Stockoe S Guide To Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Teratogen 158 Teratogen
A GUIDE TO
COMPARATIVE
VETERINARY
ANATOMY
WILIAM M. STOKOE
Ph.D., M.R.C.S.
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY ANATOMY
SCHOOL OF VETERINARY STUDIES
LONDON
Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell
ERROL JAY YUSON BALAGAN

YASSER CANSINO CABANSAG
Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Teratogen 2 Teratogen 157
PREFACE the tail feathers. It is used for preening
purposes. (oil secreting gland)
One of the less fortunate side effects in the
teaching of modern medical science is the tendency Respiratory System
for the clinical studies to outstrip the scope and stat-
ure of those in the pre-clinical years. This is particularly
The following are points of note:
so in the case of veterinary anatomy, which has proba-
bly never before been in greater danger in losing its The fowl has no diaphragm.
best traditions and foundations. Growing pressures to
reduce present day curricula and align them with It has a cranial larynx which consists of two
those of human anatomy are to blame, for with this ossified cartilages:
comes for the tendency of veterinary anatomist to
skirt the elements of their subjects in an effort to keep Cricoid
up with clinical Joneses. Arytenoid
It has a caudal larynx which is termed the sy-

This book therefore represents and endeavors
rinx. The syrinx is a lateral compression at the point of
to set forth in brief and simple form those essential bifurcation of the trachea.
elements of comparative veterinary anatomy, without
the dead-wood and clutter of inconsequential detail Tracheal rings are complete.
which typifies many existing textbooks. In this way, it
is intended that the book should lay a foundation The main bronchus does not ramify like the
which can be further built upon in accordance with mammalian bronchus. It passes through the entire
modern curricular requirements. At the same time, it lung to communicate with a system of air sacs. These
air sacs communicate with each other. There are
is intended that the book’s special advantage should
eleven in all:
extend into three particular fields.
1 clavicular
The first is as the student’s laboratory com- 2 cervical
panion – be the Meat Inspector, Veterinarian or Ani- 4 thoracic – 2 anterior and 2 posterior
mal Nursing Auxiliary – for both general and detailed 2 axillary
information is easily located, and the progress from 2 abdominal
generalities to particulars is guided.

Urogenital System The second is as a means of consolidating
knowledge gained from lectures, lantern slides and
other reading into an organized and harmonious
The kidneys of the fowl have three or four
whole.
lobes. In the male, they are related anteriorly to the
testes. The ureters open into the urodeum.
The third is as a review source for the treat-
The male bird has two testes. The ductus def- ment of the text permits the memory to be refreshed
erens of either gland opens on a small papilla in the as much or as little as may be desired, without loss of
urodeum. time or loss of main thread of thought.
The female bird has only one ovary. It is W.M.S

closely situated to the left kidney.
The yolk of the egg is formed in the ovary. The

other parts are formed in the oviduct as the yolk
gradually passes to the urodeum. The oviduct has five Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies
divisions: Edinburg
January 1967
Infundibulum
Magnum - albumen secreting portion
Isthmus – shell membrane is formed
Uterus – shell is secreted
Vagina – shell cuticle and coloring matter are
added. The vagina leads into the urodeum.
Points to note:
The pecten projects into interior of eyeball

from region of entrance of optic nerve. It
is vascular and pigmented and thus is con-
sidered as an appendage of the choroid.
The uropygial gland is situated at the base of

The number of vertebrae in each region ex-
cept the last is more or less constant for each animal.
Digestive System
Thus the vertebral formulae for each animal are as
follows: The fowl has no teeth. Its hard palate is cleft.
Its tongue has macroscopic cornified papilla and con-
A typical vertebra is described as having: tains the entoglossal bone. Otherwise, the digestive
tube is as follows:
1. Body
2. Arch Pharynx
3. Processes
 Articular
Esophagus
 Transverse Crop
 Spinous Glandular stomach
Gizzard
Cervical vertebrae can be recognized by the Duodenum – consists of two narrow loops be-
fact that they are: tween which the pancreas is situated.
Loose coils of jejunum and ileum
1. Massive and quadrangular Two caeca
2. Longer than vertebrae in other re-
Short colon
gions.
Cloaca
Thoracic vertebrae has the regional character-
The cloaca is the common opening to both
istics:
digestive and urogenital system. It has three parts:
1. Facets for the articulation with the
ribs.
2. Long spinous processes. Coprodeum – continuous with rectum
Urodeum – ureters and genital ducts open
Lumbar vertebrae has the regional character- Proctodeum – posterior portion in which is a
istics: diverticulum, the bursa of Fabricius
1. Short and flattened bodies.
2. Expanded transverse processes. The liver of the fowl has two lobes.
Sacral vertebrae are fused to form a single The spleen is small and round like a marble. It
bone (bodies are fused and flattened). Generally the is situated next to the stomach.
sacrum is described as having:

their extremities only. 1. Two (2) surfaces
Digits. Each carpal bears a digit. Of 2. Two (2) boders
these, the 1st and 2nd have two 3. A base
4. An apex
phalanges. The 3rd has 1 phalanx.
In the fowl the vertebrae of the lumbo-sacral
SKELETON OF THE LEG region are fused into a body mass comprising the last
thoracic, fourteen (14) lumbo-sacral and the first coc-
The pelvic limb of the fowl can be divided into cygeal vertebrae.
the following regions:
COCCYGEAL
Pelvic girdle which consists of:
15-21
18-20
16-18
20-22
20-23
5-6
12
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
SACRAL
The pelvic girdle has no floor. The roof is
4
formed by the 14 fused lumbar and sacral
L/S 14
vertebrae.
LUMBAR
Thigh – femur
6-7
6
7
Lower limb – tibia and fibula
Pes
Metacarpus which consists of a single
THORACIC
14-15
5-7
bone formed by the fusion of the
18
13
13
13
13
2nd, 3rd and 4th metatarsals.
Digits. The metacarpus carries 4 digits.
3 project forwards and 1 back-
CERVICAL
14-17
wards. The 1st digit which projects
7
7
backwards carries 2 phalanges, the
others thus:
2nd digit – 3 phalanges
3rd digit – 4 phalanges
ANIMAL
HORSE
SHEEP
FOWL
GOAT
DOG
PIG
4th digit – 5 phalanges
OX
Skeletal System FOWL

Skeletal System
OSTEOLOGY The quadrate bone is a large bone situated
between the mandible and the temporal bone. Its
The endoskeleton – as opposed to the exo- function is to allow the upper back to be opened
whenever the mandible is depressed.
skeleton of the tortoises, turtles etc. it is dived into
three parts: The sternum is adapted to give attachment to
1. Axial the powerful wing muscles. It consists of the following
2. Appendicular parts:
3. Splanchnic
The axial skeleton consists of: Rostrum

Lateral oblique process with posterior
1. Skull branches
2. Vertebral column Ventral crest or keel
3. Ribs
4. Sternum SKELETON OF THE WING
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones
The thoracic limb of the fowl is modified for
of the limbs.
flight. It has the following segments:
The splanchnic or visceral skeleton is com-
prised of bones which are developed in soft organs. Shoulder girdle
Examples are: Coracoid
Clavicle
Os penis of the Dog Scapula
Os cordis of the Ox Upper arm – humerus
Entoglossal bone of the Fowl
Forearm – radius and ulna
Os rostrale/rostra of the Pig
Manus
Carpus which consists of two carpal
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES bones, radial and ulnar
Metacarpus which consists of meta-
Bones are classified according to their shape carpals 1, 2 and 3. Of these, 1 is
and function. There are four (4) primary classes: vestigial. 2 and 3 are blended at
One retractor – retractor oculi LONG BONES –they acts as lever. Ex. Radius.
Each long bone has a shaft (diaphysis) and
Blood supply – Ophthalmic two (2) extremities (epiphyses).
Nerve supply – the oculomotor nerve supplies SHORT BONES – they diffuse concussion. Ex.
all extrinsic muscles except: Carpals.
SO4 – superior oblique which is supplied by FLAT BONES – protective and afford a large
the 4th cranial nerve. area for muscular attachment. Ex. Scapula.
LR6 – lateral rectus which is supplied by the 6th IRREGULAR BONES – they have varied func-
cranial nerve. tions such as that of support and ligament
attachment. Ex. Vertebrae, median and
Thus the innervation of the intrinsic muscles of unpaired bones.
the eye is given by the formula:
Pneumatic bones are found in the skeleton of
(L.R.6 S.O4) 3 birds. They are lined by mucous membrane rather
than the marrow and they communicate with the res-
piratory system.
Ribs cannot be satisfactorily being included in

the above groups. They are considered as aberrant
long bones.
Sesamoid are bones which are developed in

tendons to afford increased leverage. Examples are (1)
Patella and (2) Navicular bone.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column is subdivided into five

regions:
1.Cervical
2.Thoracic
3.Lumbar
4.Sacral
5.Coccygeal

COMPARATIVE NOTES SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
ATLAS The function of the sympathetic nervous sys-

tem is:
HORSE: Three foramina are present.
1. To innervate the cardiac and plain muscles
1. Intervertebral and glands.
2. Alar 2. To transmit impulses from the viscera to the
3. Transverse central nervous system.
OX/SHEEP: Transverse foramen is absent. The The sympathetic system consists of the double
wings of the sheep atlas project chain ganglia extending along either side of the verte-
posteriorly. bral column from the base of the cranium to the tail.
The ganglia are connected with each other to form the
PIG: Transverse foramen is situated in poste- bilateral sympathetic trunk. Rami communicates link
rior border of wing. the sympathetic ganglia with the cerebrospinal nerves.
DOG: Alar foramen is a notch. EYE
EPISTROPHEUS or AXIS The eyeball consists of three concentric tunics:
HORSE: Spinous process is bifed. Sclera – the fibrous tunic

Choroid – the vascular tunic
OX/SHEEP: Dens are characteristically spout- Retina – the nervous tunic
shaped.
The refractive media of the eye are:
PIG: High spine directed posteriorly.
Vitreous body
DOGS: Dens are typically tooth-like. Lens
6th CERVICAL VERTEBRAE Aqueous humor fills both anterior and poste-
rior chamber.
It is short.
There are seven muscles of the eyeball:
HORSE: 6th cervical has a trifid transverse proc-
ess (split into three parts). Two oblique – superior and inferior
Four straight – dorsal, ventral, medial and
OTHER ANIMALS: 6th cervical transverse proc- lateral recti

Internal ess has a well developed ventral plate
Intermediate (contains the muscular groove).
Medial
Capsularis 7th CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
SCIATIC The 7th cervical can be recognized by the fol-

lowing features:
DERIVED from 6ht lumbar and 1st sacral
SUPPLIES 1. Single transverse process.
Quadratus femoris 2. Absence of transverse foramen.
Internal obturator 3. Facet on either side of posterior
Semitendinosus body for head of 1st rib
Semimembranosus
Gemelli
THORACIC VERTERBRAE
DEEP PERONEAL
1ST-15TH directed backward
DERIVED as large trunk from sciatic. 16th straight-diaphragmatic and 17th-
SUPPLIES 18th forward
th th
Peronaeus tertius (in horse) 4 -5 forms the highest point
Anterior tibial
Long extensor of digits CAUDAL THORACIC
Short extensor of digits
No transverse foramen. Caudal thoracic have an
TIBIAL additional process called mammillary process. Last
thoracic has no posterior facets.
DERIVED as direct continuation of sciatic.
SUPPLIES LUMBARS OF HORSE
Gastrocnemius
Soleus A characteristics of equidae is that the trans-
Plantaris verse processes of the lumbars 4, 5, and 6 articulate
Long flexor of digits with each other.
Flexor hallucis longus
Posterior tibial Has (anterior) mammillary process located at the
Popliteal muscle anterior articular process and transverse process.
Interosseus muscle
Lumbrical muscle Has accessory process located at the posterior
articular process and transverse process.

Last rib attachment = retractor costae. Gluteal – cranial and caudal
Pudendal
Post cutaneous femoral
RIBS Caudal haemorrhoidal
Ribs are described as having: CRANIAL GLUTEAL
1. A shaft. DERIVED from last lumbar and last sacral

2. Two extremities – sternal and vertebral. SUPPLIES
The vertebral extremity presents the head, Tensor fascia latae
neck and tubercle. Superficial gluteal
Middle gluteal
POINTS OF NOTE: Piriformis (in dogs)
Deep gluteal
1. There is always one more pair of sternal ribs
than there are sterna segments (sternebrae). CAUDAL GLUTEAL
2. The head if the rib articulates with the body of
vertebra of same serial number and that of the DERIVED from sacral root of lumbo-sacral
one in front. plexus.
3. The tubercle of a rib articulates with the trans- SUPPLIES
verse process o the vertebra of the same serial Biceps femoris
number. Semitendinosus
OBTURATOR
Animal Rib Pairs Sternal Asternal Sternebrae
DERIVED from 4th and 6th lumbars.
HORSE 18 8 10 7 SUPPLIES
Gracilis
OX 13 8 5 7 Adductor femoris
Pectineus
SHEEP 13 8 5 7 External obturator
PIG 14 7 7 6
FEMORAL
DOG 13 9 4 8
DERIVED from 4th and 5th lumbars.
SUPPLIES
Rectus femoris
Vast muscles

Cuteneous COMPARATIVE NOTES
Radial extensor
Common extensor HORSE: narrow shaft and strongly curved in
Digiti quinti dorsal third.
Abductor pollicis longus
Ulnar extensor OX/SHEEP: wide, flat shaft and long neck.
MEDIAN PIG: narrow shaft and distinct angle.
DERIVED from 8th cervical and 1st thoracic DOGS: Cylindrical shaft.
SUPPLIES
Radial flexor The 1st rib is distinguished by the fact that it is
the shortest and the shaft widens greatly at the exter-
MEDIAN AND ULNAR nal extremity. A common feature of the 1st rib is the
scalene tubercle.
SUPPLIES
Ulnar flexor
Superficial flexor FORELIMB
Deep flexor
Lumbrical muscles The forelimb consists of four divisions:
Interosseus muscles
1. Shoulder
NERVES OF THE HIND LIMB 2. Upper arm
3. Forearm
LUMBO-SACRAL PLEXUS– it is formed by the junction 4. Manus
of the ventral roots of the last three lumbar and the
first two sacral nerves. The nerves which supply the
pelvic limb are derived from the plexus. SCAPULA – The scapula is a flat bone forming the
skeleton of the shoulder.
There are eleven major trunks in the plexus:
COMPARATIVE NOTES
Iliohypogastric – cranial and caudal
Ilioinguinal HORSE: spine fades distally. Trapezius tubercle is
Genitofemoral present.
Lateral cutaneous femoral
Femoral OX/SHEEP: bone distinctly triangular. Spine is
Obturator sinuous dividing lateral surface into unequal fos-
Sciatic sae.

PIG: prominent trapezius tubercle overhanging in- SUPRASCAPULAR
fraspinouos fossa.
DERIVED from 6ht and 7th cervical. Passes be-
DOG: spine bisects lateral surface. Distinct acronium. tween supraspinatus and subscapular
muscles and turns around distal fourth of
DETERMINATION OF SIDE: anterior border of scapula to reach su-
praspinus fossa.
Spine is lateral. SUPPLIES supraspinatus then continuous to
Tuber scapulae is anterior. infraspinatus fossa and terminates in in-
fraspinatus muscle.
HUMERUS – is a long bone forming the skeleton of the
upper arm or brachium. MUSCULO-CUTANEOUS
HORSE: bicipital groove divided by a ridge. DERIVED from 7th to 8th cervical.
SUPPLIES
OX/SHEEP: Massive lateral tuberosity overhangs Coraco-brachialis
bicipital groove. Triceps brachii
Brachialis (in dogs)
PIG: Lateral tuberosity almost converts bicipital Occasional branch to median
groove into foramen.
AXILLARY
DOG: Single lateral tuberosity. Coranoid and ole-
cranon fossae communicate through supra- DERIVED chiefly from 8th cervical
trochlear foramen. SUPPLIES
Teres major
DETERMINATION OF SIDE: Capsularis
Teres minor
Crest is lateral. Deltoid
Head is posterior. Brachiocephalic
Cutaneous fascia
FOREARM RADIAL
RADIUS AND ULNA – are two long bones which to- DERIVED from 1st and 2nd thoracic.
gether form the skeleton of the forearm. SUPPLIES
Tensor fascia antibrachii
HORSE: Ulna fused almost two-thirds way down Triceps
the shaft of radius. (R longer than U) Anconeous

Tracheal OX: Ulna complete. It projects distally beyond
Bronchial and Pulmonary plexuses the radius as the styloid process. (U longer than
Oesophageal R)
Gastric
Pancreatic SHEEP: Ulna is not necessarily fused. Extremely
Intestinal slender.
Splenic, and branches to the:
Liver PIG: Ulna is massive. Articulates with the radius
and ulnar carpal. (U is longer)
SPINAL NERVES
DOG: Ulnar never fused. Olecranon has trituber-
Each spinal nerve is connected with the spinal culate summit. (U is longer)
cord by two roots – dorsal and ventral
DETERMINATION OF SIDE:
The dorsal root is enlarged to form the spinal
ganglion. RADIUS: Radial tuberosity is medial.
ULNA: Olecranon process is inclined laterally.
NERVES OF THE FORELIMB
MANUS –The skeleton of the manus consist of:
BRACHAIL PLEXUS – formed by junction of ventral
branches of last three cervical and first two thoracic 1. Carpus (wrist or knee in horse)
nerves. The thoracic limb is supplied by the branches 2. Metacarpus
which spring with the brachial plexus. 3. Digits
There are 10 nerve trunks in the plexus. In the domestic animals the basic carpal number
is 8. There are 4 bones proximally and 4 bones distally
Suprascapular as follows:
Subscapular
Pectoral rami
Musculo-cutaneous Radial Intermediate Ulnar Accessory
Median and Ulnar Medial 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Lateral
Radial
Axillary Other Names:
Thoraco-longus
Thoraco-dorsal Radial—scaphoid (largest)
External thoracic Intermediate—semilunar
Ulnar—cuneiform (smallest)
Accessory—pisiform

1st—trapezium BRANCHES
2nd—trapezoid
3rd—os magnum (largest) 1. Great superficial petrosal
4th—unciform 2. Small superficial petrosal
3. Stapedial in temporal bone
4. Chorda tympani
COMPARATIVE NOTES: 5. Communicating to vagus
6. Posterior auricular
R I U A 7. Digastric in neck
8. Internal auricular
(1) 2 3 4 9. Parotid plexus
10. Auriculo-palpebral on face
11. Cervical
HORSE: Accessory articulates with (1) Radius; and (2) Buccals (dorsal and ventral)
Ulnar carpal
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
R I U A
Branches:
2/3 4/
5 Tympanic
Carotid plexus
OX/SHEEP: Accessory articulates only with ulnar car- Stylo-pharyngeal
pal. Pharyngeal
Lingual
R I U A
VAGUS – emerges from cranium through posterior
1 2 3 4 foramen lacerum. In thorax right and left vagi devide
into dorsal and ventral branches. These branches unite
PIG: Accessory articulate only with ulnar carpal. forming dorsal and ventral oesophageal trunks. Dorsal
trunks enters abdomen and divides into gastric and
celiac branches. A ventral trunk ramifies on parietal
R I U A
surface of stomach.
1 2 3 4
Branches:
DOG: Accessory articulates with (1) Ulna and (2) Ulnar Pharyngeal
carpal Anterior laryngeal
Recurrent laryngeal
Cardiac
Anterior palatine METACARPALS AND DIGITS – The digital region is the
Posterior palatine terminal segment of the manus. The mammalian ma-
nus is comprised of five digits each of which bears
Infraorbital three phalanges.
Maxillary or Superior alveolar
External nasal HORSE: 3rd metacarpal is functional. 2nd and 4th
Anterior nasal are vestigial, termed split bones. Only
Superior labial 3rd (cannon bone) digit present.
Branches of Mandibular OX/SHEEP: Metacarpals 3 and 4 are weight bear-

ing. 5th is vestigial. Four digits are
Masseteric present of which nos. 3 and 4 are
Pterygoid functional.
Superficial and Deep temporal
Buccinator PIG: Metacarpals 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacarpals
Inferior or Mandibular alveolar bear digits. 3rd and 4th are functional.
Lingual
DOG: Metacarpals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacar-
FACIAL – originates at the lateral corpus trapeziodeum pals bear digits. Digit 1 possesses only two
behind pons. Passes to internal acoustic meatus with phalanges.
8th nerve. At bottom of meatus nerve part company
and facial enters facial canal of petrous temporal DETERMINATION OF SIDE:
bone.
Large metacarpals of horse and ox – metacarpal
COURSE OF THE FACIAL CANAL tuberosity is medial.
Outwards in root of internal ear to gain me- HINDLIMB

dian wall or middle ear.
The hindlimb consists of four divisions:
Backwards making a knee-shaped bend
termed the genu. The geniculate ganglion is situated 1. Hip
at this point. Passes into aditus in substance of medial 2. Thigh
wall then turns. 3. Leg
4. Pes (foot)
Downwards to posterior wall of middle ear to
stylomastoid foramen. HIP – The hip bone is term as os coxae. It consists of
three parts:

1. Ilium Auditory
2. Ischium
3. Pubis Motor nerves
Oculomotor
The term pelvic girdle includes the os coxae of Trochlear
either side. The term body pelvis includes: Abducens
Accessory
1.Pelvic girdle Hypoglossal
2.Sacrum
3.Coccygeals 1 and 2 Mixed nerves
Trigeminal
The body pelvis is described as having: Facial
Glossopharyngeal
A roof Vagus
A floor
Lateral walls DISTRIBUTION OF NERVES IN THE HORSE
An entrance
An exit TRIGEMINAL – connected by lateral pons by large sen-
sory roots and small motor root.
COMPARATIVE NOTES:
Divides into three branches:
HORSE: Wing of ilium has gluteal line.
Ophthalmic
OX: Three prominences on sciatic tuber. Obturator Maxillary
foramen is wide and sharp medially. Pelvic sym- Mandibular
physis has distinct ventral ridge.
Branches of Ophthalmic:
SHEEP: As ox, in addition, long axes of ilium and
ischium form a nearly straight line. Lacrimal
Frontal
PIG: Wing of ilium divided into two fossae by dis- Nasociliary
tinct gluteal line.
DOG: Wing of ilium distinctly concave. Branches of Maxillary:
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN PELVIC GIRDLE Zygomatic

Sphenopalatine
Female: (1) Pubic floor is concave; (2) Pelvic out- Posterior nasal

Sympathetic nervous system let is large
CRANIAL NERVES – there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves Male: (1) Pubis thick medially,(2) Pubic floor is
numbered from before backwards. The exits of these convex; (3) Pelvic outlet is small
nerves from the skull are as follows:
1st Olfactory – ethmoidal foramen (sensory) FEMUR – is a long bone which forms the skeleton of
the thigh.
2nd Optic – optic foramen (sensory)
HORSE: 3rd trochanter is present.
rd
3 Oculomotor – orbital fissure (motor)
OX/SHEEP: Single grater trochanter bordering a
4th Trochlear – orbital fissure (motor) deep trochanteric fosa.
5th Trigeminal – orbital fissure (Ophthalmic) PIG: Shaft is distinctly quadrilateral.

foramen rotundum (Maxillar (mixed)
foramen ovale (Mandibular) DOG: Shaft is cylindrical and curved. Facets poste-
riorly on distal condyles.
6th Abducens – orbital fissure (motor)
7th Facial – facial canal or stylomatoid foramen (mixed)
Head is medial.
8th Auditory – internal acoustic meatus (sensory) Trochlea is distal and anterior.
9th Glossopharyngeal – jugular foramen (mixed) TIBIA AND FIBULA – they are long bones which form
the skeleton of the legs. Tibia is medial and which is
10th Vagus – jugular foramen (mixed) larger while fibula is lateral and smaller.
11th Accessory – jugular foramen (motor) HORSE: Fibula reduced to the head and shaft only.
Lateral malleolus fused.
12th Hypoglossal – hypoglossal foramen (motor)
OX/SHEEP: Lateral malleolus articulates sepa-
rately.
CLASSIFICATION OF CRANIAL NERVES
PIG: Tibial crest long and distinct.
Sensory nerves
Olfactory DOG: Short prominent tibial crest marked with
Optic impression.

Nervous System
Tibial crest is anterior.
Fibula articulates laterally. The nervous system is subdivided into two
portions, central and peripheral.
PATELLA – is a large sesamoid which is develop in the
tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle. It articulates I. Central Nervous System (CNS) – it is invested by
with the trochlea of the femur and is described as hav- three membranes – meninges.
ing:
From without inward these are:
Two surfaces – anterior and articular
Two borders – medial and lateral Duramater
Base – proximal Arachnoid
Apex – distal Piamater
PES – the skeleton of the pes consists of: The CNS consists of:
1.Tarsus Brain (encephalon)
2.Metatarsus Spinal cord
3.Digits
BRAIN – situated within the cranial cavity. Have the
TARSUS – commonly called as hock. It consists of the following primary segments:
following bones:
Prosencephalon – forebrain
1.Tibial tarsal Mesencephalon – midbrain
2.Fibular tarsal (largest) Rhombencephalon – hindbrain
3.Central tarsal
4.Tarsal 1, 2, 3 and 4 SPINAL CORD – runs in vertebral canal from foramen
magnum to the middle of the sacrum. Spinal nerves
are connected with the sides of the spinal cord in
HORSE: there are 6 bones in the tarsus of the pairs. Both spinal nerves and spinal cord are desig-
horse: nated as cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral or coccygeal
according to the part of the body in which the verte-
T F C brae are situated.
1/2 3 4 II. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – consists of:
Cranial and spinal nerves with their ganglia.

1. Glomus caroticum – the carotid body, situ- OX/SHEEP: 5 bones
ated at the trifurcation of the common carotid artery
into the external carotid, internal carotid and occipital T F C
arteries.
1 2/ 4
2. Glomus aorticus – the aortic body, situated 3
on the aortic arch.
PIG/DOG: 7 bones
T F C
1 2 3-4
METATARSALS AND DIGITS – the metatarsals and dig-

its are similar to the equivalent bones in the forelimb
except that in ox and sheep the vestigial metatarsal is
remaining in the 2nd.
DISTINGUISH 3RD METATARSAL OF HORSE FROM 3RD

METACARPAL
Metatarsal has:
1. Cylindrical shaft
2. Wider proximal extremity
3. Central non-articular depression on
proximal extremity
To help determine the side of the limb bone it

should be remembered that as the weight of the ani-
mal is thrown inwards, medial articular surfaces are
larger than lateral.
SKULL
The skull including the hyoid bone and the

mandible is considered as being a long, four sided 2. Neurohypophysis
pyramid. This pyramid has the following surfaces:
Hypothalamus now recognized to exercise control
1.Superior over adenohypophysis by means of Hypothalamic Por-
2.Two lateral tal System.
3.Basal
Ovaries having to distinct endocrine sources:
The superior surface of the skull is divided into Graafian follicle (secretes estrogen)
four regions. Corpus luteum (secretes progesterone)
1. Parietal Pancreas having both exocrine and endocrine sources:

2. Frontal
3. Nasal The Islets of Langerhans represents the endo-
4. Premaxillary crine portion.
The lateral surface is divided into three re- Parathyroids

gions:
Pineal body or Epiphysis cerebri not conclusively es-
1. Cranial tablished as endocrine but believed to control genital
2. Orbital development by exercising inhibitory influence.
3. Preorbital
Placenta
The basal surface is also divided into three
regions: Testes having its endocrine source the Interstitial Cells
of Leydig.
1. Cranial
2. Croanal Thymus, no longer considered as a true endocrine
3. Palatine glands.
Thyroid (and accessory thyroids when present)

ORBITAL GROUP OF FORAMINA
Chemoreceptors, not true endocrines but diverticula
The orbital foramina are situated at the ex- in the walls of blood vessels, lined with specialized
treme posterior part of orbital region of the lateral cells which react to changes in the chemical constitu-
surface of skull in front of the pterygiod crest. There tion of the blood.
are four chief foramina:
There are two chemoreceptors:
1. Ethmoidal

Endocrine System 2. Optical

3. Orbital
4. Round
Endocrine glands, as opposed to exocrine
POINTS TO NOTE:
glands which secrete by way of ducts, have no duct
system. They are glands of internal or humeral secre-
The trochlear foramen when present is found in the
tion, which are further characterized by the fact that:
pterygoid crest.
1. They are atypical epithelial bodies.
The alar canal opens in common with the round
2. They rarely secrete onto a mucous surface.
foramen.
3. Their products are passed directly into the
blood and lymph streams.
The small alar foramen is on the level with orbital
4. They have a profuse blood supply, the ve-
foramen behind the pterygoid crest.
nous side consisting of sinusoids and extra
-wide capillaries.
PTERYGO-PALATINE FORAMINA
Endocrine glands occur in three basic patterns:
The pterygo-palatine fossa is situated ventral
to the orbital cavity. There are three foramina in the
As separate entities recognizable as distinct
fossa.
organs. (E.g. thyroid and adrenal)
1. Maxillary
2. Sphenopalatine
As secretory masses embedded in the paren-
3. Posterior palatine
chyma of an exocrine gland. (E.g. pancre-
atic islets and interstitial cells of testis)
PARANASAL SINUSES
As diffused secretory cells intercalated singly
The paranasal sinuses of the skull are large air
or in groups between normal epithelial
spaces which communicate directly or indirectly with
cells. (E.g. endocrine cells of the duode-
the nasal cavity. There are four pairs of air sinuses in
num and uriniferous tubules)
the horse’s skull:
The following endocrine glands and associated
1. Maxillary
organs are usually described as members of the endo-
2. Frontal
crine system:
3. Sphenopalatine
4. Ethmoidal
Adrenals
Of these, the maxillary and frontal are of im-
Hypophysis now recognized as consisting of:
portance.
1. Adenohypophysis
Maxillary Sinus – is the largest sinus. It is divided by an COMPARATIVE NOTES
oblique septum into:
MARE
1. Anterior compartment
2. Posterior compartment Two glands in prepubic region on either side of
the mid-line. Teats have 2-4 canals.
Boundaries:
COW
Lateral wall – maxilla, lacrimal and malar
Two glands of two quarter each. Base of the
Medial wall – maxilla, ventral turbinate and lateral gland is attached to the abdominal wall by suspensory
mass of ethmoid. apparatus which is attached to the pelvic symphysis.
Teats have one canal.
Anterior limit – marked by line drawn from anterior
end of facial crest to infraorbital foramen. EWE
Posterior limit – marked by transverse line in front of Two glands. Teats have one canal.
root of supraorbital process.
SOW
Dorsal boundary – marked by line drawn backward
from infraorbital foramen parallel to facial crest. Either 10-12 glands arranged in two rows.
Glands are pectoral, abdominal or inguinal according
Floor – formed by alveolar part of the maxilla. to their position. Teats have 2-3 canals.
The last three cheek teeth project into the cav- BITCH
ity. They are covered a thin plate of bone. The extent
of their projection depends on the age of the horse. Usually 10 glands. Teats have 8-20 canals.
COMMUNICATIONS:
The maxillary sinus has two openings:
1. Frontal-maxillary – communicates dor-

sally with frontal sinus.
2. Naso-maxillary – communicates with
posterior part of medial nasal meatus.

Lactiferous sinus, which is at base of teat MAXILLARY SINUS OF OX:
Teat canal
The maxillary sinus of the horse has three
Points to note openings:
The lactiferous sinus is termed as the milk cistern. 1.Into lacrimal sinus
2.Into palatine sinus
The teat canal is termed as the streak or milk canal. 3.Into middle nasal meatus
It is guarded by circular plain muscle fibers – teat Frontal Sinus – the boundaries of the frontal sinus of
sphincter the horse are:
Roof – two plates of frontal bone.

The arteries of the mammary glands are de-
rived from the external pudendal artery. These ves- Floor – lateral mass of the ethmoid.
sels enter the glands at the posterior part of the base.
The mammary veins form a plexus on either side of Anterior limit – marked by a line through anterior mar-
the base of the gland. Each plexus is drained by its own gins of the orbits.
external pudendal vein.
Posterior limit – marked by a line through temporal
In the cow the vein form a circle at the base of condyles.
the udder. Blood is carried by this circle by three
trunks: Lateral limit – extends into root of supraorbital proc-
ess.
Milk vein (subcutaneous abdominal vein) –
which joins the internal thoracic vein. Medial limit – marked by septum which separates off
External pudendal vein opposite sinus.
Perineal vein – which joins the internal puden-
dal vein. The frontal sinus communicates with the max-
illary sinus through the fronto-maxillary opening.
The nerve supply of the mammary gland is
derived from the inguinal nerves and the posterior FRONTAL SINUS OF OX:
mesenteric plexus of the sympathetic.
POINTS TO NOTE:
The frontal sinus is very large. It involves

nearly all of the frontal bone and a large part of the
posterior wall of the cranium.

It extends into the horn processes when these classified according to the shape of its area of applica-
are present. tion.
Thus: cotyledonary – applied by buttons or
Cavity is divided into one major and one to cotyledons as in ox and sheep.
four minor compartments. Each compartment has an Zonary – applied in a band or zone as
anterior outlet into the ethmoidal meatus and thus in cat and bitch.
indirectly into the middle nasal meatus.
COMPRATIVE NOTES
MANDIBLE
MARE and SOW
The mandible is the largest bone of the face. It
carries the lower teeth. It articulates with the Diffused, non-deciduate
squamous temporal bone on either side of the
condyles. The mandible is described as having: BITCH and CAT
A body Deciduate, non-diffused (zonary)

Two rami
The body presents; COW and EWE
Two surfaces – lingual and mental
A border – alveolar Non-deciduate, non-diffused (cotelydonary)
Each ramus presents:
Two sufaces – lateral and medial
Two borders – dorsal or alveolar and ventral MAMMARY GLAND
Two extrimities – anterior and articular
Mammary glands are highly modified cutane-
The hyoid bone is situated between the verti- ous glands. Each gland consists of:
cal parts of the rami of the mandibles. It is attached on
either side to the styloid process of the petrous tem- A body, which is the glandular portion.
poral bone by rods of cartilage. It supports the follow- A papilla or teat.
ing structures:
Duct system – the body of the mammary glands is de-
1.Root of the tongue rived into lobes and lobules. The parenchyma of the
2.Larynx lobules consists of secretory tubules and alveoli. These
3.Pharynx tubules unite to form ducts as follows:
For description of hyoid presents: Alveoli and tubules

Intralobular ducts
A body Lactiferous ducts

COW Lingual process
Three pairs of cornua
Cornua have slightly spiral twist. Cotyledons Thyroid cornua (thyrohyoids)
are convex. Dorsal formix only. (interconual ligament Small cornua (keratohyoids)
is present) Great cornua (stylohyoids)
EWE POINTS TO NOTE:
Cotyledons are umbilicate. The middle cornua (epihyoids) unite with the
great cornua in the adult horse.
SOW
The lingual process of the hyoid of ox is short
Cornua are very long. No fornices. and tuberous.
BITCH ARTHROLOGY
Cornua is straight and shaped like a Y. cervical Types of Joints

canal is at an angle. Round ligaments pass through in-
guinal canal enveloped by peritoneal pouch. There are three subdivisions or types of joints:
PLACENTATION 1. Synarthroses
2. Diarthroses
In pregnancy, the atlanto-choriod of the de- 3. Amphiarthroses
veloping fetus is applied to the mucous membrane of
the uterus. Placentae are classified according to: SYNARTHROSES – joints united by fibrous tissue, carti-
lage or a mixture of the two. Often termed immove-
1. The amount of erosion of the maternal tis- able joints. There are four types of synarthroses:
sue.
Thus: deciduate – erosion A. Suture – applied to the joints of the skull where
Non-deciduate – non-erosion the adjacent margin of the bones are interlocked.
There are three types of suture:
2. Whether they are tollaly or partially applied
to the uterine mucosa. 1. Squamous – where the edges overlap. E.g.
Thus: diffused – tollaly applied parieto-temporal joint
Non-diffused – applied only 2. Serrated – where the edges are irregular.
on part E.g. frontal joint
3. Harmonious – where the edges are straight.
3. When the placenta is non-diffused it is sub- E.g. nasal joint

B. Syndesmosis – where the uniting medium is UTERUS
elastic tissue, white fibrous tissue or a mixture at-
tachments of costal cartilages to each other. E.g. The uterus is a hollow muscular organ which is
intercarpal joints. continuous with the oviducts anteriorly, and with the
vagina posteriorly. It is situated for the most part in
C. Synchondrosis – where the uniting medium is the abdominal cavity but extend a short distance into
cartilage – sphenoid and basilar occipital joint. the pelvic cavity.
Very few synchondroses are permanent. Cartilage
ossified making synostoses. E.g. intersternal joints It consists of:
D. Symphysis – applied to joints in the median A body

plane. The uniting medium is generally ossified Two horns
cartilage and fibrous tissue. E.g. pelvic and man- A neck or cervix
dibular symphyses.
The attachments of the uterus are:
Gomphosis – joints of the teeth.
The broad ligament – which extends from the
DIARTHROSES – diarthrodial joints are those which sublumbar region and the lateral pelvic wall
posses the following structures: to the dorsal border of the cornua and the
lateral margins of the body.
1. A joint cavity
2. A joint capsule with synovial membrane The round ligament – which arise from the
3. Mobility lateral folds of the broad ligaments and blend
with the parietal peritoneum over the inter-
CLASSIFICATION OF DIARTHRODIAL JOINTS nal inguinal ring.
Moveable joints are classified on the form of The blood supply of the uterus is derived from
the joint surfaces and the movements which these the uterine and the uterine branch of the utero-
surfaces allow. There are four chief classes: ovarian artery. Nerves are sympathetic.
Ginglymus – hinge joint, elbow and atlanto- COMPARATIVE NOTES

occipital joint
MARE
Arthrodia – glinding joint and intercarpals
Cornua slightly curved, or nearly straight. Both
Trocoid – pivot joint and atlanto-axial dorsal and ventral fornices present in vagina.
Enarthrosis – ball and socket joint

OVULATION – the ova develop inside the graafian folli- AMPHIARTHROSES – joints which are both have sy-
cles. When a graafian follicle is mature, it ruptures. narthrodial and diarthtrdial features. E.g. intercentral
The ovum is shed into the abdominal cavity and the vertebral joint.
fimbriae direct it into the lumen of the oviduct. Under
the action of the muscles of the oviduct and also the ARTICULATIONS OF THE BODY
ciliated epithelium of its inner surface, the ovum
passes down to the uterus. TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT – between the ramus
of the mandible and the squamous temporal bone on
Fertilization of the ova generally occurs in the either side.
upper portion of the oviduct.
Type: diarthrodial
After the escape of the ovum, the ruptured Movements: rotation, gliding, retraction, pro-
graafian follicle undergoes several other stages: tusion, hinge action
Points to note: articular surfaces are rendered
Corpus rubrum – follicle is filled with blood congruent by an articular disc.
clot.
VERTEBRAE—Movable vertebrae from two separate
Corpus luteum – follicular cells invade the clot articulations:
and become lutein cells.
1. Interventral – between bodies
Corpus albicans – fibroblast cells invade cor- 2. Internueral – between the articular proc-
pus luteum and convert luteal tissueinto scar tissue. esses
Intercentral articulations are amphiarthroses,

Points to note: the uniting media being ligaments and fibro carti-
laginous discs.
Corpus luteum spurium – when fertilization does not Interneural articulations are diarthroses.
occur, corpus luteum degenerates as corpus luteum of Intertransverse articulations are diarhtroses
next ovulation cycle develops. peculiar to Equidea. They occur between the
transverse processes of the 5th and 6th lumbar, and
Corpus luteum of pregnancy – when fertilization oc- between the latter and the wing of the sacrum.
curs, degeneration of corpus luteum is delayed, usually
until parturition but not necessary this long. The cor- The atlanto-axial articulation is a diarthrodial
pus luteum of pregnancy or corpus luteum verum joint with trochoid movement.
functions as an endocrine organ. The atlanto-occipital articulation is
diarthtrodial joint with ginglymus movement.
Corpura lutea projects from the surface of the ovary of
cow and sow. They do not project in the mare. RIBS— proximally ribs forms two separate articula-

tions: DOG
1. Costo-central – betweem the head of th Bulbo-urethral glands and seminal vesicles are
rib and two adjacent bodies of vertebrae. absent. Only the prostate is present. Corpus caverno-
2. Costo-transverse – between the facet of sum penis is ossified anteriorly forming os penis.
the rib tubercle and the transverse process
of the vertebrae of the same number.
FEMALE
Both costo-central and costo-transverse are
diarthrodial. The chief movements are rotation with The female genital organs are:
gliding between the costo-transverse.
Ovaries
COSTO-CHONDRAL – the joints between the ribs and Oviducts
rib cartilage are synarthroses. But in ox and sheep the Uterus
2nd to 11th costo-chondral junctions are diarthroses. Vagina
While in the pig the 2nd anfd 5th are diarthroses. Vulva
Mammary glands
CHONDRO-STERNAL – between the cartilages the
sterna rib and the sternum. They are diarthroses. In OVARIES – the ovaries are small ovoid organs which
the horse the 1st pair of ribs articulates in the common are related to the abdominal roof above and the intes-
joint capsule. There are two important ligaments con- tine below.
cern with this joint:
They present for description:
1. Internal sternal
2. Radiate costo-sternal Two surfaces – medial and lateral
Two borders – free and attached or mesovarial
Two extrinmities – tubal (anterior) and uterine
INTERSTERNAL – the joints between the sterna seg- (posterior).
ments commence as synchondroses, becoming ossi-
fied synostoses. The free border of the ovary of the mare is
marked by a notch which leads into a narrow depres-
COMPARATIVE NOTES: sion – the ovulation fossa.
OX/PIG: the sterna segent forms diarthrodial The blood supply of the ovary is derived from
joint with the body of the sternum. the utero-ovarian artery which is a direct branch of
the aorta. Nerves are sympathetic.

Corpus cavernosum penis – which arises from each THORACIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS
side of the ischial arch.
SHOULDER JOINT – between head of humerus and
Corpus cavernous urethrae – which forms a tube glenoid cavity of scapula.
around the urethra and is continuous anteriorly with
the glans penis. Type: diarthrodial
Class: enarthrosis
The penis is supplied with blood by three ar- Movement: chiefly flexion and exten-
teries: sion
1. Internal pudendal POINTS TO NOTE:

2. Obturator
3. External pudendal Ligaments are absent from this joint. Disloca-
tion is prevented by:
The nerves are derived from the pudendal nerves and 1. Muscles and tendons by the region
the pelvic plexus of the symphatetic system. 2. Size of the head of the humerus
COMPARATIVE NOTES: ELBOW JOINT – between distal humerus and proximal

radius and ulna.
HORSE
Type: diarthrodial
Accessory sex glands are complete. Class: ginglymus
Movement: flexion and extension
OX
POINTS TO NOTE:
Penis has sigmoid flexure behind scrotum.
Glans is long and twisted. Joint capsule forms a pouch in olecranon
fossa.
SHEEP Synovial membrane is prolonged into the radio
-ulnar joints; also under the origin of the flexors of
Urethral process on glans is elongated into the digits, and the lateral flexor of the carpus.
vermiform appendage.
CARPAL JOINTS
PIG
KNEE JOINT – a composite joint between:
Penis has sigmoid flexure in front of scrotum.
No glans. 1. Distal radius and ulna (only radius in the

horse) and proximal carpals. Anterior wall – internal oblique muscle
2. Intercarpal Posterior wall – inguinal ligament
3. Distal carpals and proximal metacarpals
The external ring rakes the form of slit in the
Type: diarthrodial aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle.
Class: ginglymus and arthrodial
Movement: flexion and extension between the The contents of the inguinal canal are:
radius and ulna and proximal carpals. The same
between the distal carpals and proximal metacar- Male
pals. Gliding between carpals. 1. Spermatic cord
2. Tunica vaginalis
POINTS TO NOTE: 3. External cremaster muscle
4. External pudendal artery
Synovial membrane forms three sacs corre- 5. Inguinal lymph vessels and nerves
sponding to the three joints:
1. Radio-carpal Female
2. Intercarpal 1. External pudendal vessels
3. Carpo-metacarpal 2. External pudendal nerves
3. The inguinal canal of the bitch also
FETLOCK – between distal matacarpals lodges the round ligament of the
(metacarpus in case of horse), proximal 1st phalanx uterus, enclosed in its process of peri-
and proximal sesamoid. toneum.
Type: diarthrodial PENIS

Class: ginglymus and arthrodial
Movement: flexion and extension. Glinding in The penis is a highly erectile organ enclosing
case of sesamoids. the extra pelvic urethra. It extends forwards from the
ischial arch to end in the umbilical region on the ven-
The liganents of the fetlock joints are: tral surface of the abdomen.
1. Collaterals – medial and lateral The penis consists of:

2. Intersesamoidean, and the SOCS liga-
ments. Root
3. Short Body
4. Oblique Glans
5. Cruciate
6. Straight There are three erectile bodies in the penis:

st
Semineferous tubules PASTERN – between distal 1 phalanx and
proximal 2nd phalanx.
Tubuli contorti
Tubuli recti Type: diarthrodial
Rete testis Class: ginglymus
Efferent tubules – which enter the head of epididymis. (limited)
Epididymic duct – which leave the tail of epididymis. COFFIN – between 2nd and 3rd phalanges and
navicular bone (distal sesamoid).
Ductus deferens
Type: diarthrodial
DUCTUS DEFERENS - is a muscular tube which extends Class: ginglymus
from the tail of the epididymis to the pelvic urethra. In Movement: flexion and extension
the region of the bladder it dilates to form the flask-
shaped ampulla, which is the only glandular portion of POINTS TO NOTE:
the tube.
The joint capsule has three diverticuli. The
SPERMATIC CORD – it consists of the structures car- largest extends proximally to the middle 2nd phalanx.
ried down by the testicle on its migration through the The others projects against the cartilages of the 3rd
inguinal canal from the abdominal cavity to the scro- phalanx.
tum.
The constituents of the cords are as follows: PELVIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS
Spermatic artery SACRO-ILIAC JOINT – between the auricular surfaces

Spermatic veins which form the pampini- of the ilium and sacrum.
form plexus about the artery.
Lymphatics Type: diarthrodial
Symphatetic nerves Class: arthrodial
Internal cremaster muscle Movement: a small amount of gliding
Visceral layer of the tunica vaginalis POINTS TO NOTE:
Ductus deferens
Joint capsule which is tight is reinforced by
INGUINAL CANAL – starts at the internal inguinal ring ventral sacro-iliac ligament.
and runs ventro-medially and a little forwards to end
at the external inguinal ring. HIP – between head off femur and acetabulum
The boundaries if the internal ring are: Type: diarthrodial

Class: enarthrosis COMPARATIVE NOTES
Movements: all of those typical ball
and socket joint. HORSE
POINTS TO NOTE: Long axis of the testicle is nearly horizontal.
There are three important ligaments con- BULL/RAM

cerned with the hip joint:
Long axis of the testicle is ventral.
Transverse acetebular which crosses notch
with the acetabulum. PIG
Round ligaments which runs with the sub- Long axis is directed upwards and backwards.
pubic groove to the fovea on the head of the fe-
mur. DOG
In addition, the horse has an accessory liga- Small and oval in shape. Long axis is oblique.
ment. This runs from the prepubic tendon to the
fovea just behind the round ligament. Otherwise EPIDIDYMIS
the acetabulum is deepened by the ring of fibro-
cartilage, the: The epididymis lies along the attached border
of the testis. It has the following features:
Cotyloid ligament which is attached to the
body margin. A head
A body
STIFLE – consists of two joints: A tail
1. Femoro-patellar – between the trochlea of The tail is continued by the ductus deferens. It
the femur and the patella. is attached to the caudal extremity of the testis by the
2. Femoro-tibial – between the condyles of ligament of the epididymis.
the femur, proximal tibia and the inter-
posed articular menisci or semilunar carti- DUCT SYSTEM OF TESTIS
lage.
The pyramidal spaces marked off by the septa
Femoro-patellar which divide the testis into lobules contain the
semineferous tubules. Semineferous eventually lead
Type: diarthrodial into the ductus deferens as follows:
Class: arthrodial

Genital System Movement: gliding
POINTS TO NOTE:
MALE
There are three straight patellar ligaments:
The external male genital organs are:
1.Lateral
2.Middle
Testis
3.Medial
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Femoro-tibial
Extra-pelvic urethra
Penis
Type: diarthrodial
Class: gingymus
The internal or the accessory genital organs
are:
Bulbo-urethral gland (Cowper’s gland)
POINTS TO NOTE:
Seminal vesicle
Prostate
The joint capsule has two synovial sacs.
TESTES – are paired ovoid structures which are com-
HOCK – A composite joint of three separate articula-
pressed laterally. They lie in they own compartment in
tions:
the scrotum, and suspended by their own ductus def-
1. Tibio-tarsal
erens.
2. Intertarsal
3. Tarso-metatarsal
Each is described as having:
Type: diarthrodial
Two surfaces – medial and lateral
Class: gingymus
Two borders – free and attached
Movements: flexion and extension.
Two extremities – cranial and caudal
Other movents are negligible.
The blood supplies of the testes are derived
POINTS TO NOTE:
from the internal spermatic artery which is a branch
of abdominal aorta.
The joint capsule has four synovial sacs:
1.Tibio-tarsal
Nerve fibers arrive by the way of ileo-inguinal
2.Proximal intertarsal
and genito-femoral nerves.
3.Distal intertarsal
4.Tarso-metatarsal

Muscular System Points to note:
The centrum is the scar of the fundus which

indicates the foetal attachment of the urachus.
MYOLOGY
The trigone is a triangular area in the vicinity
The domestic animals have no shoulder girdle.
of the neck. It is formed by the modified mucous mem-
Only the scapula is well developed. The coranoid ele-
brane. It is especially sensitive to pressure.
ment has become fused to the scapula. The clavicle is
either completely absent or is a small rudiment em-
The bladder is kept in position of three perito-
bedded in the brachiocephalic muscle.
neal folds:
Because of these, the forelimbs are united to
Middle umbilical
the trunk by muscle. This union is classified as a syn-
Two lateral umbilical folds
sarcosis (union of parts of skeleton by muscle).
The two lateral umbilical cords contain
in their free border the round ligaments. The
The muscles making up the synsarcosis are:
round ligaments are the remains of the foetal
umbilical artery.
1. Serratus ventralis
2. Trapezius
URETHRA – it commences at the neck of the bladder
3. Latissimus dorsi
and terminates at the exterior.
4. Rhomboid
5. Superficial pectoral
Male urethra – it is common to both urinary and geni-
6. Omotransverse
tal systems.
7. Deep pectoral
8. Brachiocephalic
It is divided into two parts:
MUSCULATURE OF THE HORSE
Pelvic – from the bladder to the ischial arch.
Extra-pelvic – from ischial arch to glans penis.
MUSCLES AFFECTING THE SHOULDER JOINT
Female urethra – it is short and dilatable. Runs on the
I. Extensors
floor of the pelvis and open on the floor of vagina.
Brachiocephalic
Nerve supply: Axillary
Cow and ewe have a blind pouch, the sub-
Accessory
urethral diverticulum situated beneath the external
urethral orifice.
The brachiocephalic muscle also has a cervical
nerve supply.

PIG II. Flexor
Deltoid
Bean shaped. Renal pyramids are fused but Teres major
their papillae are separate. Minor calyces embrace Teres minor
papillae, lead into major calyces and then into ureters. Nerve supply: Axillary
DOG The latissimus dorsi also helps flexion of the shoul-

der. Its nerve supply is the thoraco-dorsal nerve.
Bean shaped. Renal pyramids fused into renal
crest. Renal crest projects into distinct renal pelvis. III. Fixers
Stellate veins are sub scapular renal vessels found on Supraspinatus
the kidneys of the felidae. Infraspinatus
Subscapular
URETERS – these are the narrow muscular portions of
the excretory ducts of the kidneys. The supraspinatus is inserted to both medial
and lateral tuberosities of the humerus.
Each ureter leaves the renal pelvis and ends by
penetrating the dorsal wall of the bladder at an The infraspinatus is inserted to the lateral tu-
oblique angle. The end of ureters is valved. Both the berosity.
valve and the oblique angle of entrance prevent regur-
gitation. The subscapular is inserted to the medial tu-
berosity.
BLADDER – it is hallow, piriform muscular sac lying on
the pelvic floor. According to its distension it can ex- The two spinatus muscles are supplied by the
tend to ventral abdominal wall. suprascapular nerve. The subscapular is supplied by
the subscapular nerve.
It is described as having:
IV. ADDUCTOR – drawing toward the center of the
Body – the main part of the bladder having a median plane.
dorsal and ventral surface. Superficial pectoral
Deep pectoral
Neck – the constricted portion of the bladder Nerve supply: pectoral nerves
continuous posteriorly with the urethra.
V. Elevators of shoulders:
Fundus – the blunt, flask-shaped anterior ex- Trapezius
tremity. Rhomboid
Nerve supply: trapezius by accessory
Rhomboid by 6th and 7th cervical

MUSCLES AFFECTING THE ELBOW JOINT
I. Flexors
Urinary System
Brachialis
Biceps brachii The urinary system consists of:
Coracobrachialis
Nerve supply: biceps brachii and coraco- Kidneys
brachialis by musculo-cutaneous. Brachailis by median Ureter
and often radial Bladder
Urethra
II. Extensors
Triceps – long, medial, and KIDNEYS – each kidney presents the following for de-
lateral head scription:
Anconeous
Tensor fasciae antibrachii Two surfaces – dorsal and ventral
Two borders – medial and lateral
Nerve supply: radial nerve The poles – anterior and posterior
MUSCLE AFFECTING THE CARPUS AND DIGIT COMPARATIVE NOTES
I. Extensors – broadly speaking all the muscles HORSE

arise from the coronoid fossa and lateral epicondyle of
the humerus. Right is heart shaped; left is bean shaped. Re-
Extensor carpi radialis nal papillae fused to form renal crest.
Extensor digitalis communis
Extensor digiti quinti OX
Extensorcarpi ulnaris
Lobulated and no renal pelvis. Minor calyces
The abductor pollicis longus can be included in embrace the renal papillae; lead into major calyces
this group. Morphologically the extensor carpi ulnaris and so into ureter.
belong to the extensor group of muscles. Its action is
to flex the carpal joint. SHEEP
Nerve supply: radial Bean shaped. Renal renal papillae fused to

form renal crest. Renal crest has two projections – dor-
II. Flexors – a common denominator for the sal and ventral buttresses.
origin of all the flexor is the medial epicondyle of the
humerus.

Abomasum Flexor carpi radialis
Reticulum Flexor carpi ulnaris
Dorsal sac of rumen and posterior dorsal blind Superficial flexor
Humeral head
sac.
Radial head
Small intestine Deep flexor
Spiral portion of large intestine Humeral head
Radial head
PIG Ulnar head
Liver
Stomach Nerve supply: medial and ulnar
Spleen
Colon There are 14 muscles which have attachment
to the scapula:
Apex of caecum
Small intestine Biceps brachii Rhomboid
Bladder Capsularis Subscapular
Coracobrachialis Supraspinatus
DOG Deep pectoral Teres major
Deltoid Teres minor
After removal of greater omentum: Infraspinatus Trapezius
Liver Long head triceps Ventral serrate
Stomach, if full
The muscles which have attachment to the
Spleen humerus are:
Small intestine Extensor of shoulder
Bladder, if full Flexors of shoulder
Fixer of shoulder
Extensors of elbow
Flexors of elbow
Extensors of carpus and digit
Flexors of carpus and digit
MUSCLES AFFECTING THE HIP
I. Adductors
Gracilis
Adductor femoris

Pectineus small intestine to the abdominal roof.
External obturator
Mesocolon – attaches the colon to the ab-
Nerve supply: obturator
dominal roof.
II. Abductors
Superficial gluteal Ligaments are reflections of peritoneum not
Middle gluteal directly concerned with conducting vessels and nerves.
Deep gluteal
Pelvic peritoneum is continuous with that of
Nerve supply: gluteal nerves the abdomen. Colic mesentery is continued as
mesorectum.
III. Flexors
Sactorius
The genital fold contains the right and left
Ilio-psoas
Quadriceps seminal vesicle, ductus deferens and uterus muscu-
Medial vast linus in the male and the uterus in the female where it
Lateral vast is termed the broad ligament.
Intermediate vast
Rectis femoris The middle and lateral umbilical folds of the
Tensor fasciae latae bladder are also peritoneal in nature.
Nerve supply: tensor fasciae latae by cranial
The organs seen on first opening up the abdo-
gluteal. Others by femoral
men are:
IV. Extensors
Biceps femoris HORSE
Semitendemosus Caecum
Semimembranosus Right ventral colon
Quadratus femoris Left ventral colon
Internal obturator Ventral diaphragmatic flexure
Gemellus Perhaps small intestine
Perhaps small colon
Nerve supply: sciatic nerve
OX/SHEEP
Ventral sac of rumen

extends into diverticulum scull h as the MUSCLES WHICH AFFECTS THE TARSUS AND
scrotum DIGITS
Visceral – covers the viscera either totally or
I. Extensors
partially.
Extensor digitalis longus
Peroneus longus
Connecting folds of peritoneum are termed: Extensor digitalis brevis
Peroneus tertius
Omenta Anterior tibial
Mesenteries
Ligaments Nerve supply: common peroneal nerve
An omentum is a fold which passes from the
stomach to other viscera. There are three of these: II. Flexors
Superficial flexor
Gastrocnemius
Greater omentum – passes from the greater Plantaris
curvature of the stomach and from the Deep flexor
spleen to the termination of the large co- Flexor digitalis longus
lon and the origin of the small colon. Its Posterior tibial
course encloses a potential cavity termed Flexor hallucis longus
the omental bursa. The foramen of Wins-
low links the omental bursa with the peri- Nerve supply: tibial
toneal cavity proper.
MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE ISCHIUM
Lesser omentum – passes from lesser curva- Adductor femoris Ischial cavernosus
ture of the stomach to the liver. Bulbo-cavernosus Ischial urethral
External obturator Quadratus femoris
Gastro-spelnic omentum – part of the greater Gracilis Retractor ani
omentum, extends from the greater curva- Internal obturator S e m im em b r a n o s u s
ture of the stomach to the spleen. Semitendonosus
The suspensory ligament of the penis and the

A mesentery is a fold of peritoneum which
crurae of the penis are also attached to the ischium.
attaches the intestine to the dorsal wall of the abdo-
men. Generally, there are two mesenteries:
Common mesentery – connects most of the

MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE ILIUM of greater curvature of stomach.
(in case of horses) suspensory ligament from
Biceps femoris Iliacus base to left xxx of diaphragm and left kid-
External oblique Internal obturator
ney
Gamellus Psoas minor
Gluteals Rectus femoris
COMPARATIVE NOTES
MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE FEMUR
HORSE
Adductor femoris Internal obturator
Biceps femoris External obturator Triangular in shape. Suspensory ligament pre-
Gamellus Pectineus sent.
Quadratus femoris Ilio-psoas
Semimembranosus
OX
Middle and Deep gluteal
Elongated with thin rounded extremities.
Short hilus. No suspensory ligament.
FEMORAL CANAL
SHEEP
The femoral canal has the following bounda- As Ox but shape is triangular.
ries:
Anterior – Satorius PIG
Posterior – Pectineus
Strap-like. Long hilus.
Medial – Gracilis
Lateral – Ilio-psoas and Medial vastus
DOG
The contents of the femoral canal are:
Falciform, long and narrow. Hilus is longitudi-
1. Femoral artery nal ridge.
2. Femoral vein
3. Saphenous nerve PERITONEUM
4. Deep inguinal lymph nodes
The peritoneum is a thin serous membrane
SYNOVIAL SHEATHS AND BURSAE
which lines both the abdominal and pelvic cavities. It
A synovial bursa is a simple cushion which is has two layers which are continuous with each other:
placed between tendon or a muscle at a point of un-
due pressure. Parietal – lines the walls of the cavities and

SHEEP A synovial sheath differs from a bursa in that
the cushion is folded around a tendon so that two lay-
Only ventral duct persists. It unites with he- ers can be recognized. The two folds are continuous
along a single fold termed the mesotendon.
patic duct and enters duodenum as common bile duct.
Thus the synovial sheath has three parts:
PIG
1. Exotendon
Tri-radiate in shape. Has a single duct. 2. Endotendon
3. Mesotendon
DOG FORELIMB
Bursa – there are three bursae in the forelimb:

Comprised of right and left branches which
meet at acute angle behind pylorus. 1. Bicipital
Two ducts present. 2. Extensor
3. Navicular
SPLEEN
Sheaths – are found only in distal part of the
The spleen belongs to the reticulo-endothelial limb. They begin approximately on a level with upper
system. It is an encapsulated organ which is situated to edge of accessory carpal and they vary in length thus:
the left of the median plane in close relation to the left
E.C.R – Short
part of the greater curvature of the stomach or the E.D.C. – Long
rumen in case of the Ox and Sheep. It presents for de- ED.C. – Long
scription: E.C.U. – Short
A.P.L. – Oblique
Two surfaces – parietal and visceral F.C.R. – Short
Two borders – anterior and posterior The F.C.U. has no sheath.
Two extremities – dorsal (base) and ventral
(apex) Carpal sheath – is common sheath inclosing
tendons of superficial and deep flexors. Begins 10cm
above radio-carpal joint and ends at middle of meta-
The spleen is attached by: carpus.
Hilus Digital sheath – encloses deep and superficial

Gastro-splenic omentum from hilus to left part tendons. Begins in distal fourth of metacarpus and

ends at the middle of 2nd phalanx. Differences between ox and horse’s liver:
HINDLIMB 2 lobes of ox over the 3 of horse

Ox has thicker and has less extensive liver
Bursa – there are nine bursae in the hind limb:
Absence of left lateral ligament in Ox
1. Piriform Absence of gall bladder in horse
2. Gluteal Absence of interlateral fissure
3. Trochanteric
4. Patellar PANCREAS
5. Tibial
6. Calcanean The pancreas is both an endo and an exocrine
7. Cunean gland. It is described as having:
8. Extensor
9. Navicular
Two surfaces – dorsal and ventral
Sheaths Three borders – right, left and posterior
Three angles – duodenal, splenic and right
E.D.L. – Short
P.L. – Short COMPARATIVE NOTES
A.T. – Short
Fused F.H.L. and P.T. – Long HORSE
F.D.L. – Long
Has dorsal and ventral ducts. The ventral duct
HOOF is the larger. It enters duodenum accompanied by bile
duct at diverticulum duodeni.
The skeleton of the hoof is formed by: The dorsal or accessory duct ends on papilla
opposite diverticulum duodeni.
Distal part of the 2nd phalanx.
3rd phalanx OX
Navicular bone Quadrilateral in shape. Has only a dorsal duct
Lateral cartilages
which enters the duodenum one foot after the bile
The hoof is described as having:
Wall duct.
Sole
Frog

PIG The corium of matrix of the hoof is modified,
Parenchyma has Morocco leather appearance. very vascular tissue which nourishes the horn. There
Well-divided into four main lobes. are five matrices in all:
Caudal vena cava embedded in parenchyma.
1. Periople ring - which nourishes the periople.
No renal impression. 2. Coronary matrix – which nourishes the wall.
Gall blaader is sunk in a fossa. 3. Laminar matrix – which nourishes the horny
laminae.
DOG 4. Solar matrix – which nourishes the sole.
Parietal surface is extremely convex. 5. Cunaeate matrix – which nourishes the
Gall bladder visible on parietal surface. frog.
Lobe Differences There are three resilient mechanism in the

hoof:
Horses has three lobes
1. Digital torus
1.Right lobe with caudate lobe 2. Lateral cartilages
2.Middle lobe or central 3. Frog
3.Left lobe
The hoof is supplied with blood by the digital
Ox has two lobes: arteries. The veins draining the hoof have no valves.
1. Caudate
2. Papillary
Dog has five lobes:
1.Left lateral
2.Left central
3.Right central with quadrate lobe
4.Right lateral
5.Caudate lobe with caudate process
right and with papillary process on the left

Vascular System The following vessels leave the porta:
Duct
HEART Lymphatics
The heart is a flattened muscular cone lying in The liver has six ligaments:
the cardial mediatinum. It extends 3/5 on the left side
under the 6th rib. On an average, the heart weights 1. Coronary
0.7% of the total body weight. 2. Falciform
3. Round
In the horse: 4. Right triangular –absent in pig
5. Left triangular –absent in pig
Apex of heart is handbreadth above ole- 6. Caudate –absent in pig
cranon.
COMPARATIVE NOTES
Base of the heart lies between 3rd and 6th
ribs on a level with 16th rib cartilage. HORSE
Venous blood is carried to the sinus venosus of No gall bladder.

the right atrium by:
OX
1. Vena Cava – cranial and caudal
2. Vena Azygos Not divided into lobes.
3. Coronary veins – right and left Deep umbilical notch on right border.
Well-marked renal notch.
CIRCULATION Caudate process is visible from the parietal
surface.
Venous blood enters: Rotated to 90® to the right side of body cavity.
1. Right atrium, tricuspid valve SHEEP

2. Right ventricle, pulmonary valve
3. Lungs As ox but caudate process not visible from pa-
4. Left atrium, bicuspid valve rietal surface.
5. Left ventricle, semi-lunar aortic valves
COMPARATIVE NOTES
Anal glands
On either side – parenal sinus and HORSE
glands Weight approximately 10 lbs. Cranial border
Further back the skin has the cir- convex. Caudal border first convex then concave.
cumanal glands.
LIVER OX
Very fatty. Two bones, the ossa cordis present
The liver is the largest glands in the body. It is in the aortic fibrous ring.
situated obliquely against the visceral surface of the
diaphragm. It is described as having: SHEEP
Pointed apex.
A parietal surface
Visceral surface PIG
A circumference consisting of dorsal, ventral Apex is double.
and lateral borders.
Two deep fissure divide the liver into three DOG
lobes. Apex blunt and rounded. Heart ovoid in shape.
Central POINTS TO KNOW ABOUT THE RIGHT ATRIUM

Left lateral
Right lateral There are five chief openings:
The left lobe is simple. The right lobe bears the 1. Cranial caval opening
caudate process and an omental or papillary proc- 2. Caudal caval opening
ess. 3. Vena azygos opening
4. Coronary sinus
There is a depression about the middle of the 5. Right atrio-ventricular orifice
xxx surface of the liver termed porta. The following
structures enter the porta: There are six important features:
Portal vein 1. Valve of coronary sinus

Hepatic artery 2. Musculi pectinati
Hepatic plexus of nerves 3. Fossa ovalis

4. Limbus ovalis The colon is in two parts:
5. Intravenous tubercle
6. Crista terminalis Spiral portion – ansa spiralis
Terminal portion – ansa distalis
PERICARDIUM
In the spiral portion, the colon is arranged
The pericardium is a fibro-serous which com- against the right flank in double elliptical coils between
pletely encloses the heart. It has two layers: the mesentery.
1. Fibrous The coils are alternately centripetal and cen-

2. Serous trifugal. Centripetal and centrifugal coils are attached
at each other by areolar tissue.
The serous layer is surrounded by the fibrous
layer. The heart lies in an invagination in the serous There is no ampulla in the rectum.
layer. In this invagination is a small amount of serous
fluid which is termed as liquor pericardii. PIG
The pericardium as a whole consist of two The caecum is cylindrical. It is on the left side
parts: and has three taenia.
1. Parietal The colon is arranged in three close, double
2. Visceral spiral xxxxx in the mesentery which reach the floor of
the abdomen.
The visceral pericardium covers the heart and
part of the great vessels. It is referred to as epicar- DOG
dium.
The caecum has a spiral twist: it is small and
Parietal pericardium lines the fibrous layers teania like.
and is attached to it. The colon is in three parts:
ARTERIAL SYSYTEM OF THE DOG Ascending

Transverse
AORTA Descending
The aorta is the main systemic arterial trunk. It is At the junction of rectum and anus are found:

COLON divided into:
A. LARGE COLON
1.Thoracic Aorta
Commences at the base of the caecum and 2.Abdominal Aorta
terminates under the left kidney by becoming small
colon. Approximately 10 feet in length. It consists of I. Thoracic Aorta is subdivided into:
four parts which are named according to their posi-
tion. 1. Ascending Aorta
Right ventral colon – ventral diaphragmatic
flexure ARISES from left ventricle
Left ventral colon – pelvic flexure ENDS by becoming aortic arch after giving
Left dorsal colon – dorsal diaphragmatic flex- off coronary arteries
ure BRANCHES – right and left coronary
Right dorsal colon
2. Aortic Arch
B. SMALL COLON
BEGINS after origin of coronary arteries
Commences at the termination of the large ENDS when vessel comes into contact
colon behind the saccus caecus of the stomach and is with vertebral column
continued at the pelvic inlet as rectum. Approximately BRANCHES:
12 feet in length and 4 inches in diameter. Has two Brachiocephalic
taenia and two rows of haustra. Left subcalvian
RECTUM 3. Descending Aorta
Extends from the pelvic inlet to the anus. At its ARISES as continuation of aortic arch
termination has a flask- shaped dilation, the ampulla ENDS by becoming abdominal aorta at
recti. the aortic hiatus
BRANCHES
OX/ SHEEP 9 or 10 Intercostals
2 or 3 Bronchials
The caecum of the ox and sheep has no taenia 2 or 3 Oesophagelas
or haustra.

II. Abdominal Aorta DOG
ARISES as continuation of thoracic aorta 13 feet in length.

at aortic hiatus Bile duct and ventral pancreatic duct open 2
ENDS at 7th lumbar vertebra by dividing inches beyond the pylorus. The dorsal pancreatic duct
into two external iliacs, two in- opens 2 inches further back.
ternal iliacs and middle sacral. LARGE INTESTINE
BRANCHES
Phrenics The large intestine extends from the termina-
Phrenico-abdominals tion of the ileum to the anus. It has a much greater
Coeliac diameter than the small intestine.
Cranial mesenteric
Renals It often has longitudinal bands running along
Internal spermatics/ utero- the outside termed taenia. The sacculations caused by
ovarian the constriction of the taenia are called haustra.
Caudal mesenteric
Lumbars COMPARATIVE NOTES
Deep circumflex iliacs
External iliacs HORSE
Internal iliacs (Hypogastrics)
Middle sacral CAECUM
BRACHIOCEPHALIC A blind, cone-shaped sac. It is approximately 4

feet long, situated to right of xxxxxxxxxx.
ARISES from aortic arch in median plane and It is described as having:
passes to thoracic inlet ventral to tra-
chea. A body
ENDS by dividing into right subclavian and A base
right common carotid. An apex
BRANCHES
Left common carotid The apex lies on the abdominal floor about 4
Right subclavian inches from the xiphoid cartilage. The caecum has four
Right common carotid teania which cause four rows of sacculations or haus-
tra.

COMPARATIVE NOTES COMMON CAROTID
HORSE Right and left common carotids ARISE from

brachiocephalic. In neck, right lies on trachea, left on
70 feet in length. oesophagus.
About 6 inches from the pylorus, the duode-
num has a pouch – the diverticulum duodeni. Both vessels END under wing of atlas.
The ventral pancreatic and hepatic ducts open BRANCHES
in the diverticulum duodeni. The dorsal or accessory Thyroids – cranial and caudal
pancreatic duct opens on a small paplla opposite the Laryngeals
diverticulum. External carotid
Internal carotid
OX Occipital
230 feet in length. EXTERNAL CAROTID

Duodenum commences with a sigmoid flexure.
The bile duct opens in the ventral part of the S. No ARISES as direct continuation of common ca-
ventral pancreatic duct. The dorsal pancreatic duct rotid.
opens 1 foot further back. ENDS by dividing into superficial temporal and
internal maxillary behind postglenoid
SHEEP process.
BRANCHES
80 feet in length. Lingual
The bile duct is joined by the ventral pancre- External maxillary
atic duct to form a common bile duct. Posterior auricular
No accessory pancreatic duct. The common Superficial temporal
bile duct opens into the duodenum about 1 foot from Internal maxillary
the pylorus.
EXTERNAL MAXILLARY
PIG
ARISES from external carotid between digas-
60 feet in length. tric and styloglossal muscles. At anterior
Bile duct opens 2 inches from pylorus. A single border of masseter muscle, artery turns
pancreatic duct opens 5 inches beyond this. around ventral border of jaw and be-

comes facial. The pulse can be taken at A fixed part – the duodenum
this point in the horse as artery lies di- A mesenteric part – jejunum and ileum.
rectly on bone.
ENDS by becoming facial. The mesenteric part of the small intestine is
BRANCHES connected with the dorsal abdominal wall by a double
Sublingual layer of peritoneum termed the common mesentery.
Facial, which divides into an angularis
oris vessel and superior and inferior The root of the common mesentery is at-
labials tached to a point close to the origin of the cranial mes-
enteric artery under the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
INTERNAL MAXILLARY
The interior of the small intestine has the fol-
ARISES from external carotid and passes lowing features:
through alar canal of sphenoid.
ENDS in pterygo-palatine fossa by dividing into 1. Villi – projections on the surface of the mucous
infraorbital and common trunk for membrane which help to increase the surface area.
greater palatine and sphenopalatine. 2. Peyer’s patches – scattered nodules of lym-
BRANCHES phoid tissues.
Inferior alveolar
Deep temporal arteries (anterior and Ducts of the small intestine
posterior)
Middle meningeal Gall bladder has a single cystic duct.
External ophthalmic Lobar ducts from the liver from the hepatic duct.
Buccinator Cystic duct joins hepatic duct to form bile duct.
Infraorbital Pancreas has two ducts:
Palatine trunk Dorsal or accessory
Sphenopalatine Ventral
INTERNAL CAROTID Pancreatic and bile ducts open in the duode-

num.
ARISES from common carotid behind occipito-
mandibular muscle. Passes to carotid ca-
nal through foramen lacerum and enters
cranial cavity.

and about half an inch high. ENDS lateral to optic chiasma by dividing into
anterior and middle cerebrals.
SHEEP BRANCHES
7-8% of the total stomach capacity. Anterior cerebral
Walls of the honeycomb are lower than half an Posterior communicating branch
inch and serrated. Middle cerebral
Circulus arteriosus
OMASUM
OCCIPITAL
OX
Constitues 7-8% of the total stomach ARISES as terminal branch of common carotid
capacity. at posterior border of digastric muscle.
ENDS by anastomosing with vessel of opposite
SHEEP side by ramifying in nuchal muscles.
BRANCHES
9% of the total stomach capacity. Condyloid
Posterior meningeal
ABOMASUM Cerebrospinal
OX SUBCLAVIAN
Constitutes 7-8% of total stomach ca-
pacity. Related anteriorly to the liver only in Left ARISES from aortic arch. Right arises
the calf. from brachiocephalic.
ENDS at level if first rib by becoming axillary.
SHEEP BRANCHES
7-8% of the total stomach capacity. Vertebral
Always related anteriorly to the liver. Costo-cervical trunk
Omo-cervical trunk
SMALL INTESTINE Internal thoracic
Axillary
The small intestine is a tube which connects
the stomach to the large intestine. It commences at INTERNAL THORACIC
the pylorus and consists of the following:
ARSISES from subclavian at level of 1st rib .

ENDS by dividing into musculo-phrenic and The esophageal groove begins at the cardia. It
cranial epigastric. The latter anasto- passes ventrally on the medial wall of the atrium and
moses with caudal epigastric from reticulum. It ends at the reticulo-omasal orifice. From
pudendo-epigastric trunk. there, it is continued to the abomasums by the omasal
BRANCHES groove.
Intercostal rami
Perforating branches to pectoral and The esophageal groove has a spiral course as
transverse thoracic muscle follows:
Thymic rami B (Backwarrds)
Bronchial rami O (Outwards)
Mediastinal rami D (Downwards)
Pericardiaco-phrenic F (Forwards)
Musculo-phrenic I (Inwards)
Cranial epigastric
COMPARATIVE NOTES
AXILLARY
RUMEN
ARISES as continuation of subcalvian at lat-
eral border of 1st rib. OX
ENDS by becoming brachial at distal border of
teres major. Constitutes approximately 80% of the
BRANCHES total stomach capacity. Foliate papillae are
Pectoral crenated at the free extremity.
External thoracic
Subscapular SHEEP
Brachial
80% of the total stomach capacity.
SUBSCAPULAR Papillae are club-shaped.
ARISES from axillary and passes between sub- RETICULUM

scapular and teres major muscle.
ENDS by supplying supraspinatus, deltoid, OX
trapezius and brachiocephalic muscles. Constitutes 9% of the total stomach
capacity. Walls of the honeycomb are smooth

They are either foliate, filiform or club-shaped. BRANCHES
Anterior circumflex humeral
RETICULUM (HONEYCOMB) Posterior circumflex humeral
Thoracodorsal
The most anterior and smallest of the non- Circumflex scapular
glandular stomachs.
BRACHIAL
The greater part lies on the left side of the me-
dian plane opposite ribs 6, 7 and 8. ARISES as continuation of axillary at distal
border of teres major.
The mucous membrane of the interior is ENDS by becoming median under pronator
thrown into ridges forming the typical honeycomb ap- teres muscle
pearance. BRANCHES
Deep brachial
OMASUM (MANYPLIES) Collateral ulnar (Proximal)
Collateral radial (Proximal)
Lies chiefly on the right side of the mid-line Collaterla radial (Distal)
from the 7th to the 11th ribs. Median
ABOMASUM (TRUE STOMACH) MEDIAN
An elongated sac which lies chiefly on the ab- ARISES as continuation of brachial.
dominal floor. The anterior end or fundus is in the ENDS by dividing into radial and ulnar.
xiphoid region. BRANCHES
Common interosseus
The rumen functions as a fermentation vat for Radial
the digestion of herbivorous foods. Ulnar
In order that liquids such as milk can be car- COMMON INTEROSSEUS

ried to the omasum and thence to the glandular stom-
ach without having to go through the rumen, or to the ARISES from median just below elbow
other proventriculi, two muscular lips form a channel ENDS by becoming volar interosseus under
which is continuous with the esophagus. This channel cover of pronator quadratus muscle.
is termed the esophageal groove.

BRANCHES RUMINANT STOMACH
Dorsal interosseus
Volar interosseus The ruminant stomach (and thus that of the ox
and sheep) is compound as compared to the simple
The dorsal interosseus transverses interosseus stomach of the other domestic animals. It consists of
space between radius and ulna and side proximal ra- four parts:
dial collateral and radial artery in formation of dorsal 1. Rumen
rete carpus. 2. Reticulum
3. Omasum
The volar interosseus is main contributor to 4. Abomasum
deep volar arch.
The rumen, reticulum and omasum are in fact
RADIAL dilatations in the wall of the abdominal esophagus.
They are termed proventriculi. The mucous mem-
ARISES as smaller terminal branch of me- brane of their interior is covered with stratified
dian. squamous epithelium and thus they are non-
ENDS by dividing into dorsal and volar glandular.
branches at carpus. Dorsal branch as-
sists in formation of rete carpus. Volar The abomasum represents the true glandular
branch contributes to deep volar arch. stomach of the ruminant.
ULNAR The esophagus enters the stomach at an area

known as atrium ventriculi. The atrium ventriculi is
ARISES as larger terminal branch of median. situated at the vertebral extremities of the 8th and 9th
Gives off 1st volar metacarpal and ribs, slightly to the left of the mid-line.
ENDS at middle of metacarpal region
by dividing into 2nd, 3rd and 4th superfi- RUMEN (PAUNCH)
cial volar metacarpals.1st volar unites
with corresponding dorsal branch to Occupies most of the left half of the abdomi-
form 1st common digital. 1st common nal cavity from the 7th intercostals space to the pelvic
digital supplies proper digital branches inlet.
for 1st and 2nd digits. Superficial volar
anastomoses with corresponding deep The mucous membrane of the rumen pos-
volar and dorsal metacarpals at meta- sesses prominent papillae. These papillae vary in form.

The stomach is held in position as follows: carpal-pharyngeal joints to form three
common digitals.
By pressure of surrounding organs. COMMON DIGITALS
By the esophagus
By five peritoneal folds: Each common digital divides into two proper
1. Gastro-PHRENIC digitals which run along opposed sur-
2. Gastro – SPLENIC faces of 2nd to 5th digits. Lateral digital
3. Gastro – PANCREATIC artery of 5th digit arises from superfi-
4. Lesser OMENTUM cial volar arch which is formed by un-
5. Greater OMENTUM ion of a branch of volar interosseus
and 4th superficial volar metacarpal.
COMPARATIVE NOTES
RETE CARPI DORSALE
HORSE
Gives off four dorsal metacarpal which unite
Average capacity – 3 gallons. Non-glandular with volars at metacarpo-pharyngeal
mucous membrane is separated from glandular by an joints to form common digitals.
irregular ridge called margo plicatus.
The non-glandular left extremity in the horse is BRANCHES OF ABDOMINAL AORTA
termed the saccus caecus.
COELIAC
PIG ARISES from abdominal aorta between lum-
bar parts of diaphragm.
Average capacity – 2 gallons. The left extrem- ENDS by dividing into three trunks:
ity has a blind pouch – the diverticulum ventriculi. Left gastric
A prominence of fat and fibrous tissue projects Splenic
into the pylorus from the wall of the lesser curvature- Hepatic
the torus pyloricus.
SPLENIC
DOG ARISES as branch of celiac.
ENDS by supplying ventral extremity of
Average capacity – 4 pints. Pear shaped and spleen.
distensible. BRANCHES
Gastro-splenic

Left gastro-epiploic COMPARATIVE NOTES
HEPATIC HORSE
Voluntary as far as the base of the heart.
ARISES as branch of celiac.
ENDS as gastroduodenal. OX/SHEEP
BRANCHES
5-10 proper hepatics Easily dilatable and voluntary throughout.
Right gastric
Gastroduodenal PIG
Voluntary until the last few inches near the
GASTRODUODENAL cardia.
ARISES as termination of hepatic DOG

ENDS by dividing into:
Right gastro-epiploic Voluntary throughout. Constricted ventrally at
Pancreato-duodenal origin by thick layer of mucous glands. This constric-
tion is known as the isthmus esophagi.
ANASTOMOSES OF COELIAC BRANCHES
GLANDULAR STOMACH
1. Right-gastro-epiploic from gastroduodenal with
left gastro-epiploic from splenic on greater The glandular stomach is a muscular sac situ-
curvature of stomach. ated between the esophagus and the small intestine. It
2. Right gastric from hepatic with left gastric from is described as having:
coeliac on lesser curvature of stomach.
3. Pancreato-duodenal from gastroduodenal with Two surfaces – parietal and visceral
1st intestinal from cranial mesenteric. Two curvatures – greater and lesser
Two extremities – right and left
CRANIAL MESENTERIC An entrance – the cardia, which is to the left
An exit – the pylorus, which is to the right. The
ARISES from abdominal aorta at root of pylorus is guarded by the S
mesentery
Main trunk for about 15 intestinals

All but the last few are serrated on their free Common trunk for :
borders. Middle colic
Ileo-caeco-colic
SHEEP Right colic
Can be distinguished from ox by the fact that ANASTOMOSES OF MESENTERIC BRANCHES

the rugae are not serrated. The openings of the naso-
palatine ducts form a prominent V on either side of 1. Each intestinal divides on reaching alimentary
the central incisive papilla. tube and adjacent branches anastomoses
forming characteristic arches.
PIG 2. 1st intestinal with duodenal branch of pan-
creato-duodenal from gastro-duodenal.
Long and narrow and equal in width through- 3. Last intestinal with ileac branch of ileo-caeco-
out. Both rugae and median raphé well marked. Inci- colic from caudal mesenteric.
sive papilla is prominent anteriorly. 4. Middle colic from cranial mesenteric with left
colic from caudal mesenteric.
DOG 5. Right colic with middle colic.
Widest about the 4th cheek tooth. median CAUDAL MESENTERIC

raphé usually replaced by a ridge.
ARISES from abdominal aorta opposite 5th or
ESOPHAGUS 6th lumbar vertebra
The esophagus is a musculo-membranous Left colic
tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. It is Cranial hemorrhoidal
considered as having three portions:
EXTERNAL ILIAC
Cervical
Thoracic ARISES as terminal branch of abdominal
Abdominal aorta on level with 6th lumbar verte-
bra.
ENDS on level with portion of pubis by buc-
cal femoral.

BRANCHES Pharynx
Pudendo-epigastric trunk Soft palate
Femoral Sinus
PUDENDO-EPIGASTRIC TRUNK DOG
ARISES from external iliac. Fusiform tonsil situated in sinus.

Caudal epigastric HARD PALATE
External pudendal
Deep femoral The mucous membrane of the roof of the
mouth is termed the hard palate. The hard palate is
FEMORAL bounded in front and on either side by the alveolar
arches. It is continuous with the soft palate behind.
ARISES as continuation of external iliac in The bony basis of the hard palate is formed by the
femoral triangle. palatine process of:
ENDS by becoming popliteal between heads
of gastrocnemius. The premaxillae
BRANCHES: The maxillae
Lateral circumflex femoral The horizontal part of the palatine
Anterior femoral bones.
Saphenous
Genu suprema COMPARATIVE NOTES
Posterior femoral
Popliteal HORSE
POPLITEAL Divide into two equal portions by the central

raphé.
ARISES as continuation of femoral between The palatine ridges or rugae extend the whole
heads of gastrocnemius. length of the palate.
ENDS on a level with femoro-tibial joint by OX
dividing into: Anterior portion forms the prominent dental
Anterior tibial pad.
Posterior tibial The rugae extend only 2/3 of the length of the
palate.

The soft palate has three intrinsic muscles and
one extrinsic. ARTERIES OF DORSUM OF PES
Intrinsic The arteries dorsal to metatarsus and digits

are derived from:
Levator veli palatini Saphenous
Tensor veli palatini Anterior tibial
Palatines
Saphenous divides into dorsal and plantar
Extrinsic branches. Dorsal branches furnish:
Palate-pharyngeus 1st dorsal metatarsal

2nd, 3rd and 4th superficial dorsal metatar-
COMPARATIVE NOTES sals.
HORSE Superficials divide into two proper digitals at distal

extremity of metatarsal.
Soft palate is long, precluding oral breathing
and vomiting. Anterior tibial furnishes 5th dorsal metatarsal and
Tonsil is diffuse being situated in: opposite joint between tibia and talus becomes
Sinus dorsal pedal.
Root of tongue
Soft palate Dorsal pedal supplies 2nd, 3rd and 4th deep dorsal
metatarsals.
OX/SHEEP
Superficial and deep dorsal metatarsals unite to
Bean-shaped circumscribed tonsil situated in form common dorsal digital arteries whose distri-
sinus. bution follows the same course as the equivalent
vessels in the forelimb.
PIG
INTERNAL ILIAC (HYPOGASTRIC)
Soft palate frequently has small median pro-
longation termed the uvula. ARISES as terminal branch of abdominal
Three tonsils situated in: ENDS on reaching pelvic cavity by dividing

into visceral and parietal trunk SALIVARY GLAND DUCTS
BRANCHES:
Parietal Parotid duct opens opposite 3rd upper cheek
Iliolumbar tooth at salivary papilla. Submandibular duct opens
Cranial gluteal opposite the lower canine teeth at sublingual carun-
Superficial lateral artery of the tail cle.
Caudal gluteal
Visceral About 30 short sublingual ducts open through
Internal pudendal small papillae on sublingual fold.
INTERNAL PUDENDAL One major and three or four minor zygomatic

ducts in dog open near the last upper cheek tooth.
Represents visceral trunk of internal iliac.
SOFT PALATE
Branches in dog
The soft palate is a musculo- membranous cur-
1. Umbilical tain which separates the mouth cavity from the phar-
2. Caudal haemorroidal ynx.
3. Perineal The soft palate is described as having:
4. Dorsal artery of penis
5. Deep artery of penis A base
6. Artery of urethral bulb A free border
Two surfaces, oral and aboral
Branches in bitch
The anterior pillars are two short, thick folds
1. Uterine which run from the free border of the oral surface to
2. Vaginal either side of the tongue.
3. Caudal vesical
4. Haemorrhoidal The posterior pillars run from the free border
5. Perineal of the aboral surface to meet over the commencement
of the esophagus. Between the diverging anterior and
MIDDLE SACRAL posterior pillars is the tonsillar sinus which houses the
tonsil.
ARISES from terminal aorta in angle

DOG formed by the two internal iliacs
ENDS by transversing mid-ventral line of
Wide, thin and mobile. Dorsum marked by me- sacrum into the tail.
dian groove.
Long, backward pointing papillae on root. VENOUS SYSTEM OF THE DOG
Inferior part of tip has cord of fibrous tissue –
the lyssa. CAUDAL VENA CAVA
SALIVARY GLANDS DRAINS almost all of blood from abdomen,

pelvis and pelvic limbs. Formed by conflu-
The term salivary glands refer to three pairs of ences of right and left common iliac vein
large glands situated on the sides of the face and the at the 7th lumbar vertebra.
adjacent part of the neck. These glands are: OPENS into posterior part of the right atrium.
TRIBUTARIES
1. Parotid Common iliacs
2. Submandibular Lumbars
3. Sublingual Deep circumflex iliacs
Internal spermatics
The salivary glands are classified according to Renals
their type of secretion. Thus: Phrenico-abdominals
Hepatics
1. Serous Phrenics
2. Mucous
3. Mixed PORTAL VEIN
POINTS TO NOTE DRAINS intestines, stomach, spleen and pan-

creas. Formed ventral to and to the right
The parotid is serous except in the dog where it is of origin of celiac artery by confluence of
mixed. two main venous trunks comprising:
The submandibular is mixed. Splenic and gastric veins
The sublingual is mixed. Cranial and caudal mesenteric veins
The zygomatic or orbital gland in dog is an acces- ENDS by entering the ports of the liver
sory salivary gland situated in the anterior part TRIBUTARIES
part of the pterygopalatine fossa. It is mixed. Pancreatics

Gastro-duodenal supplies the anterior two thirds. The glossopharyngeal
AZYGOS VEIN nerve supplies the posterior thirds.
DRAINS greater part of te chest wall. Arises as COMPARATIVE NOTES

unpaired vessel by union of 1st and 2nd lum-
bar veins and passes into thorax along right HORSES
vertebral bodies.
ENDS by curving towards heart at 6th thoracic Shaped like a spatula.
vertebra and opening into cranial vena cava Two distinct vallate papillae on posterior part
or right atrium. of the dorsum, flanking the mid-line.
TRIBUTARIES
Dorsal intercostals OX
Vena hemiazygos
Oesophageal vein Posterior half of dorsum is prominent and
Bronchial vein marked off by transverse depression.
Papillae on prominence are distinct. They are
VIBORG’S TRIANGLE termed lenticular papillae.
Filiform and conical papillae are keratinized
Formed by: and directed backwards.
They give a rough, prehensile surface to the
1. Lignofacial vein tongue.
2. Ramus of the mandible
3. Tendon of sternocephalicus SHEEP
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF THE OX As ox but tip is more blunt and posterior

prominence not so well marked.
The chief collecting trunk of the lymphatic sys- No conical papillae but less keratinized filiform
tem is the thoracic duct. papillae are numerous at tip.
The thoracic duct lies on the abdominal roof PIG

closely related to the aorta and the start of the hemi-
azygos vein. Narrow and pointed, with a thin apex.
Long, backward-pointing papillae on root.
It starts below the 2nd lumbar vertebra as a

The fowl has no teeth. dilatation formed by the union of the trunks which
drain the pelvic limb. This dilatation is called the cis-
TONGUE terna chyli.
The tongue is situated on the floor of the The thoracic duct opens into the origin of the
mouth cavity between the rami of the mandibles. It is cranial vena cava just behind the angle of junction of
supported in a muscular sling formed by the xxx-hyoid the jugular vein, or into the left common jugular vein.
muscles. It is described as having:
The chief tributaries of the thoracic duct are:
1. Root
2. Body 1 or 2 lumbar trunks
3. Apex Intestinal trunk
The dorsum of tongue refers to the free dorsal In addition to the thoracic duct, the right lym-
surface. The mucous membrane of the dorsum is phatic duct drains the remainder of the body, thus:
papillated. There are four main types of papillae:
Head
1. Filiform Neck
2. Fungiform Thorax
3. Foliate Right thoracic limb
4. Vallate
The right lymphatic duct opens into the cranial
The last three types of papillae bear taste vena cava on its own or anastomoses with the thoracic
buds. duct.
The blood supply of the tongue is achieved by GLANDS OF THE HEAD AND NECK
paired lingual and sublingual arteries which are
branches of the external maxillary artery. MANDIBULAR
The motor nerve supply of the tongue is from One gland on either side situated between
the hypoglossal nerve. sterno-cephalic and ventral part of mandibular salivary
gland.
The sensory nerve supply is from two sources:
The lingual which is a branch of the mandibular nerve DRAINS muzzle, lips, cheeks, hard palate, ante-

rior part of turbinates, nasal septum, DENTAL FORMULA
most of gums, sublingual and paratid
glands, tip of tongue, skin of face, mandi-
TOTAL
40 or 42
ble, premaxilla, nasal bone, and muscles
of head except those of eye, ear, tongue,
32
44
42
30
and hyoid.
EFFERENTS pass to atlantal.
PAROTID
2 ( 3/3 1/1 3/3 or 4/4 3/3)

PERMANENT
1/1 4/4 2/3)
2 (3/3 1/1 3/2 1/1)

2 ( 0/4 0/0 3/3 3/3)
2 ( 3/3 2/1 4/4 3/3)

Situated on posterior masseter muscle par-
tially covered by parotid salivary gland.
DRAINS muzzle, lips, gums, anterior turbinate,

nasal septum, paraotid salivary gland,
2 (3/3
eyelids, lacrimal gland, external ear, fron-
tal, molar, nasal, and premaxillary bones,
mandible, skin of head and most muscles
TOTAL
of head.
EFFERENTS pass to atlantal.
24
20
32
32
26
SUPRAPHARINGEAL
2 (3/3 0/0 3/3 0/0)
2 (0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0)
2 (3/3 1/1 3/2 0/0)

2 ( 3/3 1/1 4/4 0/0)
2 ( 3/3 1/1 4/4 0/0)

TEMPORARY
Two glands – right and left situated medial to
great cornu of hyoid between pharynx and ventral
straight muscles of head.
DRAINS tongue, floor of mouth, hard palate,

soft palate, gums, pharynx, sublingual
and mandibular salivary glands, posterior
nasal cavity, maxillary and palatine si-
ANIMAL
Ox/Sheep
nuses, larynx and rectum capitis ventralis
Horse
Dog
major.
Cat
Pig
EFFERENTS unite to form tracheal lymph duct.

BUNODONT DENTITION – when several primitive PARAPHARINGEAL
cones come together to form one tooth as in
the cheek teeth of the pig. Situated on lateral wall of pharynx under cover
of mandibular salivary gland.
LOPODONT DENTITION – when the cones become
ridges as in the cheek teeth of the horse. DRAINS same as atlantal.
EFFERENTS same as atlantal.
SELENODONT DENTITION – when the ridges be-
come sharp as in the cheek teeth of the ox. ATLANTAL
BRACHYDONT DENTITION – when the enamel of a Situated ventral to wing of atlas partly covered
tooth is restricted to the crown as in the teeh by mandibular salivary gland.
of the dog. (short-crowned teeth)
DRAINS tongue, salivary glands, gum, cer-
HYPSODONT DENTITION – when much of the vical thymus, hyoid and cervical mus-
crown is embedded in the gum as in the cheek cle, parotid, mandibular and su-
teeth of the horse. prapharyngeal lymph glands.
EFFERENTS unite in formation of tracheal
lymph duct.
PTERYGOID
Present in most cases on dorso-lateral face of

pterygoid muscle.
DRAINS hard palate and adjacent gums.

EFFERENTS pass to mandibular.
ANTERIOR CERVICAL
4 or 5 situated on anterior part of trachea

along course of carotid artery.

MIDDLE CERVICAL is the part which projects above the level
of the gum.
Situated on each side of trachea in middle
third of neck. Root – that portion of tooth which is covered
with cement and is embedded in the gum.
POSTERIOR CERVICAL
Neck – the line of junction of crown and root.
Situated near thoracic inlet. The teeth of the dog show a very distinct
neck.
DRAINS ventral muscle of neck, oesopha-
gus, larynx, trachea, thyroid and cervi- The center of a tooth is termed the pulp cav-
cal thymus. ity. The pulp cavity is filled with a soft gelatinous mass
EFFERENTS pass mainly to tracheal lymph of connective tissue – the pulp.
ducts but posterior group may go to
terminal thoracic duct or common The blood supply of the pulp is derived from
jugular vein. infraorbital and mandibular alveolar branches of the
internal maxillary.
COSTO-CERVICAL
The nerve supply is derived from the corre-
st
Situated in front of 1 rib lateral to trachea sponding branches of the 5th cranial nerve – the
(right side) and oesophagus (left side) and dorsal to trigeminal.
carotid artery.
A primitive tooth is simply a cone. The differ-
DRAINS muscle of the neck and shoulder, ent types of dentition of the animals can therefore be
costal pleura, trachea, intercostal, and classified according to the amount of development of
anterior mediastinal glands. that cone. Thus:
EFFERENTS right pass to right tracheal
duct. Left pass to terminal thoracic HOMODONT DENTITION – when all the teeth are
duct. similar as in the crocodile.
TRACHEAL LYMPH DUCT HETERODONT DENTITION - when all the teeth

have undergone differentiation into molars,
Right and left formed by confluences of effer- premolars, incisors, etc.
ents from atlantal.

TEETH DRAINS cervical, costo-cervical and
prescapular glands.
Teeth are classified according to their form
and portion as follows: Ducts pass along each side of trachea and oe-
sophagus. Right opens into right common jugular
Incisors ‘nippers’ – implanted in the incisive vein. Left opens into terminal thoracic duct or left
bone and the body of the mandible. Ox common jugular vein.
and sheep have no upper incisors. The
dental pad takes over their function. PRESCAPULAR
Canines – ‘holding’ teeth implanted behind Situated on anterior border of supraspinatus

the incisors in the interalveolar space. four or five inches above level of shoulder joint. Cov-
ered by omo-transverse and brachiocephalic muscles.
Premolars and molars – ‘grinding’ teeth form-
ing the sides of the dental arch. The pre- DRAINS skin of neck, shoulder, part of ven-
molars are anterior. Molars are found only tral and lateral surface of thorax, tho-
in permanent dentition. racic limb and muscles of shoulder
girdle.
The term cheek teeth includes both premolars EFFERENTS right passes to right tracheal
and molars. duct. Left passes to terminal thoracic
duct or left tracheal duct.
In horses, the first premolar when present is
called the Wolf tooth. GLANDS OF THORAX
Carnassial or cutting teeth have three roots. Thoracic lymph glands are small and numer-
The dog has two pairs of carnassials teeth. ous. They comprise the following:
The last upper premolars. INTERCOSTALS

The first lower molars.
Situated in dorsal ends of intercostal spaces.
A tooth presents for description:
DRAIN intercostal and spinal muscles, ven-
Crown – that portion of the tooth which is tral serratus, latissimus dorsi, trape-
covered with enamel. Popularly, the crown zius , subscapular, longus coli, external

oblique, costal pleura, peritoneum,
thoracic vertebrae and ribs. Digestive System
EFFERENTS pass to mediastinals.
The digestive system is conveniently divided
DORSAL MEDIASTINALS into:
Alimentary canal
Situated on each side of thoracic aorta. Right Accessory organs
are related to thoracic duct. Left to hemiazygos vein.
ALIMENTARY CANAL
DRAIN as intercostals with addition of dia-
phragm, mediastinum, pericardium It extends from mouth to the anus. It consists
and intercostal glads. of the following consecutive portions:
EFFERENTS pass to thoracic duct or join
common duct from posterior medi- Mouth
astinals. Pharynx
Esophagus
VENTRAL MEDIASTINALS Glandular stomach( and in case of the rumi-
nants, the non-glandular stomach as well)
Situated on transverse thoracic muscle. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
Large intestine (caecum, colon, rectum)
DRAIN costal and mediastinal pleura, dia-
phragm, pericardium and ribs. ACCESSORY ORGANS
EFFERENTS unite to form trunk which
passes to anterior sternal. They are composed of the following:
ANTERIOR MEDIASTINALS Teeth

Tongue
Situated at thoracic inlet and along oesopha- Salivary glands
gus, trachea and cranial vena cava and brachiocephalic Liver
trunk. Pancreas
DRAIN thoracic oesophagus, trachea, thy-

mus, lungs, pericardium, heart, costal
and mediastinal pleura, first four inter-

The diaphragm is pierced by three foramina costals and gland on apical bbronchus.
EFFERENTS pass to thoracic duct, right tra-
Aortic hiatus – which transmits: cheal duct and cost-cervicals.
Aorta POSTERIOR MEDIASTINALS

Vena azygus
Cistern chili Situated along oesphagus from aortic arch
backward.
Esophageal hiatus – which transmits:
DRAIN oesophagus, lungs, pericardium. Me-
Esophagus diastinum, diaphragm, peritoneum,
Esophageal branch of gastric artery liver and spleen.
Vagus nerve EFFERENTS unite to form common trunk
which passes to thoracic duct.
Caval foramen – which transmits the vena
cava DIAPHRAGMATIC
Situated at caval foramen and termination of

phrenic nerves.
DRAIN diaphragm and mediastinum.

EFFERENTS pass to posterior mediastinals.
BRONCHIALS
Generally three or four present:
Left situated in angle between aortic arch and

left pulmonary artery.
Right situated similarly on right side.
Dorsal or middle may be present above bifur-

cation of trachea.

Apical situated at origin of apical bronchus. Thoracic duct
Phrenic, cardiac and pulmonary nerves
DRAIN lungs, pulmonary glands, thoracic Vagus and sympathetic nerves
oesophagus and heart. Left recurrent nerve
EFFERENTS pass to common trunk from
posterior mediastinals, middle medi- Postcardial mediastinum contains:
astinals or anterior mediastinals.
Aorta
PULMONARY Vena azygos
Thoracic duct
Inconstant glands. When present are situated Esophagus
on chief bronchi. Vagus and sympathetic nerves
Left phrenic nerve
DRAIN lungs
EFFERENTS pass to bronchial and posterior DIAPHRAGM
mediastinals.
The diaphragm is a broad unpaired muscle
PERICARDIALS which forms a partition between thoracic and abdomi-
nal cavities.
EFFERENTS pass to dorsal mediastinals,
anterior mediastinals, left bronchial It is an organ of respiration and it has the fol-
and apical. lowing attachments:
STERNALS
Costal part – cartilages of ribs 8, 9 and 10.
Situated along course of internal thoracic ar- Thereafter the following ribs at an increas-
tery. Largest is termed the anterior sternal. ing distance from their sterna ends.
DRAINS diaphragm, intercostals, deep pec- Sterna part – the upper part of the xiphoid.
toral, ventral serrate, straight thoracic
and abdominal muscles, costal and Lumbar part – a. right crus: 1st to the 5th lum-
mediastinal pleura, pericardium, peri- bar vertebrae by means of the ventral lon-
toneum, liver, ribs, costal cartilages, gitudinal ligament. b. left crus: similarly to
sternum and ventral mediastinals. the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
EFFERENTS pass to anterior mediastinals

reflected onto the diaphragm. or termination of right tracheal duct
or thoracic duct in the case of the left
MEDIASTINUM side.
The mediastinum is the space formed at the GLANDS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS
mid-line by the apposition of the right and left pleural
membrane. It is divided into three parts: Abdominal and pelvic gland are divided into
two groups:
Precardial 1. Parietal
Cardial 2. Visceral
Postcardial
PARIETAL
The precardial mediastinum contains:
Lie in subserous and subcutaneous tissue and
Trachea receive afferents from abdominal and pelvic walls,
Esophagus parts of viscera, and proximal gland of pelvic limbs.
Blood vessels connecting heart with
Head Parietal glands are:
Neck
Thoracic limb LUMBARS
Termination of thoracic duct
Cardiac and phrenic nerves Situated along abdominal aorta and caudal
Vagus and sympathetic nerves vena cava and in spaces between lumbar transverse
Recurrent nerves processes.
Thymus
Lymph glands DRAIN spinal, sublumbar, abdominal and
dorsal serrate muscles, lumbo-dorsal
Cardial mediastinum contains: fascia, kidneys, adrenals, peritoneum
and lumbar vertebrae.
Heart EFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk and cis-
Start of arterial system and end of ve- tern chyli.
nous system RENALS
Esophagus
Termination of trachea Actually belong to lumbar group. Situated on

course or renal vessels. marked off by a distinct fissure. Anterior to this apical
and cardiac lobes are separately only by cardiac notch.
DRAIN kidneys and adrenals
EFFERENTS pass to cisterna chyli. DOG
COELIACS Right lung is larger than left. Divided into four

lobes by very deep fissures which extend to root.
Situated near celiac and cranial mesenteric
arteries. PLEURAE
DRAIN spleen The pleurae are two in number – right and

EFFERENTS pass to common trunk for gas- left. They are serous membranes which line the walls
tric, intestinal trunk or to cistern chyli. of the thorax and are reflected over the surface of the
lungs.
INTERNAL ILIACS
They are in three parts:
6-8 situated in relation to terminal branches of
abdominal aorta. 1. Parietal
2. Mediastinal
DRAIN muscles of sublumbar region, pelvis, 3. Pulmonary
tail, thigh, genitals, kidneys, bladder,
urethra, external iliacs, sacral, ischiat- The pleurae are attached to the structures
ics, deep inguinals, and prefemoral. which they cover by subserous tissue. In the case of
EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk. the parietal pleura which covers the thoracic wall, this
subserous tissue is called endothoracic fascia.
EXTERNAL ILIACS
The parietal pleura has three lines of reflec-
1 or 2 situated at bifurcation of circumflex iliac tion:
artery.
Vertebral – where costal parietal pleura turns
DRAIN abdominal muscles, deep gluteal, ventrally to become mediastinal pleura
tensor fascia latae, peritoneum, pelvic Sternal – where costal parietal pleura turns
bones. dorsally to become mediastinal pleura.
EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk, internal Diaphragmatic – where the parietal pleura is

Bronchial artery iliacs or deep inguinals.
Pulmonary nerves
Pulmonary lymph vessels PARALUMBARS
COMPARATIVE NOTES Small and variable in number. Situated under

skin of upper flank.
HORSE
Divided into lobes by deep fissures. Right lung DRAIN adjacent skin.
has intermediate lobe. EFFERENTS pass to prefemorals and deep
inguinals.
OX/SHEEP
SUPERFICIAL INGUINALS
Divided into lobes by deep interlobar fissures.
Left lung has lobes: Bull. Situated below prepubic tendon about neck
of scrotum and behind spermatic cord.
Apical
Cardiac DRAIN external genitalia except testicles,
Diaphragmatic skin, medial and posterior thigh, and
medial leg.
Right Lung has four lobes: EFFERENTS pass through inguinal canal to
deep inguinals.
Apical
Cardiac Cow. Termed supramammary . Usually two on
Diaphragmatic either side. Situated above posterior bor-
Intermediate der ofbase of mammary glands.
Apical lobe of right lung receives 3rd bronchus DRAIN udder, external genitalia and skin of
from trachea opposite 3rd rib. Lobulation very dis- thigh and leg.
tinctly marked. EFFERENTS unite to form 2 or 3 trunks
which pass to deep inguinals.
PIG
SACRALS
As ox and sheep, but left lung can be regarded
as having only two lobes. Diaphragmatic lobe is Divided into two groups.

Medial sacrals. Very variable. When present situ- LUNGS
ated on either side of deep surface of
sacro-sciatic ligament. The lungs are paired structures which occupy
the greater part of the thoracic cavity. They are accu-
DRAIN pelvic urethra, urethral muscle, rately molded to the walls of the cavity and to
root of penis, prostate, vagina, urethra neighboring organs.
and coccygeal muscles.
EFFERENTS pass to internal iliacs. A lung is soft and spongy to the touch. It crepi-
tates when pressed. Its color is bright pink in life and it
Lateral sacrals. When present situated on upper floats in water.
part of outer sacro-sciatic ligament.
A fetal lung can be distinguished by the fol-
DRAIN deep gluteal, lumbo-dorsal fascia, lowing features:
hip joint, pelvic bones.
EFFERENTS pass to internal iliacs and deep 1. It is much smaller
inguinals. 2. It is firmer to the touch and does not
crepitates
ISCHIATICS 3. It is pale gray in color.
4. It does not float in water.
Situated on sacro-sciatic ligament an inch
above lesser sciatic notch. For description each lung presents:
DRAIN rectum, anus, vulva, root of penis, Two surfaces – costal and mediastinal
prostate, bulbo-urethral, urethra, ure- Two borders – dorsal and ventral
thral muscle, gluteals, biceps femoris, A base
semitedinosus, internal obturator, ge- An apex
mellus, lumbo-fdorsal fascia, skin of
hip and tail, hip joint and popliteals. The root of the lung is composed of the struc-
EFFERENTS pass to internal ilacs. tures which enter or leave the lung at the hilus on the
mediastinal surface. These are:
VISCERAL
Bronchus
Lies on walls of viscera or in peritoneal folds. Pulmonary artery
They receive the afferents from the organs with which Pulmonary veins

TRACHEA they are connected. There are two groups:
The trachea is a cartilaginous and membra- Gastric s

nous tube which extends from the larynx to the hilus Mesenterics
of the lungs where it divides into right and left bronchi.
GASTRICS comprise the following glands:
The tracheal rings are composed of hyaline
cartilage. Their function is to keep the trachea perma- 1. Atrial
nently patent. 2. Right ruminal
3. Left ruminal
COMPARATIVE NOTES 4. Anterior ruminal
5. Reticular
HORSES 6. Omasal
7. Dorsal abomasal
Tracheal rings incomplete dorsally in thoracic 8. Ventral abomasal
region. In cervical region, they overlap dorsally from
right to left. MESENTERICS comprise the following glands:
OX/SHEEP 1. Pudendal
2. Jejuno-ileal
The ends of the tracheal rings are in opposi- 3. Caecal
tion, forming a dorsal ridge in thoracic region. In cervi- 4. Colic
cal region, they are incomplete dorsally. 5. Rectal
6. Pancreatico-intestinal
PIG 7. Hepatic
Tracheal rings overlap dorsally both in thorax
and neck. GLANDS OF THORACIC LIMB
DOG AXILLARY
Tracheal rings are slender and U-shaped. The
ends of the rings do not meet dorsally so that the tra- Situated on medial face of distal teres major
chea has a membranous dorsal wall. on course of vein from latissimus dorsal muscle.
DRAINS most of muscle of shoulder and

arm, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, deep of thyroid.
and superficial pectorals, fascia of Transverse arytenoid ligament – connects
forearm, shoulder, elbow and carpal bases of arytenoids.
joints, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, Vocal ligament- from vocal process of aryte-
carpus and infraspinatus gland. noids to body of thyroid.
EFFERENTS pass to posterior cervicals. Ventricular ligament – from cuneiform proc-
ess to lateral surface vocal process.
INFRASPINATUS Crico-tracheal membrane – connects cricoids
with 1st tracheal ring.
Situated on posterioir border of infraspinatus
muscle but generally absent. Laryngeal muscles are either:
RHOMBOID Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Situated under cervical rhomboid but gener-
ally absent. Extrinsic Muscles
GLANDS OF PELVIC LIMB 1. Sterno-thyro-hyoid

2. Thyro-hyoid
PREFEMORALS 3. Hyo-epiglittic
Situated on aponeurosis of external oblique 5 Intrinsic Muscles

or 6 inches above patella.
1. Crico-thyroid – tenses the vocal cords
DRAIN skin of posterior thorax, abdomen, 2. Dorsal crico-arytenoid – dilates the
pelvis, thigh, leg, prepuce and tensor rima
fasciae latae. 3. Lateral crico-arytenoid – closes the
EFFERENTS pass to deep inguinals or ili- rima
acs. 4. Transverse arytenoids – assists clos-
ing of rima
DEEP INGUINALS 5. Ventricular – closes rima and loosens
vocal folds
Situated ventral to psoas minor at angle be- 6. Vocal – closes rima and loosens vocal
tween circumflex iliac and external iliac arteries. folds.

Corniculates DRAIN pelvic limb, abdominal muscles,
Cuneiforms urinary organs, seminal vesicles, cre-
master muscle, tunica vaginalis, super-
Unpaired cartilages ficial inguinals, external iliacs, sacrals,
Epiglottis prefemorals and popliteals.
Cricoid EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk and in-
Thyroid ternal iliacs.
The cavity of the larynx has the following four POPLITEALS

divisions.
Situated between biceps femoris and sem-
1. Aditus – the entrance or pharyngeal aper- itendinosus.
ture. Bounded in front by epiglottis, be-
hind by arytenoids; laterally by ary- DRAIN lateral and posterior leg, distal
epiglottic folds. limb, biceps femoris and semitendino-
2. Vestibule- laterally has (i.) ventricular folds sus.
and (ii.) lateral ventricle which leads into EFFERENTS pass to deep inguinals and
laryngeal saccule. ischiatic or internal iliacs.
3. Rima-glottis – bounded on either side by
vocal cords. COXAL
4. Posterior compartment – continuous with
trachea. Situated in front of proximal quadriceps
femoris under tensor fasciae latae.
MEMBRANES OF LARYNX
DRAINS quadriceps femoris, tensor fasciae
Crico-thyroid membrane – occupies thyroid latae and prefemoral.
notch. EFFERENTS pass to iliacs or deep ingui-
Thyro-hyoid membrane – connects body of nals.
thyroid with body and thyroid cornua of
hyoid.
Hyo-epiglottic ligament – from oral surface of
the epiglottis to body of hyoid.
Thyro-epiglottic ligament – from base of epi-
glottis to body and medial surface of xxxxx

FOETAL CIRCULATION posterior nares or choanae.
UMBILICAL ARTERIES The nasal cavity is divided into similar halves

by the nasal septum.
Right and left umbilical arteries xxxxxxx from
internal iliacs and to umbilical xxxxxxx umbilical folds The superior and inferior turbinate bones pro-
on either side of the bladder xxxxxx birth these vessels ject from the lateral wall and divide each half into:
become the round ligament xxxxxx the bladder.
Superior nasal meatus
UMBILICAL VEINS Middle nasal meatus
Inferior nasal meatus
Carry the only arterial blodd in the xxxxxxxxx
receiving that blood from placenta. Xxxxx and joins The inferior nasal meatus is the only direct
portal vein. passage between the nostrils and the pharynx.
DUCTUS VENOSUS The common nasal meatus is situated be-

tween the nasal septum and the turbinate bones. It is
In Ox and Dog, the ductus venosus xxxxx the continuous laterally with the other three meatuses.
liver form a venous sinus formed by the confluence of
portal and umbilical veins. Xxxx short circuits blood LARYNX
form umbilical vein xxxx to vena cava.
The larynx is a cartilaginous valvular apparatus
FORAMEN OVALE which connects the pharynx and the trachea. It has
three functions:
As lungs are non-functional in foetal pulmo-
nary, circulation is limited. Foramen ovale is the open- 1. To regulate air volume in respiration
ing between atria of heart enabling blood to xxxxxxx 2. To prevent aspiration of foreign bodies
lungs. 3. To act as the organ of voice
Foramen is guarded by valve to prevent blood There are nine cartilages making up the larynx
passing from left atrium to right. After birth, foramen or these three are paired and three are unpaired.
closes becoming fossa ovalis.
Paired cartilages
Arytenoids

Respiratory System DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS
As pulmonary circulation is limited, blood

The respiratory system is consists of the fol- which enters pulmonary artery can be by-passed to
lowing parts: aorta by the ductus arteriosus. This vessel joins the left
side of the aortic arch and after birth it is transformed
Nasal cavity into a fibrous cord termed the ligamentum arteri-
Pharynx osum.
Larynx
Trachea TRIVIA:
Bronchi The right lymphatic duct is commonly absent.
Lungs It is represented by a number of short ducts which ter-
minates in the:
The nasal cavity opens externally at the nos-
trils or external nares. It communicates behind with 1.thoracic duct
the naso-pharynx through the posterior nares. 2.jugulo-brachial junction
3.origin of anterior vena cava
The pharynx is common to the passage of food
as well as air.
The larynx is the organ of voice. It also regu-

lates the passage of air to and from the lungs.
The trachea and bronchi are permanently pat-

ent conducting tubes.
The lungs ventilate the body.
NASAL CAVITY
The nasal cavity is a cylindrical passage en-

closed by all the bones of the face above the mandi-
ble. It is open externally at the nostrils and it commu-
nicates posterior with the upper pharynx through the

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Teratogen 158 Teratogen

ERROL JAY YUSON BALAGAN

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

It has a caudal larynx which is termed the sy-

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

The female bird has only one ovary. It is W.M.S

The yolk of the egg is formed in the ovary. The

The pecten projects into interior of eyeball

The uropygial gland is situated at the base of

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Skeletal System FOWL

The axial skeleton consists of: Rostrum

Ribs cannot be satisfactorily being included in

Sesamoid are bones which are developed in

The vertebral column is subdivided into five

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

ATLAS The function of the sympathetic nervous sys-

DOG: Alar foramen is a notch. EYE

EPISTROPHEUS or AXIS The eyeball consists of three concentric tunics:

HORSE: Spinous process is bifed. Sclera – the fibrous tunic

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

SCIATIC The 7th cervical can be recognized by the fol-

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Ribs are described as having: CRANIAL GLUTEAL

1. A shaft. DERIVED from last lumbar and last sacral

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

MEDIAN PIG: narrow shaft and distinct angle.

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Branches of Mandibular OX/SHEEP: Metacarpals 3 and 4 are weight bear-

Outwards in root of internal ear to gain me- HINDLIMB

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

DOG: Wing of ilium distinctly concave. Branches of Maxillary:

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN PELVIC GIRDLE Zygomatic

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

5th Trigeminal – orbital fissure (Ophthalmic) PIG: Shaft is distinctly quadrilateral.

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Cranial and spinal nerves with their ganglia.

METATARSALS AND DIGITS – the metatarsals and dig-

DISTINGUISH 3RD METATARSAL OF HORSE FROM 3RD

To help determine the side of the limb bone it

The skull including the hyoid bone and the

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

1. Parietal Pancreas having both exocrine and endocrine sources:

The lateral surface is divided into three re- Parathyroids

Thyroid (and accessory thyroids when present)

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Endocrine System 2. Optical

The maxillary sinus has two openings:

1. Frontal-maxillary – communicates dor-

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

Roof – two plates of frontal bone.

The frontal sinus is very large. It involves

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

A body Deciduate, non-diffused (zonary)

For description of hyoid presents: Alveoli and tubules

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

EWE POINTS TO NOTE:

Cornua is straight and shaped like a Y. cervical Types of Joints

Comparative Veterinary Anatomy Comparative Veterinary Anatomy

D. Symphysis – applied to joints in the median A body