A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Anxiety toward Mathematics and Achievement in

Mathematics
Author(s): Xin Ma
Source: Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 30, No. 5 (Nov., 1999), pp. 520-540
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/749772
Accessed: 10-04-2015 18:19 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/749772?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents

You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal
for Research in Mathematics Education.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Journalfor Researchin MathematicsEducation
1999, Vol. 30, No. 5, 520-540

A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship

Between Anxiety
Toward Mathematics and
Achievement in Mathematics
Xin Ma, UniversityofAlberta, Canada

In this meta-analysis I examined 26 studies on the relationshipbetween anxiety

towardmathematicsandachievementin mathematicsamongelementaryandsecondary
students.The commonpopulationcorrelationfor the relationshipis significant(-.27).
A series of generallinearmodels indicatedthatthe relationshipis consistentacross
gendergroups,grade-levelgroups,ethnicgroups,instrumentsmeasuringanxiety,and
yearsof publication.Therelationship,however,differssignificantlyamonginstruments
measuringachievementas well as amongtypesof publication.Researchersusing stan-
dardizedachievementteststendto reporta relationshipof significantlysmallermagni-
tudethanresearchersusingmathematicsteachers'gradesandresearcher-made achieve-
menttests. Publishedstudiestendto indicatea significantlysmallermagnitudeof the
relationshipthan unpublishedstudies. There are no significant interactioneffects
amongkey variablessuch as gender,grade,andethnicity.
Reviewof research;Secondary,5-12
KeyWords:Achievement;Anxiety;Meta-analysis;

There is an increasing recognition that affective factors play a critical role in the
teaching and learning of mathematics (McLeod, 1992, 1994). One affective factor
that "has probably received more attention than any other area that lies within the
affective domain" is anxiety toward mathematics (McLeod, 1992, p. 584). Aiken
(1960) considered mathematics anxiety a "relative" of the general attitude toward
mathematics, only being more visceral. Most researchers, however, consider math-
ematics anxiety to be a construct that is distinct from attitude toward mathematics.
For example, McLeod (1992) stated that the term attitude "does not seem adequate
to describe some of the more intense feelings that students exhibit in mathematics
classrooms" (p. 576), such as anxiety, confidence, frustration, and satisfaction.
Mathematics anxiety is often referred to as "the general lack of comfort that
someone might experience when required to perform mathematically" (Wood,
1988, p. 11) or the feeling of tension, helplessness, and mental disorganization one
has when required to manipulate numbers and shapes (Richardson & Suinn, 1972;
Tobias, 1978). Mathematics anxiety can take multidimensional forms including,
for example, dislike (an attitudinal element), worry (a cognitive element), and fear
(an emotional element) (see Hart, 1989; Wigfield & Meece, 1988).
Spielberger (1972) conceptualized anxiety as a state, a trait, and a process.
Through his model of anxiety-as-process, he explained anxiety as a result of a chain
reaction that consisted of a stressor, a perception of threat, a state reaction, cogni-

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 521

tive reappraisal,and coping. Cemen (1987) also defined mathematicsanxiety as

an anxious state in response to mathematics-relatedsituationsthat are perceived
as threateningto self-esteem. In her model of mathematicsanxietyreaction,envi-
ronmentalantecedents(e.g., negative mathematicsexperiences, lack of parental
encouragement),dispositionalantecedents(e.g., negative attitudes,lack of confi-
dence), and situationalantecedents(e.g., classroomfactors, instructionalformat)
are seen to interactto producean anxiousreactionwith its physiological manifes-
tations (e.g., perspiring,increasedheartbeat).
Although the search for causes of mathematicsanxiety is often unsuccessful
(Gough, 1954), manyresearchershave reportedthe consequencesof being anxious
toward mathematics,including the inability to do mathematics,the decline in
mathematicsachievement,the avoidanceof mathematicscourses,the limitationin
selecting college majorsand futurecareers,and the negative feelings of guilt and
shame (Armstrong, 1985; Betz, 1978; Brush, 1978; Burton, 1979; Donady &
Tobias, 1977; Hendel, 1980; Preston, 1986/1987; Richardson& Suinn, 1972;
Tobias& Weissbrod,1980). Therefore,not only arethe professionalandeconomic
gains that would result from changing mathematics anxiety into mathematics
confidence indispensable, the psychological boost that individuals experience
when they are successful in mathematicsis also important(National Research
Council, 1989).
Theoreticalmodels of the relationshipbetween anxietytowardmathematicsand
achievementin mathematicsarecomplicatedto establish(Gliner,1987;Mevarech
& Ben-Artzi, 1987), but researchershave demonstratedvariouscharacteristicsof
the relationship.The traditionalarousaltheoristsstatethatthereexists an optimal
level of arousalaroundthe middleof the arousaldimension-optimal bothin terms
of performanceand in the sense of hedonic tone (being most pleasant,see Hebb,
1955). This idea is often graphicallyrepresentedas an inverted-Ucurvedepicting
a curvilinearrelationshipbetween anxiety and performance.Thus, this arousal
theoryindicatesthatsome anxiety is beneficial to performance,but aftera certain
point it underminesperformance.Most researchers,however, startwith the linear
notionthatanxietyseriouslyimpairsperformance(see Lazarus,1974).Specifically,
a higherlevel of anxietyis associatedwith a lower level of achievement.This nega-
tive relationshiphas been displayedacross several age populations.For example,
mathematicsanxietyis negativelycorrelatedwithmathematicsperformanceamong
adults in general (Quilter& Harper,1988) and among college studentsin partic-
ular (Betz, 1978; Frary & Ling, 1983). In his meta-analysis, Hembree (1990)
reported an average correlationof -.31 between anxiety and achievement for
college students.
This negative relationshipalso appearsat the elementaryand secondaryschool
levels (e.g., Chiu & Henry, 1990; Lee, 1991/1992; Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles,
1990). Hembree(1990) reportedan averagecorrelationof-.34 for school students,
concludingthatmathematicsanxiety seriously constrainsperformancein mathe-
maticaltasksandthatreductionin anxietyis consistentlyassociatedwith improve-
mentin achievement.Mathematicsanxietyis usuallyassociatedwith mathematics

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
522 Anxietyand Achievement

achievementindividuallybutnot necessarilycollectively. Forexample,a student's

level of mathematicsanxiety can significantly predict his or her mathematics
performance(Fennema& Sherman,1977;Hendel, 1980;Rounds& Hendel, 1980;
Wigfield & Meece, 1988). But when the effects of previousmathematicsperfor-
mance,attitudetowardmathematics,andmathematicsself-conceptarecontrolled,
the influenceof mathematicsanxietybecomeseithernonsignificantor substantially
reduced(Betz, 1978; Brush, 1980;Fennema& Sherman,1977;Rounds& Hendel,
1980; Siegel, Galassi, & Ware, 1985).
The theoreticalexplanationof the negative relationshipstems mainly from the
theory of test anxiety. Some researchershave regardedmathematicsanxiety as a
kind of subject-specific test anxiety (e.g., Brush, 1981). Although others have
argued that mathematicsanxiety may be a psychologically different construct
from test anxiety (e.g., Richardson& Woolfolk, 1980), "a tacit belief has seemed
to prevailthattest-anxietytheorycanbe usedto supportbothconstructs"(Hembree,
1990, p. 34). Two theoreticalmodelshave been influentialin the researchon math-
ematics anxiety. In the interferencemodel, based on the work of Liebert and
Morris(1967), Mandlerand Sarason(1952), and Wine (1971), researchershave
describedmathematicsanxiety as a disturbanceof the recall of priormathematics
knowledgeandexperience.Consequently,a high level of anxietycausesa low level
of achievement.In the deficitsmodel,Tobias(1985) regardedmathematicsanxiety
as the remembranceof poormathematicsperformancein the pastandbelieved that
poorperformancecauseshigh anxiety.Accordingto this deficitsmodel, a student's
low level of mathematicsachievementis attributedto poor study habitsand defi-
cient test-takingskills insteadof to mathematicsanxiety. Some have made theo-
reticaleffortsto integratethese competingframeworks;one resultwas the "limited
cognitive capacityformulation"(see Tobias, 1985, p. 138).
Some researchershave attemptedto introduce mediating variables, such as
gender,age, andrace-ethnicity,into the theoreticalmodels of the relationship.For
example, Eccles and Jacobs (1986) suggested that gender differences in mathe-
matics anxietyareattributableto genderdifferencesin mathematicsachievement.
Aiken (1970) statedthat"noone would deny thatsex can be an importantmoder-
ator variable in the predicationof achievementfrom measures of attitudesand
anxiety" (p. 567). Hembree (1990) found that mathematics anxiety increases
duringjuniorhigh grades,reachesits peakin Grades9 and 10, andlevels off during
seniorhighgrades,implyingthattherelationshipis a functionof gradelevels. Aiken
also concluded that the correlationbetween performancein mathematics and
anxiety towardmathematicsis much strongerat the junior high level. Engelhard
(1990) showedthatthe correlationbetweenmathematicsanxietyandmathematics
achievementis higheramong AmericanstudentsthanamongThai students,indi-
cating that the same level of anxiety tends to be associated with achievementof
Americanstudentsmorestronglythanwith achievementof Thaistudents.McLeod
(1992) concludedthat"itseems reasonableto hypothesizethataffectivefactorsare
particularlyimportantto differencesin performancebetweengroupsthatcome from
different cultural backgrounds"(p. 587). Lacking in the theoretical models,

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 523

however, are variablesthat depict the genesis of mathematicsanxiety, the nature

of treatmentfor mathematicsanxiety, and the utility of mathematicsanxiety to
improvemathematicsperformance(Betz, 1978).
There have been few systematic reviews of researchon mathematicsanxiety.
Leder(1987), McLeod (1992, 1994), and Reyes (1980, 1984) reviewed the affec-
tive domainas it relatesto the cognitive domainin mathematics,but theirdiscus-
sions on mathematicsanxietyarequitelimited.On thebasisof a reviewof a number
of studies concerning gender differences in mathematicsanxiety, Hunt (1985)
concluded thatthere are evident differencesbetween males and females in math-
ematics anxiety andthatresearchersneed to examinethe reasonfemales aremore
anxious aboutmathematicsthantheirmale counterparts.Later,some researchers
conducteda meta-analysisof the same studiesandreacheda differentconclusion;
they found that gender differences are small in size but that when differences do
exist, females show more anxiety than males (Hyde, Fennema, Ryan, Frost, &
Hopp, 1990). Wood (1988) reviewedresearchon mathematicsanxietymanifested
among elementary teachers and suggested that mathematicsteachers' anxiety
towardmathematicswas likely to be transmittedto their students.
Therehavebeen even fewer systematicreviewsof the relationshipbetweenmath-
ematics anxiety and mathematicsachievement. Aiken (1970), in his narrative
review, highlighteda weak, thoughstatisticallysignificant,negativerelationship;
he noticed that the magnitudeof the relationshipis usually somewhat smallerin
absolutevalue than thatof the relationshipbetween attitudetowardmathematics
and achievementin mathematics.Hembree(1990), in his meta-analysis,did not
focus on the relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety andmathematicsachieve-
ment, althoughsome analyseswere done on thattopic, andhe concludedthatthere
exists a significant but negative relationship.However, because it was based on
58 studies on college studentsbut only 7 studies on elementaryand secondary
students,Hembree's conclusion seems to apply more to college studentsthan to
precollege students.
In his meta-analysisHembree(1990) displayeda simplifiedpictureof the rela-
tionshipbetweenmathematicsanxietyandmathematicsachievement.Manyissues
basic to this relationship,however,remainunclear.Thereis a need to locate more
researchon this relationshipand displayfurtherthe characteristicsof the relation-
ship. Both theoreticalandpracticalworkcan benefitfrom, for example,a compre-
hensive review of genderdifferencesin the relationshipand a study of changes in
the relationshipas studentsprogressthroughschool. The main researchquestions
of my meta-analysisare (a) What is the magnitudeof the relationshipbetween
anxiety towardmathematicsand achievementin mathematics?and (b) How does
the magnitudeof the relationshipfluctuatein responseto variousstudyfeaturessuch
as gender,gradelevel, ethnicity,instrumentsused to measureanxietyandachieve-
ment, year of publication,and type of publication?

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
524 AnxietyandAchievement

METHOD

Sampleof Studies
Although Aiken and Dreger (1961) have demonstratedthat it is possible to
constructan inventoryto measuremathematics-relatedanxiety, instrumentsthat
were developed for this purposein the 1960s might be consideredprimitive.For
example, the item responsetheory (IRT), an importantstatisticalmethodused to
examinethe psychometricpropertiesof responsedata,was not well developeduntil
the 1970s. EffectiveIRTsoftwareprogramsweredevelopedeven later.To increase
the accuracyof measurementin thismeta-analysis,I examinedstudiesreportedafter
1975 becauseattitudinalinstrumentshave been greatlyrefinedsince the late 1970s
(Pedersen,Bleyer, & Elmore, 1985).
I used a three-stepapproachto search for relevant studies on the relationship
between mathematicsanxiety and mathematicsachievement.First, to promotea
broad search of several computerizeddatabasesfor the years 1975 throughthe
present,I used the key topic-relateddescriptors(mathematics,achievement,and
anxiety)as independentwords(see Dusek & Joseph,1983). The databasessearched
were (a) EducationalResources InformationCenter (ERIC), (b) Psychological
Abstracts (PSY), (c) Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), and (d)
InternationalERIC, which comprises AustralianEducationIndex (AEI), British
EducationIndex (BEI), and CanadianEducationIndex (CEI).
The next step was to find, on the basis of the same descriptors,both qualitative
and quantitativereviews published since 1975 as a means to enrich the pool of
studies. Referencelists from Aiken (1976), Hembree(1990), Hunt(1985), Hyde,
Fennema,and Lamon(1990), Leder(1987), McLeod (1992, 1994), Reyes (1980,
1984), and Wood (1988) were checked for relevantstudies. Finally, I conducted
a manualsearchof seven leadingjournalsin education,particularlyin mathematics
education,for the years 1975 throughthe present.These journalswere American
EducationalResearchJournal,EducationalStudies in Mathematics,Journalfor
Researchin MathematicsEducation,Journalof EducationalPsychology,Journal
ofEducationalResearch,ReviewofEducationalResearch,andSchoolScienceand
Mathematics.
Using this searchprocedure,I located manyjournalarticles,dissertations,and
ERIC documents on various aspects of the topic, then studied the abstractsto
screen all the studies. I obtainedand readpromisingstudies and those that could
not be evaluatedfrom their abstracts.A study was includedin this meta-analysis
if it (a) was an investigationof the relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety and
mathematicsachievement, (b) did not have any experimentalinterventionson
either anxiety or achievement, (c) reported on students at the elementary or
secondaryschool level, and (d) reportedquantitativedata in sufficient detail for
calculation of effect size. On the basis of these criteria,I selected 26 individual
studies for this meta-analysis.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 525

Coding of Selected Studies

Each study was coded for several independentvariables that depicted design
features as well as for author(s),year of publication, and type of publication.
Design featuresincludedgender,grade,ethnicity,samplesize, andinstrumentsused
to measure anxiety and achievement.The coding of the 26 individual studies is
reportedin Table 1.
The dependent variable was effect size, indicating the relationshipbetween
anxietytowardmathematicsandachievementin mathematics.Becauseresearchers
in all selected individualstudiesused correlationcoefficients to describethe rela-
tionship, in this meta-analysisI used the common metric of r as its effect-size
measure(see Rosenthal,1991). One effect size was obtainedfromeach studyunless
the study contained independent samples to measure the relationship.Gender
groups,gradelevels (in cross-sectionaldesigns),andethnicgroupsin a single study
were consideredseparateprimarystudies(L. V. Hedges,personalcommunication,
1987, cited in Hyde, Fennema,& Lamon, 1990).

Table 1
DescriptiveInformationof Studieson the RelationshipBetween
AnxietyTowardMathematicsand Achievementin Mathematics(in ChronologicalOrder)
Study Effect size Study feature Instrument
Sepie & Keeling, 1978 -.28 N= 132, Grade6, male, MASC/PAT
New Zealander
Sepie & Keeling, 1978 -.30 N = 114, Grade6, female, MASC/PAT
New Zealander
Sandman,1979 -.47 N = 184, Grade8 MAI/MAT
Sandman,1979 -.17 N = 229, Grade 11 MAI/MAT
Brassell,Petry,& Brooks, 1980 -.30 N= 714, Grade7 MAI/CTBS
Suinn & Edwards,1982 -.59 N = 28, Grades7-11 MARS-A/MTG
Suinn & Edwards,1982 -.20 N = 1009, Grade 12 MARS/MTG
Saigh & Khouri, 1983 -.60 N= 73, Grades9-12, male, MARS/MTG
Lebanese
Saigh & Khouri, 1983 -.48 N = 60, Grades9-12, female, MARS/MTG
Lebanese
Eccles & Jacobs, 1986 -.17 N= 164, Grades7-9 RMQ/SAT-M
Donnelly, 1987 -.85 N= 177, Grade 10 MARS/CAT
Gliner, 1987 -.12 N= 95, Grades9-12 MARS/CTBS
Wahl, 1987 -.31 N= 59, Grade8 MARS/MTG
Suinn,Taylor,& Edwards,1988 -.28 N = 105, Grades4-6, Hispanic MARS/SAT
Wigfield & Meece, 1988 -.22 N= 564, Grades6-12, Year 1, MAQ/MTG
White
Wigfield & Meece, 1988 -.26 N = 564, Grades6-12, Year2, MAQ/MTG
White
Wither, 1988 -.51 N= 271, Grade 10, male, MARS/MTG
Australia
Wither, 1988 -.24 N = 245, Grade 10, female, MARS/MTG
Australian
Reavis, 1989 -.28 N = 407, Grades9-12, White MAS/SAT
Suinn,Taylor,& Edwards,1989 -.31 N = 1119, Grades4-6 MARS/SAT
Baya'a, 1990 -.42 N= 418, Grades9-12, Israeli MARS/MTG
Chiu & Henry, 1990 -.37 N = 50, Grade5 MASC/MTG
Chiu & Henry, 1990 -.24 N = 56, Grade6 MASC/MTG

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
526 Anxietyand Achievement

Table 1, continued
DescriptiveInformationof Studieson the RelationshipBetween
AnxietyTowardMathematicsand Achievementin Mathematics(in ChronologicalOrder)
Study Effect size Study feature Instrument
Chiu & Henry, 1990 -.47 N= 115, Grade8 MASC/MTG
Engelhard,1990 -.24 N = 4091, Grade8 SIMS-AS/SIMS
Engelhard,1990 -.14 N = 3613, Grade8, Thai SIMS-AS/SIMS
Meece, Wigfield,& Eccles, 1990 -.13 N = 250, Grades7-9, Year 1, MAQ/RMT
White
Meece, Wigfield,& Eccles, 1990 -.21 N = 250, Grades7-9, Year 2, MAQ/RMT
White
Bieschke & Lopez, 1991 -.51 N= 289, Grade 10 MAS/SAT-M
Bush, 1991 .49 N = 584, Grades4-6, concept MARS/ITBS
Bush, 1991 .19 N= 584, Grades4-6, applicationMARS/ITBS
Cooper& Robinson, 1991 -.47 N = 290, Grade 12, White MAS/MMPT
Green, 1991 -.35 N= 496, Grades7-12, AustralianMAS/MTG
Mevarech,Silber, & Fine, 1991 -.44 N= 149, Grade6, Israeli RMQ/AAT
Thorndike-Christ,1991 -.47 N= 1516, Grades6-12 MAS/MTG
Hadfield,Martin,& Wooden, -.23 N= 358, Grades8-10, MARS/CTBS
1992 Native American
Lee, 1992 -.27 N= 255, Grade6 MAS/MTG
Note.Inthecolumnof instrument,theslashseparatesanxietyinstrumentfromachievementinstrument.
For anxietyinstrument, MAI= Mathematics AttitudeInventory,MAQ= Mathematics Anxiety
MARS= Mathematics
Questionnaire, AnxietyRatingScale,MAS= Mathematics AnxietyScale,
MASC= Mathematics AnxietyScalefor Children,RMQ= researcher-made and
questionnaire,
SIMS-AS= SecondInternational Mathematics Study-Anxiety Scale. Forachievementinstrument,
AAT= Arithmetic Achievement Test,CAT= California Arithmetic Test,CTBS= Comprehensive
Testof BasicSkills,ITBS= IowaTestof BasicSkills,MAT= Mathematics AchievementTest,MMPT
= MissouriMathematics PlacementTest,MTG= mathematics teachergrading,PAT= Progressive
AchievementTest,RMT= researcher-made test, SAT = StanfordAchievementTest,SAT-M=
ScholasticAptitudeTest-Mathematics,SIMS= SecondInternational MathematicsStudy.

Meta-analyticmethodology literatureis not explicit on the use of longitudinal

studies. Longitudinaldatacan be viewed as being within a single study in which
correlationsare aggregatedto representthe effect size of the study. Willett and
Singer (1991) argued, however, that "a complex longitudinal time-dependent
processcannotbe adequatelysummarizedby a single statistic"(p. 430). In line with
this argument,longitudinaldata in a study were treatedas several independent
primarystudiesbased on differentgradelevels. Using this treatment,I maintaina
clearidentityor an explainablebackgroundfor each effect size at the primary-study
level so thatstatisticalresultsare easy to interpretand understand.

Characteristicsof the Sample

The sampleof 26 studiesincluded 18 publishedarticles,3 unpublishedarticles,
and 5 dissertations.The publishedstudies appearedin 14 journals.Among the 26
studies, 21 were publishedafter 1985. The medianyear of publicationwas 1991.
In total,6 instrumentswereused to measureanxiety,with the MathematicsAnxiety
RatingScale (MARS) as the most frequentlyused one (in 12 of 26 studies),and 9
instrumentswere used to measureachievementin mathematics.A total of 18 279

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
XinMa 527

studentsacrossGrades5 to 12 participatedin these studies.The largestsamplesize

was 4 091, andthe smallest samplesize was 28. The studieshad an averageof 703
students per sample. Most studies were mixed in terms of gender, grade, and
ethnicity.The 26 studies generated37 effect sizes for this meta-analysis.
StatisticalProcedure
Variationamong effect sizes was examinedthroughHedges's Q test of homo-
geneity (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). This test was used to determinewhetherpopu-
lation effect sizes were relativelyconsistentacrossunweightedeffect sizes. If the
test showed a nonsignificantQvalue, which indicatedthateffect sizes were homo-
geneous, effect sizes were then combined following proceduresof combining
estimatesof correlationcoefficients (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). If the test showed a
significant Q value, which indicatedthat effect sizes were heterogeneous,I took
Hembreeand Dessart's (1986) suggestion to delete outliers repeatedlyuntil the
remainingeffect sizes became homogeneous.
Wheneffect sizes arehomogeneous,thepopulationcorrelationcanbe determined
by predictorvariables.The substantiverationaleis that studies differ because of
differentresearchdesign characteristics(Hedges & Olkin, 1985). In this study I
fitted homogeneous effect sizes into a general linear regression model through
which I examined the effects of a numberof independentvariableson the rela-
tionshipbetween mathematicsanxiety andmathematicsachievement.I employed
the weighted least-squaresproceduresfor fitting generallinearmodels to correla-
tions as outlinedby Hedges and Olkin. Sample size was used to createweight for
the regressionanalysis (see Hedges & Olkin, 1985) but was not enteredinto the
regressionequation(see Schram, 1996).
To better illustrate the overall effect (population coefficient) in this meta-
analysis, I used the percentage of distributionnonoverlap, or the U3 statistic
(Cohen, 1977), to denote the percentage of participantsin the group with the
largeranxietymeanwhose achievementscores were exceededby the achievement
scores of half the participantsin the group with the smaller anxiety mean. If the
dependentvariablewas standardized,the U3 statisticalso indicatedthe change in
scores or percentileswhen a participantmoved from one groupto the other.

RESULTS
OverallEffects
Thetestof homogeneityof the37 effectsizes was significant.Threeevidentoutliers
were deleted:-.84 in Donnelly (1986/1987) as well as .49 and .19 in Bush (1991).
The removal of these outliers significantly improved the homogeneity of the
remainingeffect sizes. The homogeneitytest was not significantat the .01 level (Q
= 55.82, df= 33). Effect sizes werethencombinedwithrespectto theirsamplesizes.
The weightedestimatorof populationcorrelationwas -.27, whichwas significantat
the .01 level, indicatingthatit was unlikely(likelihoodless than 1 time in 100) that
the observedsignificanceof this populationcorrelationoccurredby chancealone.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
528 Anxietyand Achievement

The U3statisticcorrespondingto a populationcorrelationof-.27 is .71. To under-

standthe meaningof the U3 statistic,one shouldimagine that all the studentsare
classified into two groups accordingto their levels of mathematicsanxiety. One
grouphas low mathematicsanxiety;the otherhas high mathematicsanxiety.Then,
the U3 statisticof .71 indicatesthatthe averagestudentin the groupof low math-
ematicsanxietywouldhave a scorein mathematicsachievementthatis greaterthan
the scores of 71% of the students in the group of high mathematics anxiety.
Expressedanotherway, measures(or treatments)thatresultedin movement of a
typicalstudentin the groupof highmathematicsanxietyintothe groupof low math-
ematicsanxietywouldbe associatedwithimprovementof the typicalstudent'slevel
of mathematicsachievementfrom the 50th to the 71st percentile.
Inasmuchas the effect sizes all sharedthe same populationcorrelation,varia-
tion among effect sizes existed mainly because studies differed accordingto a
numberof researchdesign characteristics.A generallinearregressionwas used to
model this variation.Using the general linear model enabled me to identify the
significantvariablesresponsiblefor the variationamong effect sizes and to gain
insight into severalpracticalconcerns,such as genderdifferencesand age differ-
ences, regardingthe relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety and mathematics
achievement.Table 2 displays the models consideredin this meta-analysis.

Table2
Selected Models From the GeneralLinearRegressionAnalysis of the
RelationshipBetweenAnxietyTowardMathematicsand Achievementin Mathematics
Regressiontest Residualtest
Model QR df QE df
Gendereffect(2 vectors:malevs.female;mixedvs.female) 17.74*** 2 214.01*** 31
Gradeeffect 18.34*** 2 213.41*** 31
(2 vectors:Grades4-6 vs. 10-12;Grades7-9 vs. 10-12)
Race-ethnicityeffect(1 vector:mixedvs. unmixed) 16.50*** 1 215.25*** 32
Anxietyinstrument (1 vector:MARSvs. others) 4.43* 1 227.32*** 32
Achievement instrument 36.19*** 1 195.56*** 32
(1 vector:psychometric vs. nonpsychometric)
Publicationtype 78.07*** 2 153.68*** 31
(2 vectors:published anddissertationvs. unpublished)
Publicationyear(continuous variable) 0.28 1 231.48*** 32
Gender,grade,race, 133.58*** 10 98.17*** 23
anxiety/achievement instrument, type/year
publication
*p<.05.**p<.l01.
***p<.001.

Effect of Gender
Effectcoding (see Cohen & Cohen, 1983) was used to createtwo variables.The
female group was used as the baseline against which the male group and the
mixed groupwere compared.Table2 shows thatthe Q statistic(the weightedsums

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
XinMa 529
S
of squares)for gendereffects explainsa statisticallysignificantamountof the vari-
ability in the effect sizes (QR= 17.74, df= 2). However, this amountis a trivial
portionof the total variance(231.75); thus the Q statisticfor erroris statistically
significant(QE= 214.01, df= 31). The two gender-relatedvariablesdid not have
appreciableeffects on the magnitudeof the relationship(regressioncoefficient, P,
= -0.12; standarderror,SE, = 0.09 for the male vs. femalecomparison).Thisfinding
indicates that the relationship between mathematics anxiety and mathematics
achievementwas similarfor males and females.

Effectsof GradeLevel
Threegrade-level groups were formedin this meta-analysis:Grades4 through
6, Grades7 through9, andGrades10 through12 (therewere no studiesexamining
the relationshipin Grades1, 2, or 3). Effect sizes were effect coded so thatthe rela-
tionshipin Grades 10 through12 was the baseline againstwhich the relationships
in Grades4 through6 and Grades7 through9, respectively, were compared.As
did gender effects, grade effects accountedfor a very small, though statistically
significant, percentageof the total variance. The Q statistic for errorremained
substantial(QE= 213.41, df= 31). Gradelevels did not have statisticallysignifi-
cant effects on the relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety and mathematics
achievement (for the Grades4 through6 vs. Grades 10 through 12 comparison:
= -0.02, SE= 0.03; for the Grades7 through9 vs. Grades10 through12 compar-
ison: P= 0.05, SE = 0.04). Therefore,the relationshipwas consistent across the
threegrade-levelgroups.

Effects of Ethnicity
Because few ethnic groupswere involved in the selected studies,it was impos-
sible to classify effect sizes into conventionalethnic groups (White, Black, etc.).
Instead,in this meta-analysis,I comparedthe magnitudeof the relationshipbetween
mixed andunmixedethnicgroups.Dummycoding (see Cohen& Cohen, 1983) was
used to representthis variable,which, as shown in Table 2, explains a very small,
thoughstatisticallysignificant,amountof the total variancein the effect sizes (QE
= 215.25, df= 32). This small effect (P = -0.06, SE = 0.04) indicatedthatthe rela-
tionship was consistentbetween mixed and unmixedethnic groups.

Effects of InstrumentMeasuringMathematicsAnxiety
Because the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS) was employed to
measure mathematicsanxiety in many studies, in this meta-analysisI created a
dummyvariableto comparethe effect of the MARS with thatof otherinstruments
(as the baseline effect) used to measuremathematicsanxiety. Table 2 shows the
effects of instrumentson the relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety andmath-
ematicsachievement.Instrumentsexplaineda trivialamountof variance(QR= 4.43,
df = 1) and had a very small effect (P = -0.04, SE = 0.05). This finding indicates

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
530 Anxietyand Achievement

that the relationshipwas consistent between studies using the MARS and those
using otherinstrumentsto measuremathematicsanxiety.

Effects of Instrument Measuring Mathematics Achievement

Quitediverseinstrumentswereused to measuremathematicsachievementin the
selected studies. However, there was a balance between use of commercially
developedinstrumentsandotherinstrumentsincludingresearcher-designed math-
ematicstestsandmathematicsteachers'grades.A dummyvariablewas createdwith
instrumentsthatare commerciallydeveloped as the baseline effect. This variable
seems to be a betterpredictorthanpreviousvariables(QR= 36.19, df= 1), although
the Q statisticfor erroris still substantial(QE= 195.56, df= 32). This variablealso
had a statistically significant effect on the relationship between mathematics
anxiety and mathematicsachievement at the .05 level (P = -0.09, SE = 0.04).
Therefore, studies in which standardizedachievement tests (the commercially
developedinstruments)were used showeda significantlysmallermagnitudeof the
relationshipthan studiesin which researcher-madeachievementtests and mathe-
matics teachers'gradeswere used as achievementmeasures.

Effects of Type of Publication

The type of publicationcomprisesthreecategories:publishedarticle,disserta-
tion, andunpublishedarticle.Using publishedarticlesas the baselineeffect, I used
effect coding to createtwo variables(see Table 2). The Q statisticshows thatthis
model explains a statisticallysignificantamountof the total variationin the effect
sizes (QR= 78.07, df = 2). This model is the best individual model because it
explains the greatestamountof total variance.One of the two variables(unpub-
lished vs. published)was statisticallysignificantat the .05 level (P = -0.12, SE =
0.04); the other variable(dissertationvs. published)was not statisticallysignifi-
cant (3 = 0.04, SE = 0.06). Therefore,publishedarticles showed a significantly
smallermagnitudeof the relationshipthanunpublishedarticles,whereaspublished
articlesand dissertationsshowed similarmagnitudesof the relationship.

Effects of Year of Publication

The year of publicationwas used as a continuousvariablein the generallinear
model. It is the only variable that explained little (a statisticallynonsignificant
amount)of the total variance(QR= 0.28, df= 1). Year of publicationalso showed
no effect on the relationship between mathematics anxiety and mathematics
achievement (P3= -0.00, SE = 0.01). This finding indicates that studies from
differentperiodsof time showed consistenteffect sizes.

Interaction Effects
A series of general linear models containinginteractionterms were tested to
examine whetherthe effect of one variabledependson the levels of anothervari-

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
XinMa 531

able (these models arenot shownin Table2). The interactionsbetween genderand

grade(QR= 8.19, df= 1), between gradeandethnicity(QR= 12.79, df= 2), as well
as betweenanxietyinstrumentandachievementinstrument(QR= 4.91, df= 1) were
not statisticallysignificant.However,the interactionbetweenpublicationyearand
publicationtype explained a statisticallysignificant amountof the total variance
in the effect sizes (QR= 80.83, df= 2). Results show thatthe differencesin effect
sizes betweenpublishedandunpublishedarticlesdecreasedover time in the period
examinedin this meta-analysis.

TheFinal Model
The final model included all variablesdiscussed in individualmodels. The Q
statisticindicatesthatthis final model explains a statisticallysignificantandprac-
tically substantialamountof variancein the effect sizes (QR= 133.58, df= 10). A
totalof 58%of the varianceamongeffect sizes was accountedfor in thisfinalmodel.
In terms of regressioncoefficients, the variablethat comparesunpublishedwith
publishedarticlesis the only statisticallysignificantvariablein the model(P = -0.16,
SE = 0.06, p = .011), indicating that published articles reporteda significantly
weakerrelationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety and mathematicsachievement
thanunpublishedarticles.Becauseof the statisticallysignificantinteractionbetween
yearof publicationandtype of publicationdiscussedearlier,I attemptedto include
this interactiontermin the finalmodel. The resultantmodel, however,differedvery
little fromthe final model in Table2, in termsof the fittingstatistics.For simplicity
thatinteractionterm was then removedfrom the final model.

DISCUSSION

Principal Findings
In this meta-analysisI demonstratethatthe common populationcorrelationfor
the relationshipbetween anxiety towardmathematicsand achievementin mathe-
maticswas -.27. A seriesof generallinearmodels were fittedto examinethe major
research design characteristicsthat determinethe variationamong effect sizes.
Results show thatthe relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety andmathematics
achievementis consistentacrossgendergroups(male, female, andmixed), grade-
level groups(Grades4 through6, Grades7 through9, andGrades10 through12),
ethnic groups(mixed andunmixed),instrumentsused to measureanxiety (MARS
andothers),andyearsof publication.Therelationship,however,differssignificantly
between types of instrumentsused to measure achievement as well as among
types of publication.Researchersusing standardizedachievementtests tendedto
reporta significantlyweakerrelationshipthanthoseusingresearcher-made achieve-
ment tests andmathematicsteachers'grades.Publishedstudiestendedto indicate
a significantlyweakerrelationshipthanunpublishedstudies.Therewere no statis-
tically significantinteractioneffects among key variablessuch as gender, grade,
and ethnicity.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
532 Anxietyand Achievement

Theoreticaland Practical Implications

This meta-analysisshows supportfor the findings of significance of the rela-
tionship between mathematicsanxiety and mathematicsachievementfor school
students, as previously reported(e.g., Armstrong,1985; Eccles, 1985; Hackett,
1985;Wigfield& Meece, 1988).Moreimportant,in thismeta-analysisI havequan-
tified the potentialimprovementin mathematicsachievementwhen mathematics
anxiety is reduced.Hembree(1990) concludedthat as psychological treatments,
systematicdesensitizationand"anxietymanagementtrainingandconditionalinhi-
bition were highly successfulin reducingmathematicsanxietylevels" (p. 43). The
currentmeta-analysisfurtherindicatesthatsucha reductionmay be associatedwith
an improvementfrom the 50th to 71st percentilein mathematicsachievementfor
an average studenthighly anxious aboutmathematics.This amountof improve-
mentis substantialaccordingto anythresholdstandardsin behavioralsciences (see
Cohen & Cohen, 1983).
This meta-analysis has importantimplications for educational intervention.
Those advocating treatmentprograms,such as self-managementof emotional
stress,for studentswith mathematicsanxietyhave traditionallyemphasizedaffec-
tive factorsonly (see Richardson& Woolfolk, 1980). Althoughvarioustreatment
programsappearto be effective in reducingmathematicsanxiety(Hembree,1990),
in few has attentionbeen paid to the role of cognitive factors such as skill devel-
opment.The significant,negative associationbetween mathematicsachievement
andmathematicsanxiety, as reportedin this meta-analysis,indicatesthe potential
value of cognitively based treatments.That is, measuresor treatmentsthat help
studentsovercome theircognitive difficulties in the learningof mathematicsmay
be associatedwith an appreciablereductionin mathematicsanxiety.Therehas been
effort to include a strongercognitive orientationin the researchof mathematics
anxietybecause of the finding thatcognitive style is associatedwith mathematics
anxiety(e.g., Hadfield& Maddux,1988). Forexample,Hunsley(1987) foundthat
mathematicsanxiety is relatedto cognitive factors such as pessimistic post-exam
appraisalsandnegativeinternaldialogues.Handler(1990) suggestedthata cogni-
tive processapproachreducesmathematicsanxietythrough(a) makingknowledge
work for the learner,(b) joining skill andcontent,(c) linkingmotivationto cogni-
tion, and (d) using social communities.By takingcognitive factorsinto account,
programdevelopers may well improve the effectiveness of various treatment
programsfor mathematicsanxiety.
Researchersrecognize thatthe natureof the relationshipbetween mathematics
anxiety andmathematicsachievementis not clear (see Reyes, 1984). In this meta-
analysisI attemptedto partiallyunfold the "mystery"by breakingthe effect sizes
of the relationshipinto categoriesandexaminingthe differencesamongthose cate-
gories.I see implicationsrelatedto severalkey issues in this area.First,in thismeta-
analysisI foundno significantgenderdifferenceson the relationshipbetweenmath-
ematics anxiety and mathematicsachievement.Ma and Kishor (1997) reporteda
similar finding-that the relationshipbetween attitudetowardmathematicsand

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 533

achievementin mathematicsis the same for males andfemales. These findings do

not supportAiken's (1970) conclusionthat"measuresof attitudesandanxietymay
be betterpredictorsof the achievementof females thanof males" (p. 567).
Anotherimportantissue is the developmentalcharacteristicsof the relationship.
In this meta-analysis I studied three grade-level groups (Grades 4 through 6,
Grades 7 through9, and Grades 10 through 12) and found that the relationship
between mathematicsanxiety and mathematicsachievementis significant from
Grade4 on. This finding seems reasonablebecause mathematicsanxietycan arise
at any time duringschooling (see Lazarus, 1974). But this meta-analysisfurther
shows thatonce mathematicsanxietytakesshape,its relationshipwithmathematics
achievement is consistent across grade levels. This finding, when considered
together with reports that uneasiness, worry, and anxiety associated with the
learningof mathematicsincrease duringthe early adolescent years (e.g., Brush,
1985; Hembree, 1990; Meece, 1981; Wigfield & Meece, 1988), implies that an
increasingdecline in mathematicsachievementduringearly secondaryschooling
is possible for adolescent studentswith mathematicsanxiety. For these students,
one way to avoid high mathematicsanxiety andpoor mathematicsachievementis
to avoidmathematicscourses,particularlyadvancedcourses(e.g., Armstrong,1985;
Cemen, 1987). Earlydetectionof mathematicsanxietyleads to implementationof
effective treatmentprograms(e.g., Betz, 1978; Lazarus,1974; McMillan, 1976).
This meta-analysis indicates that screening and treatmentprogramsshould be
introducedduringthe upperelementarygrades(Grades4 through6).
Comparisonsof the relationshipbetween mathematicsanxietyandmathematics
achievementamong ethnic groupsare rarein the literature.Because of the sparse
dataon this issue, I could not comparethis relationshipamongethnicgroupsin this
meta-analysis.I did, however,find thatresearchersstudyingparticipantsof varied
ethnicbackgroundstendedto find a relationshipsimilarto thatfoundby researchers
who studiedparticipantswith homogeneousethnicbackgrounds.This resultindi-
catesthattheethnicformationof a sampledoes notbiastherelationship.It also raises
the likelihood that there may not be significantethnic differencesin the relation-
ship. More studies are needed to examine the relationshipfrom the racial-ethnic
perspectivebefore one can concludethatmeasuresof anxietytowardmathematics
may predictthelevel of mathematicsachievementequallywell acrossethnicgroups.
Commentson the Instruments
Instrumentsareespeciallyimportantin theresearchof therelationshipbetweenthe
affective and cognitive domains. Ma and Kishor (1997) used a meta-analysisto
examinethe relationshipbetweenattitudetowardmathematicsand achievementin
mathematics.Reportingweak mean effect sizes, they suggestedthatcurrentinstru-
mentsmeasuringattitudetowardmathematicsseemunableto capturewhatconstitutes
a "true"attitude.Theaveragepopulationcorrelationin the currentmeta-analysiswas
relativelymuchstronger(see Cohen& Cohen,1983).Thisfindingindicatesthatcurrent
instrumentsusedto measuremathematicsanxietyaremoreeffectivethanthoseused
to measureattitude.Perhapsanxietytowardmathematicsis easierto measurethanatti-

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
534 Anxietyand Achievement

tudetowardmathematicsin thatit is moreoperationallydefinableforresearchersand

moreverballyexpressiblefor students.But, "theprecisenesswith which pupilscan
expresstheirattitudesvarieswith level of maturity"(Aiken, 1970,p. 558).
This meta-analysisalso shows thatresearchersusing the MARS reporteda rela-
tionshipbetweenmathematicsanxietyandmathematicsachievementsimilarto that
reportedby researchersusing other instruments.This consistency among instru-
ments with respect to anxiety may have somethingto do with their strongcorre-
lations.Forexample,Dew, Galassi,andGalassi(1983, 1984) foundthatthe corre-
lation is .68 between MAS andMARS and .78 between MAS andMAI. Note that
these correlationsare consideredfairly strongfrom the perspectiveof behavioral
sciences (see Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Thus,researchers'decisions on whatinstru-
ments to use do not seem to affect analyticresultsfound on the relationship.This
conjecture certainly does not mean that all the instrumentsmeasure the same
aspects of mathematics anxiety. I summarize the conceptual and operational
aspects of variousinstrumentsin Table 3.
Mathematicsanxietyoften originatesduringstudents'early educationalexperi-
ences (Chiu & Henry, 1990). But this meta-analysisshows that studiesare rarein
the early elementary grades, probably because of the lack of instrumentsthat
measuremathematicsanxietyof childrenat the lower elementarylevel. Almost all
existinginstrumentswereoriginallydesignedforadultsor secondaryschoolstudents.
A version of the MARS has been developed mainly for upperelementaryschool

Table 3
Summaryof InstrumentsMeasuringAnxietyTowardMathematics(in ChronologicalOrder)
Number
Descriptionof items of items Scale
MathematicsAnxiety Rating Scale (MARS) 98 5-point
(Richardson& Suinn, 1972) Likert
Measuresstudents'anxious reactionswhen they do mathematicsin
ordinarylife and in academicsituations
MathematicsAttitudeInventory(MAI) (Sandman,1974) 6 4-point
Containssix scales,one of whichis AnxietyTowardMathematics,which Likert
measuresstudents'mathematicsanxietyin generalacademicsituations
MathematicsAnxiety Scale (MAS) (Fennema& Sherman,1976) 10 5-point
Measuresstudents'feelings of anxiety and nervousnessas well as Likert
associatedsomatic symptomswhen studentsuse mathematics
MathematicsAnxiety Questionnaire(MAQ) (Meece, 1981) 22 7-point
Measurescognitiveandaffectivecomponentsof mathematicsanxiety Likert
parallelto those of text anxiety:dislike,lack of confidence,discomfort,
worry,fear and dread,and confusion and frustration
Second InternationalMathematicsStudy Anxiety Scale (SIMS-AS) 5 5-point
Measuresthe extent to which studentsfeel afraidand scaredof Likert
mathematics orfeel calmandrelaxedwhentheyperformmathematical tasks
MathematicsAnxiety Scale for Children(MASC) 22 4-point
(Chiu & Henry, 1990) Likert
Describesvarioussituationsthatcan arousemathematicsanxiety-
fromgettinga new mathematicstextbookto takingan importanttest in
a mathematicsclass

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
XinMa 535

students(see Suinn,Taylor,& Edwards,1988).Thereis a needto developnew instru-

ments thatmeasuremathematicsanxietyin the early elementarygrades.
In many studies involved in Hembree's (1990) meta-analysis, mathematics
achievementresultswerereportedfor subscalessuchas concepts,computation,and
application.Becausefew studiesin thecurrentmeta-analysiswerereportedthisway,
a generalmeasureof mathematicsachievementwas used. The resultsindicatedthat
studiesusing commerciallydevelopedachievementinstrumentsreporteda smaller
magnitudeof therelationshipbetweenmathematicsanxietyandmathematicsachieve-
mentthanstudiesusingmathematicsteachers'gradesandresearcher-designed math-
ematics tests. This finding does not seem to supportHembree's conclusion that
"gradesin mathematicscoursesseemeddepressedin relationto anxietyby aboutthe
same proportionas the students'test scores"(p. 38). Mathematicsteachers'grades
or researcher-designed mathematicstestsappearto overestimatetherelationship.One
possible reason is that these measureslack control of the difficulty level of the
items:The ceiling effect (items are so easy thatmany studentsperformwell) or the
floor effect (itemsareso difficultthatmany studentsperformpoorly)is morelikely
to occurwhenmathematicsteachers'gradesorresearcher-designed mathematicstests
insteadof commercialtests areused as achievementmeasures.

Unfoldingthe Anxiety-Achievement
Dynamic in Mathematics
In a meta-analysisone usuallydoes notpaymuchattentionto outliersamongeffect
sizes. However,an examinationof outliersmay sometimeshave importanttheoret-
ical or practicalimplications.Two of the threeoutliersin thismeta-analysisarefrom
studiesby Bush(1991), who founda positive,significantrelationshipbetweenmath-
ematicsanxietyandmathematicsachievementandarguedthatmathematicsanxiety
tends to rise in studentswhose mathematicsperformanceis improving.This result
"representeda contradictionof previousresearchon the relationshipbetweenmath-
ematicsanxietyand achievement"(p. 42) probablybecausehis sampleof students
had been extensively exposed to mathematics.They were eithergifted studentsor
students,in academictracks,with intentionsto entera careerfor which they would
need quantitativeskills. These studentsare often able to controltheiranxiety and
channelit into the task because of theirstrongself-esteemand high levels of task-
relatedconfidence(see Cemen, 1987). When this controloccurs,students'anxiety
actuallyfacilitatestheirperformance(Cemen, 1987). Insteadof being an abnormal
result, Bush's finding may be a hint that mathematicsanxiety can be useful in
promotingmathematicsachievement.Therefore,throughexaminingsamplechar-
acteristicsin studiesby Bush, one can distinguisha specialgroupof studentswhose
mathematicsperformancebenefitsfrom a certainlevel of mathematicsanxiety.
Resnick, Viehe, and Segal (1982) found thata decreasein mathematicsanxiety
is not associatedwith improvementin mathematicsperformance.This findingled
them to doubt that the reductionin mathematicsanxiety improves mathematics
achievement.However, their sample was a group of college studentswith exten-
sive mathematicsbackgrounds.Not only might the level of mathematicsanxiety

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
536 Anxiety and Achievement

of those studentsbe limited,buttheirmathematicsachievementmightalso be high.

This studythus demonstratesa uniquerelationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety
and mathematicsachievementfor a specific group of students.Again, through
examiningparticipantcharacteristicsin studies by Resnick et al., one can distin-
guish anothergroupof individualsfor whom highermathematicsperformanceis
not associatedwith the reductionin mathematicsanxiety.
Thetwo examplesaboveillustratethe dynamicnatureof the relationshipbetween
mathematicsanxiety and mathematicsachievement.Thatis, the relationshipcan
change dramaticallyfor studentswith differentsocial and academicbackground
characteristics.These social andacademiccharacteristicsof studentsappearto be
the key to unfolding this anxiety-achievementdynamic. When students'charac-
teristicsarediverse andunique,so arethe relationships:Mathematicsanxietycan
facilitatemathematicsperformance,can debilitatemathematicsperformance,or can
be unassociatedwith mathematicsperformance.
Results of this meta-analysis, considered together with the work of Buxton
(1981), can be used to derivea psychologicalframeworkin which the relationship
between mathematicsanxietyandmathematicsachievementcan be understoodas
a psychological function of emotionalreaction.Emotion,belief, and attitudeare
the majorelementsof the affectivedomainin the learningof mathematics(McLeod,
1992). Panic, fear, anxiety, andembarrassmenthave been identifiedas the results
of emotional reactionto mathematicaltasks (Buxton, 1981). McLeod described
emotion as "hot"in thatit "mayinvolve little cognitive appraisaland may appear
and disappearratherquickly"(p. 579). Emotionalreactionto academicsituations
involving mathematicsseems more likely to trigger mathematicsanxiety that
relates to mathematicsperformancethan do both beliefs and attitudesthat are
considered"cold"and "cool" (see McLeod, 1992). Social and academiccharac-
teristicsbroadenthe focus beyond psychological perspectivesto anthropological
and sociological perspectives.These characteristicsmediate students'emotional
reactions.In general,characteristicscan be classifiedas personal(e.g., gender,age,
ethnicity, and social class), environmental(e.g., social stereotypes,mathematics
experiences,andparentalencouragement),dispositional(e.g., attitude,confidence,
and self-esteem), and situational(e.g., classroom factors, instructionalformat,
and curricularfactors)(see Cemen, 1987; Zaslavsky, 1994). In this meta-analysis
I have examined some personalcharacteristicsand found their mediationto be
limited.Thisfindingsignalsthe needfor inclusionof characteristics fromothercate-
gories for furtherresearch.Overall, studies following this line of logic are likely
to providetheoreticalappreciationof the complexity of the relationshipas well as
practicalimplicationsfor front-lineeducators.
REFERENCES

Referencesmarkedwith an asterisk (*) indicate studies includedin the meta-analysis.

Aiken, L. R., Jr. (1960). Mathemaphobiaand mathemaphilia:An analysis of personal and social
factors affecting performancein mathematics (Doctoral dissertation, The University of North
Carolina,1960). DissertationAbstractsInternational,21, 1992A.
Aiken, L. R., Jr.(1970). Attitudestowardmathematics.ReviewofEducationalResearch,40, 551-596.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 537

Aiken,L. R., Jr.(1976). Updateon attitudesandotheraffectivevariablesin learningmathematics.Review

of EducationalResearch,46, 293-311.
Aiken,L. R., Jr.,& Dreger,R. M. (1961). Theeffect of attitudeson performancein mathematics.Journal
of EducationalPsychology, 52, 19-24.
Armstrong,J. (1985). A nationalassessmentof participationandachievementin womenin mathematics.
InS. F. Chipman,L. R. Brush,& D. M. Wilson (Eds.), Womenand mathematics:Balancingthe equa-
tion (pp. 59-94). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Baya'a, N. F. (1990). Mathematicsanxiety, mathematicsachievement,gender, and socio-economic
statusamongArabsecondarystudentsin Israel.InternationalJournalofMathematicsEducationin
Science and Technology,21, 319-324.
Betz, N. E. (1978). Prevalence,distribution,andcorrelatesof mathanxietyin college students.Journal
of CounselingPsychology, 25, 441-448.
*Bieschke, K. J., & Lopez, F. G. (1991, August).A causal modelof career aspirations.Paperpresented
at the annualmeeting of the AmericanPsychological Association, San Francisco.
*Brassell,A., Petry,S., & Brooks,D. M. (1980). Ability grouping,mathematicsachievement,andpupil
attitudestowardmathematics.Journalfor Research in MathematicsEducation,11, 22-28.
Brush,L. R. (1978). A validationstudyof the MathematicsAnxiety RatingScale (MARS).Educational
and Psychological Measurement,38, 485-490.
Brush,L. R. (1980). Encouraginggirls in mathematics:Theproblemand the solution.Cambridge,MA:
Abt.
Brush,L. R. (1981). Some thoughtsfor teacherson mathematicsanxiety.ArithmeticTeacher,29(4),
37-39.
Brush, L. R. (1985). Cognitive and affective determinantsof course preferenceand plans. In S. F.
Chipman,L. R. Brush, & D. M. Wilson (Eds.), Womenand mathematics.:Balancing the equation
(pp. 123-150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Burton, G. M. (1979). Getting comfortablewith mathematics.The ElementarySchool Journal, 79,
129-135.
*Bush, W. S. (1991). Factorsrelatedto changes in elementarystudents'mathematicsanxiety. Focus
on LearningProblems in Mathematics,13(2), 3343.
Buxton, L. G. (1981). Do you panic about maths? Coping with mathsanxiety.London:Heinemann.
Cemen, P. B. (1987). The nature of mathematicsanxiety (Tech. Rep.). Stillwater:OklahomaState
University. (ERICDocument ReproductionService No. ED 287 729)
*Chiu,L. -H., & Henry,L. L. (1990). Development and validationof the MathematicsAnxiety Scale
for Children.Measurementand Evaluationin Counselingand Development,23, 121-127.
Cohen,J. (1977). Statisticalpower analysisfor thebehavioralsciences (Rev. ed.). New York:Academic
Press.
Cohen,J., & Cohen,P. (1983). Appliedmultipleregression/correlationanalysis in behavioralsciences.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Cooper,S. T., & Robinson,D. A. G. (1991). The relationshipof mathematicsself-efficacy beliefs to
mathematicsanxietyandperformance.Measurementand Evaluationin CounselingandDevelopment,
24, 4-11.
Dew, K. M. H., Galassi,J. P., & Galassi,M. D. (1983). Mathematicsanxiety:Some basic issues.Journal
of CounselingPsychology, 30, 443-446.
Dew, K. M. H., Galassi, J. P., & Galassi, M. D. (1984). Math anxiety: Relation with situationaltest
anxiety, performance,physiological arousal,and mathavoidancebehavior.Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 31, 580-583.
Donady, B., & Tobias, S. (1977). Mathanxiety. Teacher,95(3), 71-74.
*Donnelly,D. F. (1987). Theeffect of a high school computerstudiescourseon achievementandanxiety
level in mathematics (Doctoral dissertation, NorthernArizona University, 1986). Dissertation
AbstractsInternational,47, 2933A.
Dusek, J. B., & Joseph, G. (1983). The bases of teacher expectancies: A meta-analysis.Journal of
EducationalPsychology, 75, 327-346.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
538 Anxiety and Achievement

Eccles, J. (1985). Sex differences in achievementpatterns.In R. A. Dienstbier (Series Ed.) & T. B.

Sonderegger(Vol. Ed.),Nebraskasymposiumon motivation,1984: Vol.32. Psychologyand gender
(pp. 97-132). Lincoln:Universityof NebraskaPress.
*Eccles,J. S., & Jacobs,J. E. (1986). Social forcesshapemathattitudesandperformance.Signs:Journal
of Womenin Cultureand Society, 11, 367-380.
*Engelhard,G., Jr. (1990). Math anxiety, mother's education, and the mathematicsperformanceof
adolescentboys and girls: Evidence from the United States and Thailand.Journal of Psychology,
124, 289-298.
Fennema,E., & Sherman,J. (1977). Sex-relateddifferencesin mathematicsachievement,spatialvisu-
alization,and affective factors.AmericanEducationalResearchJournal, 14, 51-71.
Frary,R. B., & Ling, J. L. (1983). A factor-analyticstudy of mathematicsanxiety. Educationaland
Psychological Measurement,43, 985-993.
*Gliner, G. S. (1987). The relationshipbetween mathematicsanxiety and achievement variables.
School Science and Mathematics,87, 81-87.
Gough, M. F. (1954). Mathemaphobia:Causes and treatments.ClearingHouse, 28, 290-294.
*Green,J. J. (1991). Mathematicsanxietyand attitudestowardsmathematicsat the secondarylevel.
Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,Universityof New England,Australia.
Hackett,G. (1985). Role of mathematicsself-efficacy in the choice of math-relatedmajorsof college
women and men: A pathanalysis.Journal of CounselingPsychology, 32, 47-56.
Hadfield,O. D., & Maddux,C. D. (1988). Cognitivestyle andmathematicsanxietyamonghigh school
students.Psychology in the Schools, 25, 75-83.
*Hadfield,O. D., Martin,J. V., & Wooden, S. (1992). Mathematicsanxiety and learningstyle of the
Navajo middle school student.School Science and Mathematics,92, 171-176.
Handler,J. R. (1990). Mathanxiety in adultlearning.AdultLearning,1(6), 20-23.
Hart,L. E. (1989). Describingthe affective domain:Saying whatwe mean. In D. B. McLeod & V. M.
Adams (Eds.),Affectand mathematicalproblemsolving:A newperspective(pp. 37-45). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptualnervous system). Psychological Review, 62,
243-254.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methodsfor meta-analysis.San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
Hembree,R. (1990). The nature,effects, and relief of mathematicsanxiety. Journalfor Research in
MathematicsEducation,21, 33-46.
Hembree,R., & Dessart,D. J. (1986). Effectsof hand-heldcalculatorsin precollegemathematicseduca-
tion: A meta-analysis.Journalfor Research in MathematicsEducation,17, 83-99.
Hendel, D. D. (1980). Experiential and affective correlations of math anxiety in adult women.
Psychology of WomenQuarterly,5, 219-230.
Hunsley,J. (1987). Cognitiveprocessesin mathematicsanxietyandtest anxiety:The role of appraisals,
internaldialogue, and attributions.Journal of EducationalPsychology, 79, 388-392.
Hunt, G. E. (1985). Math anxiety- Where do we go from here? Focus on Learning Problems in
Mathematics,7(2), 29-40.
Hyde, J. S., Fennema,E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Genderdifferencesin mathematicsperformance:A
meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139-155.
Hyde, J. S., Fennema,E., Ryan, M., Frost,L. A., & Hopp, C. (1990). Gendercomparisonsof mathe-
matics attitudesand affect: A meta-analysis.Psychology of WomenQuarterly,14, 299-324.
Lazarus,M. (1974). Mathophobia:Some personalspeculations.NationalElementaryPrincipal,53(2),
16-22.
Leder, G. C. (1987). Attitudestowardsmathematics.In T. A. Romberg& D. M. Stewart(Eds.), The
monitoring of school mathematics (pp. 261-277). Madison: Wisconsin Center for Educational
Research.
*Lee, B. Y. (1992). The effects of learnercontroland adaptiveinformationin mathematicscomputer-
assistedinstructionon achievementandtask-relatedanxiety(Doctoraldissertation,FloridaInstitute
of Technology, 1991). DissertationAbstractsInternational,52, 3236A.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Xin Ma 539

Liebert, R. M., & Morris, L. W. (1967). Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: A
distinctionand some initial data.Psychological Reports,20, 975-978.
Ma, X., & Kishor, N. (1997). Assessing the relationshipbetween attitudetoward mathematicsand
achievementin mathematics:A meta-analysis.Journalfor Researchin MathematicsEducation,28,
26-47.
Mandler,G., & Sarason,S. B. (1952). A studyof anxietyand learning.JournalofAbnormaland Social
Psychology, 47, 166-173.
McLeod, D. B. (1992). Researchon affect in mathematicseducation:A reconceptualization.In D. A.
Grouws (Ed.), Handbookof research on mathematicsteaching and learning (pp. 575-596). New
York:Macmillan.
McLeod, D. B. (1994). Researchon affect in mathematicslearningin the JRME:1970 to the present.
Journalfor Research in MathematicsEducation,25, 637-647.
McMillan, J. H. (1976). Factorsaffecting the developmentof pupil attitudestowardschool subjects.
Psychology in the Schools, 13, 322-325.
Meece, J. L. (1981). Individualdifferencesin the affective reactionsof middleandhigh school students
to mathematics:A social cognitive perspective (Doctoral dissertation,University of Michigan,
1981). DissertationAbstractsInternational,42, 2035A.
*Meece, J. L., Wigfield,A., & Eccles, J. S. (1990). Predictorsof mathanxietyandits influenceon young
adolescents'course enrollmentintentionsandperformancein mathematics.Journalof Educational
Psychology, 82, 60-70.
Mevarech,Z. R., & Ben-Artzi,S. (1987). Effects of CAI with fixed andadaptivefeedbackon children's
mathematicalanxiety and achievement.Journal of ExperimentalEducation,56, 42-46.
*Mevarech,Z. R., Silber, O., & Fine, D. (1991). Learningwith computersin small groups:Cognitive
and affective outcomes. Journal of EducationalComputingResearch, 7, 233-243.
NationalResearchCouncil. (1989). Everybodycounts:A reportto the nation on thefuture of mathe-
matics education.Washington,DC: NationalAcademy Press.
Pedersen,K., Bleyer, D. R., & Elmore,P. B. (1985). Attitudesandcareerinterestsof juniorhigh school
mathematicsstudents:Implicationsfor the classroom.ArithmeticTeacher,32(7), 45-49.
Preston,P. A. (1987). Math anxiety:Relationshipwith sex, college major,mathematicsbackground,
mathematicsachievement,mathematicsperformance,mathematicsavoidance,self-ratingof math-
ematics ability, and self-ratingof mathematicsanxiety as measuredby the Revised Mathematics
AnxietyRatingScale (RMARS)(Doctoraldissertation,Universityof Tennessee, 1986).Dissertation
AbstractsInternational,47, 2494A.
Quilter,D., & Harper,E. (1988). "Whywe didn'tlike mathematics,andwhy we can'tdo it."Educational
Research, 30, 121-134.
*Reavis, P. S. (1989). Mathematicsanxiety and the relationshipbetween attitude,sex, ethnicity and
achievementin mathematicsin threehigh school curriculumtracks(Doctoraldissertation,University
of Arizona, 1987). DissertationAbstractsInternational,49, 1742A.
Resnick,H., Viehe, J., & Segal, S. (1982). Is mathanxiety a local phenomenon?A studyof prevalence
and dimensionality.Journal of CounselingPsychology, 29, 3947.
Reyes, L. H. (1980). Attitudesand mathematics.In M. M. Lindquist(Ed.), Selected issues in mathe-
matics education (pp. 161-184). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Reyes, L. H. (1984). Affective variablesand mathematicseducation.TheElementarySchool Journal,
84, 558-581.
Richardson,F. C., & Suinn,R. M. (1972). The MathematicsAnxiety RatingScale: Psychometricdata.
Journal of CounselingPsychology, 19, 551-554.
Richardson,F. C., & Woolfolk, R. L. (1980). Mathematicsanxiety.In I. G. Sarason(Ed.), Testanxiety:
Theory,research,and applications (pp. 271-288). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rosenthal,R. (1991). Meta-analyticproceduresfor social research(Rev. ed.). NewburyPark,CA: Sage.
Rounds,J. B., Jr., & Hendel, D. D. (1980). Measurementand dimensionalityof mathematicsanxiety.
Journal of CounselingPsychology, 27, 138-149.
*Saigh, P. A., & Khouri,A. (1983). The concurrentvalidity of the MathematicsAnxiety RatingScale
for Adolescents (MARS-A) in relation to the academic achievement of Lebanese students.
Educationaland Psychological Measurement,43, 633-637.

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
540 Anxietyand Achievement

*Sandman,R. S. (1979, April).Factors relatedto mathematicsanxietyin the secondaryschool. Paper

presentedat the annualmeeting of the AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,San Francisco.
Schram,C. M. (1996). A meta-analysisof genderdifferencesin appliedstatisticsachievement.Journal
of Educationaland BehavioralStatistics,21, 55-70.
*Sepie, A. C., & Keeling, B. (1978). The relationshipbetweentypes of anxietyandunder-achievement
in mathematics.Journal of EducationalResearch, 72, 15-19.
Siegel, R. G., Galassi,J. P., & Ware,W. B. (1985). A comparisonof two models for predictingmath-
ematics performance: Social learning versus math aptitude-anxiety. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 32, 531-538.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). Conceptual and methodological issues in anxiety research. In C. D.
Spielberger(Ed.),Anxiety:Currenttrendsin theoryand research(Vol. 2, pp. 481-493). New York:
Academic Press.
*Suinn,R. M., & Edwards,R. W. (1982). The measurementof mathematicsanxiety:The Mathematics
Anxiety RatingScale for Adolescent (MARS-A). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38,576-580.
*Suinn, R. M., Taylor, S., & Edwards,R. W. (1988). Suinn MathematicsAnxiety Rating Scale for
Elementary School Students (MARS-E): Psychometric and normative data. Educational and
Psychological Measurement,48, 979-986.
*Suinn, R. M., Taylor, S., & Edwards,R. W. (1989). The Suinn MathematicsAnxiety Rating Scale
(MARS-E)for Hispanicelementaryschool students.Hispanic Journalof BehavioralSciences, 11,
83-90.
*Thorndike-Christ,T. (1991). Attitudestowardmathematics:Relationshipsto mathematicsachieve-
ment, gender, mathematicscourse-takingplans, and career interests (Tech. Rep.). Bellingham:
WesternWashingtonUniversity. (ERICDocumentReproductionService No. ED 347 066)
Tobias, S. (1978). Overcomingmathanxiety.Boston: HoughtonMifflin.
Tobias, S. (1985). Test anxiety: Interference,defective skills, and cognitive capacity. Educational
Psychologist, 20, 135-142.
Tobias, S., & Weissbrod, C. (1980). Anxiety and mathematics:An update. Harvard Educational
Review, 50, 63-70.
*Wahl,M. W. (1986). Mathematicsanxietyin high school students:A studyof genderandinterrelated
factors(Doctoraldissertation,Universityof Wisconsinat Milwaukee,1985). DissertationAbstracts
International,46, 2639A.
*Wigfield,A., & Meece, J. L. (1988). Mathanxietyin elementaryandsecondaryschool students.Journal
of EducationalPsychology, 80, 210-216.
Willett,J. B., & Singer,J. D. (1991). Fromwhetherto when:New methodsfor studyingstudentdropout
and teacherattrition.Reviewof EducationalResearch,61,407-450.
Wine, J. (1971). Test anxiety and directionof attention.Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92-104.
*Wither,D. (1988). Influenceson achievementin secondaryschool mathematics.Unicorn,14, 48-51.
Wood, E. F. (1988). Math anxiety and elementary teachers:What does research tell us? For the
Learningof Mathematics,8(1), 8-13.
Zaslavsky,C. (1994). Fear of math:How to get over it and get on withyour life. New Brunswick,NJ:
RutgersUniversityPress.

Author
Xin Ma, AssistantProfessor,Centrefor Researchin Applied Measurementand Evaluation,
Universityof Alberta,Edmonton,AB T6G 2G5, Canada;xin.ma@ualberta.ca

This content downloaded from 136.145.179.130 on Fri, 10 Apr 2015 18:19:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions