidification
 ‘Acidification’ of ocean water can harm marine life.
 Declining pH levels in the world's oceans interferes with many
species ability to form shells.
Extreme Weather Events
 As the climate has warmed, some types of extreme weather have become more
frequent and severe in recent decades.
Biodiversity Loss
 Climate change alone is expected to threaten with extinction approximately one quarter or
more of all species on land by the year 2050, surpassing even habitat loss as the biggest
threat to life on land.
Impact on Food Production
POSTIVE IMPACTS NEGATIVE IMPACTS

Increased productivity from

Increased insect infestations
warmer temperatures

Possibility of growing new crops Crop damage from extreme heat

Planning problems due to less

Longer growing seasons
reliable forecasts

Increased productivity from

Increased soil erosion
enhanced CO2*

Accelerated maturation rates Increased weed growth

Decreased moisture stress

More plant disease
(for some crops)

*CO2 fertilization only applies to some crops Decreased herbicide and

and will at best be a small temporary benefit pesticide efficiency
for higher altitudes.
Increased moisture stress
(for most crops)
Threat to Human Health
 Climate crisis can have serious consequences for human health and well-being.
Mitigating Climate Change
Climate solutions are within reach
Carbon capture, utilization and storage
 Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) is a combination of technologies for (1)
selectively removing CO2 from smokestacks of fossil-fuelled power plants and other large
industrial sources, (2) compressing and transporting it as a supercritical fluid to a suitable
site, (3) utilizing it as a feedstock in industrial process and/or (4) storing it by a natural or
engineered trapping mechanism.

3 2

4
CO2 capture scenarios
 Three different strategies for CO2 capture are currently being considered: (i) Post-combustion
capture (capturing CO2 from flue gas following normal combustion), (ii) Pre-combustion capture
(removing CO2 from fossil fuels before combustion), (iii) Oxyfuel combustion systems (adjusting
the combustion conditions to generate flue gas with easily separable CO2).
Utilizing CO2

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR)
Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM)
Geoengineering
Adapting to Climate Change
We can prepare for climate disruption
Governments can play a critical role
 Governments can adopt the following strategies to reduce the threat of climate
disruption:

 strictly regulate CO2 and CH4 as climate changing pollutants.

 phase out the most inefficient polluting coal-burning power plants and replace
them with more efficient and cleaner natural gas and renewable energy
alternatives.

 put a price on carbon emissions by phasing in taxes on each unit of CO2 or

CH4 emitted, or phasing in energy taxes on each unit of any fossil fuel burned.

 use a cap-and-trade system which uses the marketplace to help reduce

emissions of CO2 and CH4.
Governments can play a critical role
 phase out government subsidies and tax breaks for fossil fuels and industrialized
food production.

 phase in government subsidies and tax breaks for energy efficiency

technologies, low-carbon renewable energy sources, and more sustainable
agriculture.

 focus research and development efforts on innovations that lower the cost of
clean energy alternatives.

 work out agreements to finance and monitor efforts to reduce deforestation.

 encourage more-developed countries to help fund the transfer of the latest

energy-efficiency and cleaner energy technologies to less-developed countries.
The Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international
body for the assessment of climate change.

 It was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the world with a clear
scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential
environmental and socio-economic impacts.

 In the same year, the UN General Assembly endorsed the action by WMO and
UNEP in jointly establishing the IPCC.

 As an intergovernmental body, membership of the IPCC is open to all member

countries of the UN and WMO.
Role of IPCC
 “… to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent
basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant
to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate
change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.”

 IPCC does not undertake new research, nor does it monitor climate-
related data, instead, it conducts assessments of knowledge on the
basis of published and peer reviewed scientific and technical literature.

 “IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to policy, although they

may need to deal objectively with scientific, technical and socio-
economic factors relevant to the application of particular policies.”
Structure of IPCC

UN Parent
Organizations

Intergovernmental Panel
(195 member states)
IPCC Reports
 Five assessment reports (1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013-14)

 Nine special reports (1997, 1999, 2000, 2005, 2011, 2012): provide an authoritative
scientific/technical assessment or guidance on any topic, which is not adequately
covered in assessment reports.

 Guidelines for national GHG inventories, good practice guidance (1995, 2006, 2013)

 Technical papers and supporting material: TPs are produced from IPCC reports to
provide tailored scientific/technical perspective on a particular topic; SM consists of
published reports and proceedings from workshops and expert meetings within the
scope of the IPCC work programme.
Significant Progress made in Understanding
Climate Change since 1990 – WG I Reports

The reports are getting more comprehensive

Outcome of IPCC reports
 FAR (1990) – led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), an international environmental treaty adopted on 9 May 1992 to
"stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"

 SAR (1995) – input for Kyoto Protocol which set targets for 37 industrialized
countries to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on the principles of the
UNFCCC.

 TAR (2001) – focused attention on impacts of climate change and need for
adaptation

 AR4 (2007), AR5 (2013) – input for decision on 2 ºC limit; basis for post Kyoto
Protocol agreement.
Nobel Peace Prize to IPCC

The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 was awarded jointly to Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) and Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr. "for their efforts to build up
and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay
the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change."
What is next for the IPCC?
What is next for the IPCC?
Individual choices make a difference
Text Book
Soil Pollution & Remediation
Dr. Manoj K. Tiwari
School of Water Resources
IIT Kharagpur
Soil, and Soil Pollution ?
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers
the Earth's rocky surface. The organic portion, which is derived
from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is concentrated
in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of
rock fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical
and chemical weathering of bedrock. Productive soils are
necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic

compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease
causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and
health of living organisms.
Soil Layers
Soils can become polluted through ..
 Seepage from a landfill
 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
 Rupture of underground storage tanks
 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
 Solid waste seepage

The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:

 Petroleum hydrocarbons
 Heavy metals
 Pesticides
 Solvents
Types of Soils Pollution
 Agricultural Soil Pollution
 pollution of surface soil
 pollution of underground soil

 Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes

 pollution of surface soil
 disturbances in soil profile

 Pollution due to urban activities

 pollution of surface soil
 pollution of underground soil
Agricultural Soils Pollution

 Indiscriminate use of fertilizers

 Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides

 Deforestation

 Improper irrigation
Urban Soils Pollution
 Improper sanitation / Clogging of drains:
 Deforestation
 Solid waste dumping
 Change in land use land cover
 Release of toxic chemicals, paints, hospital waste etc.
Industrial Soils Pollution
 Chemicals released by industrial wastes and industrial wastes
 Decomposed and partially decomposed materials of sanitary
wastes
 Atmospheric deposition
Accidental Soils Pollution
 Result of accidents involving the vehicles that are transporting
waste material from site of origin to a disposal site.
 Accidents involving vehicles (automobiles, trucks and airplanes)
not transporting wastes, but carrying materials, including fuel,
that when spilled contaminate the soil.
Effects of Soils Pollution
Agricultural
 Reduced soil fertility
 Reduced nitrogen fixation
 Increased erodability
 Larger loss of soil and nutrients
 Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
 Reduced crop yield
 Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
 Eutrophication
Effects of Soils Pollution
Industrial
 Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
 Ecological imbalance
 Release of pollutant gases
 Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
 Increased salinity
 Reduced vegetation
Effects of Soils Pollution
Urban
 Clogging of drains
 Inundation of areas
 Public health problems
 Pollution of drinking water sources
 Foul smell and release of gases
 Waste management problems
Effects of Soils Pollution
Long-term Environmental
 pollution runs off into rivers and kills the fish, plants and other
aquatic life
 crops and fodder grown on polluted soil may pass the pollutants
on to the consumers
 polluted soil may no longer grow crops and fodder
 Soil structure is damaged (clay ionic structure impaired)
 corrosion of foundations and pipelines
 impairs soil stability
 may release vapours and hydrocarbon into buildings and cellars
 may create toxic dusts
 may poison children playing in the area
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Erosion
 Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all
landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion refers to the wearing away of
a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind or
through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Erosion: Types

Sheet Erosion
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Erosion: Types

Rill Erosion
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Erosion: Types

Gully Erosion
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Erosion: Types

Bank Erosion
Effects of Soils Pollution
Water Logging
Another problem associated with excessive irrigation on poorly drained soils is
waterlogging. This occurs (as is common for salinization) in poorly drained soils
where water can't penetrate deeply. For example, there may be an impermeable
clay layer below the soil. It also occurs on areas that are poorly drained
topographically. What happens is that the irrigation water (and/or seepage from
canals) eventually raises the water table in the ground -- the upper level of the
groundwater -- from beneath. Growers don't generally realize that waterlogging is
happening until it is too late -- tests for water in soil are apparently very
expensive.

The raised water table results in the soils becoming waterlogged. When soils are
water logged, air spaces in the soil are filled with water, and plant roots
essentially suffocate -- lack oxygen. Waterlogging also damages soil structure.

Improving drainage is the only way to control water logging

Effects of Soils Pollution
Water Logging

 Waterlogging occurs when roots cannot respire due to excess

water in the soil profile.
 Water does not have to appear on the surface for
waterlogging to be a potential problem.
 Improving drainage from the inundated paddock can decrease
the period at which the crop roots are subjected to anaerobic
conditions.
 While raised beds (see Raised Bed Cropping fact sheet) are
the most intensive management strategy, they are also the
most effective at improving drainage.
 Waterlogged soils release increased amounts of nitrous oxide
(N2O), a particularly damaging greenhouse gas.
Effects of Soils Pollution
Salinization
Salinization refers to a build up of salts in soil, eventually to toxic
levels for plants. (3,000 - 6,000 ppm salt results in trouble for most
cultivated plants.) Salt in soils decreases the osmotic potential of the
soil so that plants can't take up water from it. When soils are salty,
the soil has greater concentrations of solute than does the root, so
plants can't get water from soil. (Remember osmosis -- water "tries"
to accomplish dilution -- it moves from areas with lower
concentration of dissolved substances to areas with higher
concentration?) The salts can also be directly toxic, but plant
troubles usually result primarily from inability to take up water
from salty soils.
Problems with salinization are most commonly associated with
excessive water application, rather than with too little.
Effects of Soils Pollution
Salinization
Soil salinization is a serious and difficult to reverse form of soil
degradation. Salinization occurs when dissolved salts in water
tables rise to the soil surface and accumulate as water
evaporates. Often rise in a water table is due to the replacement of
deep-rooted vegetation, such as trees, with shallower rooted
vegetation, such as grasses. Application of irrigation water or heavy
rainfall can also cause water tables to rise. Topsoil salts can greatly
reduce agricultural productivity, erode infrastructure, and impose
long-term limitations on land productivity. Soils containing high
levels of salts are much more likely to experience this regime shift.
Effects of Soils Pollution
Soil Salinization: Key direct drivers

Vegetation conversion and habitat fragmentation

Harvest and resource consumption
External inputs (eg fertilizers)
Environmental shocks (eg floods)
Large-scale commercial crop cultivation
Extensive livestock production (rangelands
Control of Soils Pollution
 Use of pesticides and fertilizers should be minimized.
 Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of
weeds.
 Special pits should be selected for dumping wastes.
 Controlled grazing and forest management.
 Wind breaks and wind shield in areas exposed to wind erosion
 Afforestation and reforestation.
 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Control of Soils Pollution
Information needed to clean up materials added to soil.
Kind of material-organic or inorganic- is the material
biodegradable/ dangerous to animals & humans
 How much material was added to the soil, will it overload
the organisms in the soil
C:N ratio of the pollutant material
Nature of soil: will the soil be able to handle the material
before groundwater is contaminated
Growing conditions for the soil organisms: - is it too cold,
too wet etc.
How long the material has been on site: is there evidence of
environmental problems, is it undergoing decomposition.
Immediate danger to people & environment: Urgency of
the situation.
Using Plants for pollution cleanup
 Plants can be used to bind up soil pollution found at
contaminated sites, where toxic wastes /pollutants may reach
groundwater.

 Plants, soil, and microbes in the soil work together to determine

which metals and nutrients plants take up from the soil.

 Some plants excrete a variety of different chemicals into the soil,

some of which act as signals to soil organisms.

 The scientific challenge is to find out how plants release these

chemicals and how these chemicals interact with microbes and
soil.
 Bioremediation of Soil Pollutants
 The use of naturally occuring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi & plants
to break down or degrade toxic chemical compounds that have accumulated in
the environment
 It is a method that treats the soils and renders them non-hazardous, thus
eliminating any future liability that may result from landfill problems or
violations.
Factors affecting bioremediation
 Microbial factors
 Temperature favorable for organisms
 Availability of water (Moisture content)
 Availability of nutrients (N,P,K)
 C: N (carbon: nitrogen) ratio of the contaminant
material< 30:1
 pH
 Availability of Oxygen in sufficient quantity in soil.
In-Situ and Ex-Situ bioremediation
 In-situ Bioremediation: The treatment in place without
excavation of contaminated soils or sediments.
 Less expensive
 Creates less dust
 Less possibility of contaminant release into environment

 Ex-situ Bioremediation: Requires pumping of the

groundwater or excavation of contaminated soil prior to
remediation treatments.
 Easier to control
 Used to treat wider range of contaminants and soil types
 Costly
 Faster
Types of In-situ Bioremediation
 Biostimulation: To stimulate
the activity of microorganisms
by adding nutrients and
electron acceptors (e.g. O2)
 Bioventing: Injecting air
through soil to stimulate
microbe growth in unsaturated
zone
 Biosparging: Injection of
air/nutrients into unsaturated
and saturated zones
 Bioaugmentation: inoculation
of soil with microbes or adding
exogenous microbes to the
subsurface
Biostimulation

Biosparging
Ex-Situ Bioremediation
 Slurry-phase:
Soil combined with water/additives in
tank, microorganisms, nutrients,
oxygen added

 Solid-phase
 Land-farming: soil put on pad,
leachate collected
 Soil biopiles: soil heaped, air added
 Composting: biodegradable waste
mixed with bulking agent
 Land Applied –waste added directly
to soil which is later planted to a
crop.
Advantages of Using Bioremediation

 Biologically-based remediation detoxifies hazardous

substances instead of merely transferring contaminants
from on environmental medium to another.

 Bioremediation is generally less disruptive to the

environment than excavation-based processes.

 The cost of treating a hazardous waste site using

bioremediation technologies can be considerably lower
than that for conventional treatment methods:
vacuuming, absorbing, burning, dispersing, or moving
the material .