Chemical Engineering Journal 345 (2018) 320–326

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Chemical Engineering Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cej

Interface engineering of few-layered MoS2 nanosheets with ultrafine TiO2 T

nanoparticles for ultrastable Li-ion batteries
⁎ ⁎
Haiyan Wang, Hao Jiang , Yanjie Hu, Zongnan Deng, Chunzhong Li
Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education & School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai
200237, China

H I GH L IG H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• The 0D/2D heterostructure overcomes

the stacking problem of MoS na- 2
nosheets.
• The robust Ti-O-S covalent interaction
greatly consolidates the 2D na-
nosheets.
• Ultrastable capacity retention is
achieved for over 500 cycles.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The highly structural integrity of electrode materials before and after cycles has been widely recognized as the
Exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets pivotal for achieving stable lithium-ion batteries. Herein, an interface-reinforcement strategy has been devel-
TiO2 oped to enhance the structural stability of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials. The TiO2/MoS2 hybrids are
Interface-reinforcement synthesized by anchoring ultrafine TiO2 nanoparticles on few-layered MoS2 nanosheets using a facile and
High stability
scalable method. Such a fascinating 0D/2D heterostructure can effectively overcome the shortcoming of MoS2
Lithium-ion batteries
nanosheets easy-stacking, promoting the electrolyte accessability to 2D interlayer space. Impressively, the robust
Ti-O-S covalent interaction between them can greatly consolidate the 2D nanosheets, alleviating the structural
stress change caused by lithiation/delithiation. Consequently, the as-obtained TiO2/MoS2 hybrids exhibit a re-
markably improved specific capacity compared to the exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets at various rates. A stable
specific capacity of 410 mAh g−1 is still maintained even through over 500 cycles at 1.0 A g−1. The interface-
reinforcement concept can also be extended to other 2D nanomaterials, showing huge application potential for
stable LIBs.

1. Introduction
To keep pace with the rapid upgrading of portable electronic de-
vices and newly emerging large-scale energy storage systems, tre-
mendous research interest has been dedicated to developing advanced
lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with a higher energy density recently [1–3].
The anode materials as an important component of LIBs will directly
determine the ultimate electrochemical performances. Currently, the
widely used graphite anode can only deliver a specific capacity of
∼330 mAh g−1 (theoretical value: 372 mAh g−1), which severely

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: jianghao@ecust.edu.cn (H. Jiang), czli@ecust.edu.cn (C. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.03.166
Received 13 February 2018; Received in revised form 22 March 2018; Accepted 29 March 2018
Available online 30 March 2018
1385-8947/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Wang et al.
restricts the further improvement of batteries energy density. Moreover,
the low lithiation potential (∼0.1 V) easily leads to the formation of
lithium dendrites, causing insecurity [4–6]. Thus far, amounts of novel
anode materials have been exploited, such as Si/C composites and
transition metal oxides based hybrids [7–10]. They exhibit a re-
markably improved specific capacity. However, starting from the per-
spective of practical application, these anode materials usually suffer
from complicated fabrication process, or low yield (< 1.0 g), or un-
satisfactory cycling stability. Therefore, it is highly desirable to develop
a substitute for graphite simultaneously possessing a higher energy
density with high structural stability and safety.
Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have been widely investigated
in energy storage and conversion in view of their unique atom-thickness
and open 2D channels, which can contribute to a high specific capacity
and fast ions diffusion [11,12]. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), a re-
presentative 2D nanomaterials, has become an ideal candidate for LIBs
anode materials because of its moderate theoretical specific capacity
(670 mAh g−1 based on conversion reaction mechanism) and high
safety (0.5 V vs. Li/Li+) compared with commercial graphite anode, as
well as abundant resources [13,14]. Unfortunately, the easy-stacking of
MoS2 nanosheets caused by the interlayer van der Waals forces and
high surface energy will greatly decrease the exposure of active sites. To
ameliorate this issue, amounts of works have developed various ex-
foliation and assembly techniques to synthesize single-layered or few-
layered MoS2 nanosheets [15,16]. However, the intrinsic low strength
of MoS2 nanosheets can’t afford the significant stress change during
conversion reaction process, resulting in serious structure collapse and
pulverization with fast capacity fading (Scheme 1a) [17–19]. Inspired
by the concrete technology where sands aggregate is usually applied to
bond with a fluid cement for avoiding the deformation and cracking
during the four seasons, it is reckoned that the few-layered MoS2 na-
nosheets can be reinforced by introducing proper inorganic nano-
particles. The interface interaction between them will effectively en-
hance the structural stability, as shown in Scheme 1b, therefore leading
to a long cycle life.
The intercalation-type TiO2 anode materials possess excellent cy-
cling stability because of their negligible volume expansion after li-
thiation (< 4%) [20,21]. Importantly, they are easy to form covalent
bonds with sulfur atoms, creating a strong interface interaction [22,23].
Herein, the ultrafine TiO2 nanoparticles are exploited to intensify the
few-layered MoS2 nanosheets by a simple and scalable method. The
resultant hybrids are fabricated by anchoring the exfoliated MoS2 na-
nosheets with ultrafine TiO2 nanoparticles (labeled as TiO2/e-MoS2).
The introduction of TiO2 nanoparticles can also be employed as spacer
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Chemical Engineering Journal 345 (2018) 320–326
to avoid MoS2 nanosheets aggregation, and hence promoting the good
infiltration of electrolyte with short ions transfer path. As a con-
sequence, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids exhibit a remarkably improved li-
thium storage capacity (623 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1 and 200 mAh g−1 at
10 A g−1) with an outstanding cycling stability (without capacity fading
after over 500 cycles) compared to the e-MoS2 nanosheets. The inter-
face-reinforcement concept can also be extended to other 2D nanoma-
terials, showing huge application potential for stable LIBs.
2. Experimental section
2.1. Synthesis of the e-MoS2 nanosheets
The exfoliation of MoS2 was achieved according to the previous
report with a minor modification [24]. Typically, 2 g of bulk MoS2
powder was added into 200 mL of aqueous solution containing
6 mg mL−1 sodium cholate. The suspension was probe-sonicated in
JYD-900L equipment for 12 h. After standing for one night, the upper
150 mL dispersions were moved out and centrifuged for 90 min at
2000 rpm. The collected supernatant was further centrifuged for an-
other 90 min at 12000 rpm. Then, the precipitant was washed with
deionized (DI) water twice and re-dispersed into DI water via sonica-
tion. Finally, the supernatant was obtained containing e-MoS2 na-
nosheets in DI water.
2.2. Synthesis of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids
Briefly, 0.2 g e-MoS2 nanosheets, 0.5 g oleic acid and 0.2 g sodium
dodecyl benzene sulfonate were dispersed in 60 mL of water/ethanol
solution (v/v = 3:1). Then, 30 mL of ethanol solution containing 0.3 g
of acetic acid and 0.2 g of tetrabutyl titanate was added dropwise into
the above solution. After stirring at 50 °C for 4 h, the precipitate was
collected by filtration and repeatedly washed with DI water and
ethanol, then dried at 60 °C overnight. The final product was obtained
by further calcination at 700 °C for 3 h under flowing argon atmo-
sphere.
2.3. Characterization
The nanostructures and morphology were investigated by filed-
emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, Hitachi S-4800) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL-2100F) operated at
200 kV with an X-ray energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). Atomic
force microscopy (AFM) measurements were performed in tapping
Scheme 1. The materials design concept. (a) The
normal 2D nanosheets easily crack and pulverize
after extensive cycling because of their low me-
chanical strength; (b) interface enhanced 2D na-
nosheets by anchoring stable inorganic nanoparticles
on the surface can ameliorate the lithiation-induced
stress change, and hence maintaining high structural
integrity before and after cycles.
H. Wang et al.
mode by the microscopy (III a Multimode, Veeco). Size distribution of
the exfoliated MoS2 dispersion was determined by dynamic light scat-
tering (DLS) technology using a Zetasizer Nano-ZS (Malvern
Instruments Ltd., UK). X-ray power diffract-meter (XRD) studies were
carried out using Rigaku D/Max2550 (Cu Kα radiation) at a scan rate of
1° min−1. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was recorded with
AXIS Ultra DLD spectrometer (Al Kα X-ray source). Thermogravimetric
(TG) analysis was performed using NETZSCH STA409PC under a
heating rate of 10 °C min−1 with flowing air.
2.4. Electrochemical measurements
The electrochemical performances of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids
electrode were measured in half-cell LIBs and SIBs configuration. A
total of 70 wt% active material, 20 wt% carbon black, and 10 wt%
polymer binder (poly(vinylidene difluoride), PVDF, Aldrich) were
mixed in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) solvent, followed by pasting
the slurry onto copper foil and drying at 110 °C for 12 h in a vacuum
oven. The loading mass of electrode material is ∼1.0 mg. The electro-
chemical measurements were performed via the CR2016 coin-type half
cells with Li foil as counter electrode, 1 M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate
(EC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (1:1 by volume) as electrolyte and
Celgard 2400 membrane as a separator. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) ex-
periments and electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) measurements
were carried out in an Autolab PGSTAT302N electrochemical work-
station. The cells were charged and discharged galvanostatically at
different rates on a LAND-CT2001A battery tester at room temperature.
3. Results and discussion
The commercial MoS2 powders were firstly exfoliated into few-
layered nanosheets (e-MoS2) through sonication-assisted approach with
distilled water as solvent and sodium cholate as surfactant. From SEM
observations, the MoS2 bulk (Fig. S1) has been successfully transformed
into ultrathin nanosheets after exfoliation, as shown in Fig. 1a. The
Fig. 1. (a) SEM image and (b) hydrodynamic size distribution, (c) AFM image and (d) the corresponding height information of the e-MoS2 nanosheets.
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dynamic light scattering (DLS) technology is used to determine the size
distribution of the e-MoS2 nanosheets, which is mainly in the range of
100–500 nm (Fig. 1b). Furthermore, the atomic force microscopy
(AFM) image in Fig. 1c shows a smooth flat surface of e-MoS2 na-
nosheets and the corresponding height profile of the black line (Fig. 1d)
exhibits a representative average thickness from 2.2 nm to 4.2 nm, in-
dicating the ultrathin nanosheets are composed of 3–7 layered MoS2
nanosheets.
Subsequently, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids were fabricated via the
hydrolysis of tetrabutyl titanate (TBT) on the e-MoS2 nanosheets sur-
face associated with low temperature calcination, as illustrated in
Fig. 2a. It can be observed that the nanosheets morphology is well
maintained without obvious aggregation (Fig. S2). The typical TEM
image reveals many spot-like nanoparticles well-distributed on the
nanosheets (Fig. 2b). From the high-resolution TEM in Fig. 2c, these
nanoparticles have diameters of ∼4 nm and a lattice spacing of 0.35 nm
corresponding to the (1 0 1) planes of anatase TiO2. The selected area
electron diffraction (SAED) pattern (inset of Fig. 2c) further confirms
the presence of anatase TiO2 (marked with yellow dashed line). Fig. 2d
shows the cross-section profile of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids where TiO2
nanoparticles with clear lattice fringes reside on the surface of 3 layered
MoS2 nanosheets. Energy dispersive-spectroscopy (EDS) elemental
mapping images (Fig. 2e–i) prove the highly uniform distribution of S,
Mo, O, Ti elements throughout the nanosheets, indicating the successful
preparation of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids. The TiO2 content is estimated
to be ∼25% by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), which can be easily
controlled just by changing the concentration of TBT precursor (Fig.
S3). When the TiO2 content increases to ∼34% (Fig. S4b), a denser
TiO2 nanoparticles coated on the surface of the e-MoS2 nanosheets can
be observed.
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids in
Fig. 3a shows two sets of diffraction peaks indexed to MoS2 (JCPDS No.
65-7025) and anatase TiO2 (JCPDS No. 21-1272), which are consistent
with the TEM results. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was
used to analyze how the two components interact with each other in the
H. Wang et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 345 (2018) 320–326

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthetic route of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids, (b) high-magnification, (c, d) high-resolution TEM images and (e–i) TEM-EDS
mapping of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids. The inset in (c) is the corresponding SAED pattern.

TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids. For comparison, the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture with
identical TiO2 ratio was also fabricated by a high-speed ball-milling
method. The S 2p spectra (Fig. 2b) in the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids disclose
two major characteristic peaks at 163.5 eV (S 2p1/2) and 162.3 eV (S
2p3/2) associated with a minor peak at 168.7 eV corresponding to S-O
bond [25]. However, no SeO bond can be observed in the TiO2/e-MoS2
mixture. The peak at 533.1 eV in high-resolved O 1s XPS spectra
(Fig. 2c) confirms the existence of S-O bond in the TiO2/e-MoS2 hy-
brids, indicating the robust covalent interaction between TiO2 and e-
MoS2 [26]. For Ti 2p XPS spectra, the Ti 2p1/2 and Ti 2p3/2 of the TiO2/
e-MoS2 hybrids are located at 464.4 and 459.0 eV, respectively, in-
dicating the fully oxidized Ti4+ in TiO2 [27]. Furthermore, compared

Fig. 3. (a) XRD pattern of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids, (b) S 2p, (c) O 1s and (d) Ti 2p XPS spectra of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids and the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture.

323
H. Wang et al.
Fig. 4. (a) CV curves at 0.2 mV s−1 and (b) charge/discharge curves at 0.1 A g−1 of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids for the first three cycles, (c) rate performances of the
TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids, the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture and the pure e-MoS2, (d) electrochemical impedance spectra of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids and the TiO2/e-MoS2
mixture; inset is the corresponding equivalent electrical circuit.
with the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture, both O 1s and Ti 2p peaks for the TiO2/
e-MoS2 hybrids shift to lower energy regions, indicating that partial O
in TiO2 is substituted by less electronegative S from MoS2, which fur-
ther confirms the strong interaction of the two components [28,29].
The ratio of TiO2 in the hybrids can also be calculated to be ∼27% from
XPS analysis (Fig. S5), which is in good agreement with the TGA results.
The electrochemical performances of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids with
various TiO2 contents were evaluated by assembling a half coin-type
cell. It turns out that the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids with ∼25% TiO2 content
shows an optimal electrochemical performance (Fig. S6). Fig. 4a shows
the cyclic voltammograms (CV) curves of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids
electrode at 0.2 mV s−1 between 0.01 and 3 V. The first cathodic scan
shows three irreversible peaks at 1.05, 0.7 and 0.48 V. The peak at
1.05 V is due to the Li intercalation, changing the MoS2 structure from
2H (trigonal prismatic) to 1T (octahedral) [30]. The strong peak at
0.48 V is attributed to the conversion reaction process forming Mo and
Li2S [31]. Another peak at 0.7 V corresponds to the formation of a solid
electrolyte interface (SEI) on the surface of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids
[32]. In the subsequent discharge curves, the cathodic peaks shift to 1.9
and 1.05 V, signifying different lithiation mechanisms:
2Li+ + S + 2e− → Li2S and MoS2 + xLi+ + xe− → LixMoS2, respec-
tively [33]. In the anodic scan, two peaks located at 1.7 and 2.3 V can
be assigned to the oxidation of metal Mo and the delithiation of Li2S,
respectively [34]. It should be noted that a cathodic/anodic peak pair at
1.74 V/2.09 V can also be observed with high reversibility, corre-
sponding to the redox reaction of Ti4+/Ti3+ in the anatase TiO2
[35,36]. The almost overlapped CV curves after the first cycle imply the
high electrochemical stability of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids. Fig. 4b
presents the first three galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of the
TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids anode at a current density of 0.1 A g−1. The initial
discharge capacity of 870 mAh g−1 can be achieved with a Coulombic
efficiency (CE) of ∼73% which increases rapidly to ∼94% at the
second cycle. The irreversible capacity loss in the first cycle is
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Chemical Engineering Journal 345 (2018) 320–326
attributed to the inevitable electrolyte decomposition and the forma-
tion of a SEI layer. Meanwhile, the plateaus of the charge/discharge
curves are in accordance with the respective peaks of the CV profiles.
Fig. 4c shows the rate performance of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids. When
gradually elevating the current density from 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5 A g−1
to 10 A g−1, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids can deliver reversible capacities
of 623, 534, 442, 373, 334, 286 and 200 mAh g−1, respectively. And
the capacity can recover to 611 mAh g−1 after the current density is
reduced back to 0.1 A g−1. In contrast, the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture and
the pure e-MoS2 show inferior rate capability with negligible capacity
at a high current density of 10 A g−1. To better understand the superior
lithium storage performance of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids, the electro-
chemical impedance spectra (EIS) were performed after the rate test. As
shown in Fig. 4d, the first semicircle represents the resistance of SEI
films (Rf), the second semicircle is associated with the charge-transfer
resistance (Rct) on electrode/electrolyte interface, and the sloping
straight line in low-frequency is related with Warburg impedance (Zw)
corresponding to solid-state diffusion of lithium ions in the bulk elec-
trode (Re) [37,38]. Apparently, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids exhibit
smaller Rf (29.1 Ω), Rct (36.3 Ω) and larger Warburg slopes than the
TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture (Rf = 32.2 Ω, Rct = 98.6 Ω), indicating ac-
celerated charge transfer at the electrode/electrolyte interface as well
as higher ion mobility. The lithium ion diffusion coefficient (DLi) can be
calculated according to the following formula:
0.5R2T 2
DLi =
A2 n4F 4CLi2 σ 2
where R is the gas constant, T is the room temperature, A is the surface
area of the electrode, n is the number of the transfer electrons per
molecule, F is the Faraday constant, CLi is the concentration of lithium
ion in electrode, σ is the slope of the line Z-ω−1/2 in Fig. S7.[39] The
calculated DLi of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids is about 2.7 × 10−17 cm2 s−1
which is larger than 1.3 × 10−17 cm2 s−1 of the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture,
H. Wang et al.
Fig. 5. (a) Cycling performances of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids and the pure e-MoS2 nanosheets, inset showing digital photos of the electrodes after cycling, (b and c)
the corresponding TEM images after cycling, (d–h) TEM-EDS mapping of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids after cycling.
confirming a faster Li-ion transport.
Remarkably, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids anode makes a drastic im-
provement in the cycling performance, as shown in Fig. 5a. Unlike the
steep capacity decay of pure e-MoS2 nanosheets, the capacity of the
TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids can still maintain ∼410 mAh g−1 over 500 cycles
at a high current density of 1 A g−1. After cycling, the cells were dis-
mantled and the electrodes were rinsed by ethanol. A digital camera
image (inset in Fig. 5a) shows that the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids electrode
can keep intact even suffer from several bending and folding tests,
suggesting a close combination between the active materials and cur-
rent collector. On the contrary, the pure e-MoS2 electrode suffers from
serious detachment and pulverization during rinsing. TEM images in
Fig. 5b and c reveal that the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids can well preserve
their nanosheets integrity, while the pure e-MoS2 nanosheets are
cracked into smaller pieces. Furthermore, the homogeneous distribu-
tion of Mo, S, O and Ti throughout the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids nanosheets
can be observed from TEM-EDS elemental mapping (Fig. 5d–h), con-
firming highly structural stability of the hybrids. The LIBs performance
of the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids is better, and at least comparable to the
reported TiO2/MoS2 composites, especially in terms of the high rate and
cycling stability, such as TiO2@MoS2 nano-onion [40] and TiO2@MoS2
nanobelts [41]. A detailed comparison has also been made in Table S1.
Furthermore, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids also exhibit stable sodium sto-
rage capability when compared with the TiO2/e-MoS2 mixture and the
pure e-MoS2 nanosheets (Fig. S8). The results further imply the highly
structural stability because more stable electrode materials are required
for sodium-ion batteries.
Based on the aforementioned discussion, the superior rate perfor-
mance and cycling stability of the as-designed TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids can
be primarily ascribed to the following aspects. Firstly, the interface
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Chemical Engineering Journal 345 (2018) 320–326
engineering created by the strong covalent bonding between TiO2 and
MoS2 (Fig. 2b–d) greatly enhances the mechanical strength of single or
few layered e-MoS2 nanosheets. It can release the mechanical stress and
stand against large volume variation during the charge/discharge pro-
cess, thus maintaining an integrated structure without pulverization.
Secondly, the slurry made of the engineered MoS2 nanosheets is easy to
form a stable film on copper foil. They show a strong adhesive force and
avoid the detachment from current collector. The direct evidence is that
the electrode is smooth and unchanged even under repeated bending
and folding for several times (inset of Fig. 5a), favorably achieving a
long cycle life. Furthermore, introducing ultrafine TiO2 nanoparticles
can also effectively prevent agglomeration of MoS2 nanosheets, and
therefore greatly increasing the exposed electrochemical active sites
and accelerating the diffusion rate of ions, which is in good agreement
with the EIS results. Therefore, the TiO2/e-MoS2 hybrids exhibit ul-
trastable and improved lithium storage capability.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, we develop an interface-reinforcement strategy to
intensify the structural stability of 2D nanomaterials for achieving
stable LIBs anode materials. The intercalation-type ultrafine TiO2 na-
noparticles have been anchored on few-layered MoS2 nanosheets to
enhance their mechanical strength by a facile and scalable method. The
robust Ti-O-S covalent interaction between them can greatly con-
solidate the 2D nanosheets, alleviating the structural stress change
caused by lithiation/delithiation. Furthermore, the as-obtained TiO2/
MoS2 hybrids with a fascinating 0D/2D heterostructure can effectively
overcome the shortcoming of MoS2 nanosheets easy-stacking, pro-
moting the electrolyte accessability to 2D interlayer space. As expected,
H. Wang et al.
the as-obtained TiO2/MoS2 hybrids exhibit a remarkably improved
specific capacity (623 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1 and 200 mAh g−1 even at
10 A g−1) compared to the exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets. Meanwhile, a
stable specific capacity of 410 mAh g−1 is still maintained even through
over 500 cycles at 1.0 A g−1. It is reckoned that the interface-re-
inforcement concept can be extended to other 2D nanomaterials,
showing huge application potential for stable LIBs.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (21522602, 51672082 and 91534202), the
Shanghai Rising-Star Program (15QA1401200), the Innovation
Program of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, the Program
for Professor of Special Appointment (Eastern Scholar) at Shanghai
Institutions of Higher Learning, and the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities (222201718002).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.03.166.
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