1

CONTROL SYSTEM (EEE1008) FOR B. TECH EE & EEE (CORE)/

CONTROL SYSTEM (EEE1408) FOR B. TECH ETC (CORE)
SEQUENCE – 3
(MODULE- III)
(MODULE- III)

VOL-3: K 1
FREEQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS:
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FREQUENCY RESPONSE FROM TRANSFORE FUNCTION
3. CO-RELATION BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE

VOL-3: K2
GRAPHICAL PLOTS:
1. POLAR PLOT (E.g. 1 & E.g. 2)
2. BODE PLOT (E. g 1, E. g. 2 & E. g. 3)
3. G.M & P.M
4. NYQUIST PLOT (EXAMPLE – 1 & 2)

VOL-3: K3
CLOSE LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE
1. CONSTANT M-CIRCLES
2. CONSTANT N-CIRCLES
3. USE OF NICHOL’S CHART
 2

VOL – 3 , K1 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS (8 Hours)

INTRODUCTION:
The sinusoidal input signal when applied to a linear system results in an output signal which is
sinusoidal in steady state and offers same frequency as that of input sinusoid, however in nonlinear
system the output with sinusoidal input contains higher and sub-harmonics of the input frequency.
Definition:
The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the steady – state output
of a system is termed as the Frequency Response.
Advantages of Frequency Response Method:
(1) As the frequency response method and the pole zero method are two different ways of applying
the same principles of analysis and design, hence one method may be used to check the accuracy of
other.
(2) Experimental data for control system are often presented in terms of frequency response
measurement can be made with any degree of accuracy and convenience as compared to other methods.
(3) The design specification for control systems are generally given in terms of system frequency
response characteristics. This is particularly true when the input signals are random functions of time
having only statistical properties.
(4) In control system having multiple loops the frequency response method gives the design and
analysis specifications more quickly than are obtained by pole – zero method.
(5) Some of the procedure used for analysis of non – linear systems are based on the frequency
response method hence it is preferred as compared to other methods.
Disadvantages:
Frequency response method for analysis and design of control system is the indirect link
between the frequency and time domain. Direct correlations between the frequency response and
corresponding transient response are tenuous and in practice the frequency response characteristic of
the system is adjusted by using various design criteria which results in the satisfactory system transient
response.
1. Frequency Response from Transfer Function.
The function G(j ω) representing the sinusoidal steady state behaviour of the system is a function of
complex variable j ω having magnitude and phase angle and is known as Frequency Function of the
System.

is .................... (1)

if ..................... (2)
When a sinusoidal signal is applied at the input terminals of the system at t = O +:
x i ( t )=E sinωt
X;(t) Xo(t)
Eω Linear System
x i ( s) = 2 2 ⋯ ⋯ (3)
(s +ω ) (Input) (Output)

Where E = Peak Amplitude of the sinusoidal input signal ω = frequency of oscillation of the sinusoidal
signal.
 3

EωK ( S + Z1 ) ( S+ Z 2 )
From 2 & 3, x o ( s )= ......................... (4)
( S 2 +ω2 ) ( S+ P1 ) ( S+ P2 )
¿
Ko Ko K1 K2
¿ + + + ................................ (5)
( s− jω ) ( s+ jω ) ( s+ p1 ) ( s+ p 2 )
From (5) it is clear that, all the terms for poles except, first two will decay with time as these poles lie in
the lift half of s-plane. Hence these decaying terms will be represented by decaying transients in the
system output. Thus the steady state value of the system output from (5) is,
¿
Ko Ko
X o (s )/¿ ss = + ¿ .............. (6)
( s− jω) ( s+ jω )
Where X o (s )/¿ ss ¿ the Laplace Transform of the stead state system output,
s [ K o + K ¿o ] jω [ K o−K ¿o ]
Or x o (s)/¿ss = 2 2 + ¿ ⋯ ⋯(7)
(s +ω ) ( s 2+ ω2 )
And K o =Eωk [ ] πz (s)
πp( s)
/s= jω ..................... [form (4)]

Or K o = 2 jω [
Eωk ( jω+ z 1 ) ( jω+ z 2 )
( jω+ P1 ) ( jω+ P2 ) ]
/s= jω ⋯ ⋯(8)

¿− j
[
E K ( jω+ z 1) ( jω+ z 2)
2 ( jω+ P 1) ( jω+ P 2 ) ]
E
¿− j
2
[ G ( jω ) ]=a+ jb .............. (9)
¿
And hence K 0= a – j b................. (10)
Substituting (9) and (10) i (7) we get
¿ ¿
s [K o + K o ] jω[ K o−K o ]
X o (s )/¿ ss = + ¿
( s2 +ω 2 ) ( s 2 +ω2 )
s [ a+ jb +a− jb ] + jω[a+ jb−a+ jb]
¿
( s 2+ ω2 )
s [ a+ jb +a− jb ] + jω[a+ jb−a+ jb] 2 as 2ωb
¿ 2 2 − 2 2 ............................... (11)
(s +ω )
2 2
s +ω s +ω
Taking Laplace Inverse of Eqn. (11)
X o (t)/¿ss = ( 2a cosωt−2 b sinωt )=2 √ a +b sin[ωt + ∅(ω)]¿ ................ (12) #
2 2

Where φ (ω) = tan

−1
( −ba ) ..................... (13)
# Let 2a=r sin φ, -2b = r cos φ, then X o (t)/¿ss = ( 2a cosωt−2 b sinωt ) ¿ = r sin φ cos t + r cos φ sin t = r
(sin  t cos φ + cos  t sin φ) = r sin [t + φ] = 2 √ a2 +b2 sin[ωt +∅ ( ω ) ]
[Since r2 sin2 φ = (2a)2, r2 cos 2 φ=(-2b)2 or r2(sin2 φ + cos2 φ)=4 (a2 + b2), hence r = 2 √ a2 +b2 ]
2 √ a2 +b2
The magnitude ratio or amplitude ratio or the gain of the system by definition, M ( ω )= ...... (14)
E

And φ (ω) = tan

−1 a
−b ( )
.............. (15)
E
|K o|=a 2+ b2= 2 |G(ω)| -------------- (16) i. e from Eqn. 9
 4

Eliminating √ a2 +b 2 from (14) & (16) we get: M ( ω )=|G( jω)|..................... (17)

Also from 9 & 15; ................. (18)

Equation 17 & 18 show that the Amplitude and Phase angle of the system Frequency function for a linear
system are obtained by substituting s =j ω when a sinusoidal input of frequency ω is applied.
⋯⋯
Hence (19)
The steady state response of the system for the sinusoidal input xi (t) = E Sin ω t, from Eqn. (12), (14) &
(18) is
x o (t) ss =EM ( ω ) sin [ωt + ∅(ω)] .......................... (20)
Equation 17 & 18 show that the Amplitude and Phase and angle of the system Frequency function for a
linear system are obtained by substituting s = j ω when a sinusoidal input of frequency ω is applied .

Hence, ................ (19) The steady state frequency response of any

linear system in general is obtained from the system transfer function and the sinusoidal signal which is applied at
the input.
Note: In general G(s) can also represent the closed loop Transfer Function i.e.
Vb Vb
R(s) + C(s)
Go(s)
C (s) Go s
≡ =G ( s )=
- R(s) 1+G o H (s )
H(s)
However The Frequency Function G(j ω) is obtained from the transfer function G(s) by replacing s by j ω
for sinusoidal input only and also for steady state output only.
Determine the frequency functions of the system which are defined by the transfer functions:
10 5( s+6)
(i) G ( s )= ; (ii) G ( s )=
( s +4 ) ( s+8 )
10 10
G ( s )= =
(i) 4 + jω √ 16+ ω2

(ii)
The closed loop transfer function of a control system is G ( s )=10 ¿ ¿ Determine the closed
loop steady state response of this system when a sinusoidal input xi(t)=5 sin(ω t+ θ) is
applied.
x o (s) 10 (s +2)
G ( s )= =
x i(s) ( s+1 ) ( s+ 5 )
10(2+ jω) 10 (2+ jω)
Hence G ( jω )= ( 1+ jω ) ( 5+ jω ) = =¿
[ ( 5−ω2 ) +6 jω ]
10 √ 4+ ω2 −1 ω −1 2
And M ( ω )= ; ∅ ( ω )=tan −tan 6 ω /(5−ω )
√ ( 15−ω ) +36 ω
2 2 2
Substituting E=5 and ω t = (ω t + θ) for the system input x; (t):
The steady state frequency response of the system:
(From Eqn. 20)
 5

[ 50 √ 4+ ω
[ ]]
2
−1 ω −1 6 ω
x o (t) ss =5 M ( ω ) sin ωt +θ+ ∅ ( ω )= sin ωt+θ +tan −tan
2 2
( 5+ω ) + 36 ω 2 2 5−ω
2

2. Co relation between Time and Frequency Response:

(a) Second order system:
R(s)+ C(s) R(s)+ C(s)

- -
≡
Fig. A: Second order system.
For the system the closed loop transfer function
2
ωn
2
c (s ) ωn (s ¿ ¿ 2+2 ωn s)
¿ M ( s )= = 2 = ¿
R ( s ) s +2 δωsn+ ω2n 1+ ω2n /(s ¿ ¿ 2+ 2ω n s)¿
Hence the frequency function = the sinusoidal transfer function
2
C ωn 1
¿ Mc ( jω )= ( jω )= 2
= ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
R ( jω ) +2 δ ω n jω+ ωn ( 1−u ) + j2 δu
2 2

ω
Where u= is the normalized driving signal frequency (i.e. ω is the driving signal frequency and
ωn
ω n is the system natural frequency).
1
From (1) ∣ M ( ω ) ∣=M = ................ (2)
√( 1−u ) +(2δu)
2 2 2

And, ......................... (3)

The steady state output of the system for a sinusoidal input of unity magnitude and variable
frequency ω is given by: c (t )/¿ ss =EM ( ω ) sin [ ωt + ∅( ω) ] ¿ (Reference to Eqn. (20) of last page)
1
In this case E = 1: Hence, c (t )/¿ ss= =c (t )/¿ss =EMsin[ωt +∅ (ω)]¿ ¿ ........ (20)
√( 1−u2 ) +( 2 δu )2
2

U = 0, M = 1 and φ 0
1
U = 1, M=
and φ = - ∧/2
2δ
U → ∞ M 0 and φ  - ∧

1.4 M(δ=δ1<0.707)

Magnitude M 1.0
Mr
0.6
M(δ=0.707)
0.2
 6

0 ω/ωn=u
Fig: (a) Frequency Response
Ur=ωr/ωn
Magnitude Characteristics:
Fig: (b) Frequency Response Phase Characteristic.
The frequency where M has peak value is known as the resonant frequency (ω r) and M = Mr and
u = u r = u r/ω n = Normalized resonant frequency. All this frequency, the slope of the magnitude
curve is zero. From Eqn. (2),
[
−1 −4 ( 1−ur ) ur +8 ur ]
2
2 δ
dM
/¿ u=ur = =0 ¿ Which gives, 4 u3r −4 ur +8 δ 2 ur =0 or ur= √1−2 δ 2 ------- (4)
du [ ]
2 ( 1−u2 )2 + ( 2 δur )2 3/2
r
Phase φ 0 (δ=δ1)

-90°

-180 ω
=u
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 ωn
Fig: (b) Frequency Response Phase Characteristic (δ=δ1)
The frequency where M has peak value is known as the resonant frequency (ωr) and M = Mr and u
= u r = ω r/ω n = Normalized resonant frequency. At this frequency, the slope of the magnitude
curve is zero.
At resonant frequency ω r:
1
From eqn. 2 the maximum value of M (M Resonant Peak = Mr) i.e. M r= ⋯ ⋯(5);
2 δ √ 1−δ 2
∅ r (From (3))¿−tan −1 [ √ 1−2 δ 2 /δ ] from eqns. 4 & 5, it is seen that as δ0, ω r ω η and Mr ∞.
1
For0<δ < (0.707), the resonant frequency has a value less than ω η and the resonant peak has a
√2
1
value greater than 1. for< , it is seen from eqn. 4 that d M/du, the
√2
Slope of the magnitude curve does not become zero for any real value of ω. For this range of δ,
the magnitude M decreases monotonically from M = 1 at u=0 with increasing u, as shown in fig:
1
(a). It therefore follows that forδ < , there is no resonant peak as such and the greatest value of
√2
M equal 1.
Thus for a second order system, its resonant peak M r of its frequency response is indicative of its
1
damping factor δ for 0 δ ≤ (i.e. 0.707) and the resonant frequency ωr of the frequency
√2
response is indicative of its natural frequency for a given δ and hence indicative of its speed of
response (as t s = 4/δ ω n) M r and ω r of the frequency response could thus be used as
performance indices for second order system.
Considering only the exponentially decaying envelope for a tolerance band of 2% the settling time
e−δωnts
is given by =0.02∨e−δωnts ≈ 0.02 (for low value of δ) orts ≈ 4 =4 T ; similarly for 5%
√( 1−δ ) 2 δωn
3
tolerance band, ts ≈
δωn
 7

Mr
1
M r=
2 δ √ 1−δ
2
1
−πδ
0.707 Band Width √ 1−δ 2
Whereas , M p=1+e

ω
ωr ωc
Fig: (c) Typical magnification curve of a Feedback control system.
In the Fig: (c) we notice that for ω>ω r, M decreases monotonically. The frequency at which M

has a value of (i.e. 0.707) is of special significance and is called the cut off frequency ω e. The signal at
frequencies above cut off is greatly attenuated in passing through a system. For feedback systems, the

range of frequencies over which M is equal to or greater than (i.e. 0.707) is defined as Bandwidth
ω b. Control systems being low pass filters (at zero frequency, M = 1) the bandwidth is equal to cut off
frequency i.e.
.
The bandwidth of control system indicates the noise – filtering characteristics of the system. Also
bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response properties as observed below:
ωb 1 1
The normalized bandwidth ub = of the second order M = = ; where
ωn
2
√
(1−u 2b ) + ( 2 δ ub ) 2 √ 2
ωb
ub = or ub4−2 ( 1−2 δ 2 ) u2b−1=0
ωn

[ ]
1
Or u = 1−2 δ 2+ √ ( 2−4 δ 2 +4 δ 4 ) 2 ........................ (6)
b
(As the bandwidth must be a positive real quantity, the negative sign in the quadratic solution and the
negative sign in taking the square root have been discarded)
1.6
1.4
1.2
Normalized 1.0
Bandwidth 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.8
Fig: (d)
[ ]
1
The den moralised bandwidth from eqn. (6) ¿ ωn 1−2δ 2 + ( 2−4 δ 2+ 4 δ 4 ) 4 ............ (7)
For step response: with 0 ≤ δ ≤ 1 are,
ω d = damped frequency of oscillation ¿ ω n √ ( 1−δ 2 ) .................... (8)

[ ]
δ
−∧
Mp = Peak overshoot ¿ e=
( 1−δ2 )
Compare eqn. (4) and (8) records that there exists a definite correlation between the resonant frequency
ω r of the frequency response and damped frequency of oscillations of the step response.
 8

ωr
√
2
1−2 δ
The ratio of these two frequencies is: = which is a function of δ and is plotted in fig (f).
ωd 1−δ 2
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.8

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 δ

Fig: (f): Correlation between ω r and ω d.
It is further observed from eqn. (7) that the bandwidth, a frequency domain concept, is indicative of the
un-damped natural frequency of a system for a given δ and therefore indicative of the speed of response
4
t s= , i.e. a time domain concept.
δωn

VOL-3: K2
GRAPHICAL PLOTS:
1. Polar plot:

In practice the frequency function of the system are so complex and long that the characteristic of
the system cannot be determined at the desired frequency only by inspection of the system frequency
function (i.e. from the mathematical expression). Therefore the frequency functions of systems are
plotted in graphical forms which indicate the system characteristics. Any curve giving information
regarding the gain or phase shift of the frequency function is known as the frequency response curve of
the system. In polar plots the amplitude of G (j ω) is plotted as the distance from the origin while phase
angle is plotted as angular displacement from the right hand horizontal axis on the polar graph as shown
in fig. below.
Advantage: Polar plots are preferred as compared to rectangular plots because polar plot contains the
ready information of both the parameters, amplitude and phase angle.
Limitations:
(1) Addition of poles zeros to an existing system requires the complete recalculation of frequency
response.
(2) The calculation of frequency response in this manner is tedious and does not give the effect of
individual poles and zeros.

Procedure for sketching the polar plot:

1. Determine the transfer function G(s) of the system.
2. Substitute s = j ω in the transfer function G(s) and obtain the frequency response function G(jω)
Lt
3. Magnitude of G (j ω) at ω = 0 and ω = ∞ by having |G( jω)|∧ L t G( jω)
ω→0 ω→∞
 9

Lt
4. Calculate the phase angle of G (j ω) at ω 0 and ω = ∞ by having ω → 0 and

.
5. Rationalise the complex frequency function G (j ω) and separate the real and imaginary parts.
6. Determine the frequencies at which the plot intersects the real axis by equating the imaginary parts
of G (j ω) equal to zero i.e. I m [G (j ω)] = 0. Hence calculate the value of G (j ω) at the intersection point
by substituting the determined value of G (j ω)at the intersection point by substituting the determined
value of frequency in the rationalised expression.
7. Determine the frequencies at which the curve intersects the imaginary axis by equating the real
parts of G (j ω) equal to zero Re [G (j ω)] = 0. Hence calculate the value of G (j ω) at the intersection point
by substituting the determined value of ω in the rationalised expression of G (j ω).
8. Sketch the complete polar of the system which satisfies the above specifications.
E.g. 1 Sketch the polar plots for the following transfer functions for + v e frequencies
K K K ( 1+ s T 1 ) K ( 1+ s T 2 )
( a ) G ( s )= ; ( b ) G ( s )= ; ( b) G ( s) = ; ( c ) G ( s )= ;
1+ sT 1+ sT 1+ sT a ( 1+ s T b )
10
( d ) G ( s) =
s(1+ 0.1 s)
K K
(a) G ( jω )= 1+ jωT = −1
−tan ωT
√ 1+ω T2 2

Lt K
|G( jω)|= Lt =K ;
ω→0 ω → 0 √ 1+ ω2 T 2

Lt K
|G ( jω)|= L t =0 ;
ω→∞ ω →∞ √ 1+ω 2 T 2
K (1− jωT ) K ωK
G ( jω )= 2 2
= 2 2
−j 2 2
=Re G ( jω ) + I m G ( jω)
1+ ω T 1+ ω T 1+ ω T
−ωK
I m G ( jω ) =0 → =0 → ω=0∧ω=∞
1+ ω2 T 2
Hence + v e values of ω, the polar plot will intersect the real axis at ω = 0 and ω = ∞ for which
G ( jω )=K 0 , G ( jω )=0 90 0 respectively. The coordinates of the intersection on points A and 0 are K 90
and .
K
Re G ( jω )=0  =0 → ω=∞
1+ ω2 T 2
For positive value of frequencies the polar plot intersects the Imaginary axis at ω=∞ for which
. The coordinates of the intersection point is i.e. point 0(origin). Thus at origin the
polar plot, real axis and imaginary axis intersect each other.

G(jω) - plane

Aω=0
O K
 Increasing

10

(b) G ( jω )=K ¿ ¿

√
2 2
L t G( jω) = Lt K 1+ ω T 1 =K ; L t G ( jω )=L t tan−1 ω T −tan −1 ω T =0 0
ω→0
| |
ω→0 2 2
[ 1 a]
1+ ω T a

ω→∞
Lt
|G( jω) |=
Lt
ω →∞
K
√ 1+ω 2 T 21 K T 1
=
1+ω2 T 2a T a
; T 1 >T a ;

K ( 1+ jωT 1 ) (1− jωT a ) K (1+ ω2 T 1 T 2 ) jKω(T 1 −T a )

G ( j ∞ )= 2 2
= 2 2
+ 2 2
1+ω T a 1+ ω T a 1+ ω T a
Kω(T 1 −T a )
I m G ( jω ) =0 → =0 → ω=0∧ω=∞
1+ ω2 T 2a

For positive values of ω =0 and ω = ∞ for which respectively

K ( 1+ ω T 1 T a )
2
j
Real G ( jω )=0 → =0 →ω= Which implies the polar plot will never insect the
2 2
1+ ω T a √T 1 T a
imaginary axis?

I m G (j ω)

√ ω 2 T 1 T 21 ω
K 1+
1+ω 2 T 2a Increasing

Re G (j ω)
O K ∠0
0 KT1
∠ 00
T
A ta ω = ∞
At ω=O

E.g. 2 Sketch the polar for the following types of systems:

6
(a) Type ‘O’ system G ( s )=
( s +1 ) (s +2)
12
(b) Type ‘1’ system G ( s )=
s ( s+1 )(s+ 2)
12
(c) Type ‘2’ system G ( s )= 2
s ( s+1 ) (s+ 2)
6 6
G ( jω )= ¿=
(a) ( 1+ jω ) 2+ jω ¿ √( 1+ω ) (4 +ω 2)
2
 11

;
t t 
G ( j )   tan 1   tan 1  180
    2

Hence the limit pts at ω = 0,

At = ,

For positive values of frequencies the polar plot intersects the real axis at ω = 0

For positive values of frequencies the polar plot intersects the real axis at = for which

respectively
For positive values of frequencies the intersection points with imaginary axis at and for which

and

I m G (j ω)
G(jω)

O A
O O R e G (j ω)

at ω √ 2

(b)
 12

Hence coordinates of this points at limiting frequencies

For positive values of frequencies the intersection points on the real axis at and for which

real G (j ω) i.e. A & C respectively

−36 2 0
Real G ( jω )=0 ;∨ 2 2
+9 ω =0 ;∨ω=∞ at ω=∞ G ( jω )=0−270 at origin
( 2−ω )

-2
ω

(c)

Coordinates of the pts of limiting frequencies are

 13

Hence the plots intersects the real axis at ω = ∞ for which G (j ω) =0 Re G (j ω) =0

Re

For positive frequencies the plot intersects the imaginary axis at

Hence the plots intersects the real axis at ω=∞ for which G (j ω) = 0

Re
For positive frequencies the plot intersects the imaginary axis at and ω=∞ for which

(Refer Table 8.1 Page 253 Nagrath & Gopal for shapes of Polar Plots of different functions)
 14

2. Bode Plot Method

[Bode plot may be Magnitude & Phase angle v r s. Frequency plot of G (j ω) (Open loop transfer
function) or of (j ω) H (j ω) (Loop Transfer Function)].
The disadvantages of polar plots: (This may give information regarding) the absolute stability and
relative stability)
(1) The calculation of magnitude and phase for various values of ω was quite involved.
(2) Analytic evaluation of gain margin and phase margin is quite difficult because it requires the
solution of higher order algebraic equations. No doubt, gain margin and phase margin can be
calculated from the graphical plot, but this requires a reasonably exact plotting which itself is quite
laborious.
(3) Normally the polar plot is quite cramped near the high frequency end making it unclear for further
design studies etc.
To avoid these difficulties, Bode plots are very extensively used in control system.
Introduction
In this method of analysis and design of control systems, magnitude of the transfer function is
decibels and the phase angle is degree are plotted as a function of frequency. To cover a large frequency
range without cramping at either end, a semi log graph is normally used. Bode Plot is also called
Logarithmic plot /corner frequency plot/ Asymptotic plot.
Advantages of Bode Plot
(1) The function of multiplication and divisions become addition and subtraction and the work of
obtaining the transfer function is largely graphical instead,
(2) The basic factors of the transfer function fall into three categories, and these may be plotted easily
by one answer of straight line asymptotic approximations. The total approximate plot is sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes.
(3) Bode plots also provide a convenient reading for recording data for other plots.
(4) Gain margin and Phase Margin can be very conveniently noted from Bode diagrams.
(5) With the magnitude and phase curves being separately available the design of compensation
networks is very easily carried out with its help.
(6) Being very easy to draw, Bode plot is a convenient tool for hit and trial design.
(7) As it is relatively easy to plot magnitude versus frequencies and phase versus frequencies curves of
any system experimentally, Bode plot provides a handy tool for correlation between theoretical and
experimental studies on a system.
(8) Ø ω plots are the tangent curves of Ø tan –1 ω T for which various values can easily be obtained from
the table of tangents.
(9) The polar plot and magnitude v r s. Phase plot can easily be completed from the Bode plot. (same
as above)
(10) The frequency response of a system consists of two or more cascade elements, for which the
frequency response from Bode plots can be obtained by combining the Bode plots of individual
elements.

E. g:

Expressing the magnitude in decibels;

 15

Dealing the G (j ω) factor wise:

(1) Constant gain factor K

(2) Poles and zeros at origin i.e.

(3) Poles and zeros on the real axis i.e.

(4) Complex conjugate poles due to factor

(5) Complex conjugate zeros due to factor

Bode plots of these factors are described below:

(1) Constant factor K(gain): 20log K

40
Magnitude plot of K = 20
20
log k
M↑ 0
ω (in log scale)
¿ db -20
-40
180°
-90° Phase plot of K
∅ ↑ 0°
¿degree
-90°
-180°

(2) Poles and zero on the origin i. e due to the factor (j ω) N

Y= 20log
Y=m x (a s t. Line):
Y = magnitude of (j ω) N in db
m = slope of the s t line = d y /d x
x = log ω

Hence

Due to factor (i.e. pole at origin):

 This implies for a unit change of log ω i.e. ω be ten time and will correspond to -20 N db. Since the
change of ω by ten times or the unit change of log ω corresponds to change of ω from 1 to 10; 10 to 100;
100 to 1000 etc in logarithmic scale, the slope of straight line is 20 N db per decade of frequency.
 16

Where decade frequency is defined as Number of decades =

In other unit is octave i.e.

i. e. Number of octave =

60db/decade: (jω)3 40db/decade: (jω)2

20db/decade: (jω)

80

60
40

20

00
M↑
¿ db
0.10.1 0.11.0 0.110 0.1100 0.11000 0.110,0000
-20
-40

-60

1 1
1 -40db/decade: -20db/decade:
-60db/decade: ( jω )2 ( jω)
( jω )3

Number of octaves in one decade =

One decade = 0.301 0.3 octane:

Thus a slope of - 20N db /decade, corresponds to the slope of – 6 N db /octave i. e.

The phase angle of pole or zero at origin is independent of frequency; hence the phase angle plots are straight line of
zero slopes at – N90°
3. Pole and Zero on real axis due to factor

20 log using asymptotic approximation i.e. making ω T<1 and ω T>1 (i.e. at ω = 0
and ω = ∞) respectively the magnitudes at these limiting frequencies are:

i. e.
ωT >1 ; ∓20 log √1+ω T =¿ ∓ 20 log( ωT )¿
2 2
 17

Thus it is clear that for lower frequencies the magnitude plot is straight line of zero slope at zero db ordinate but at
higher frequencies the plot is straight line of 20db /decade slope. These two straight lines intersect at which:

i. e. = Bank frequency or corner frequency

−20 log √ 1+ ω T
2 2

Or a Pole Factor
−20 log √ 1+ ω2 T 2 In db

Magnitude Error in magnitude

with approx with approx

1 -0.041 db -5.7° 0 db 0.04db

One decade below ( ω ¿0.1
10 c -1.0db
1 -1.0 db -26.5° 0 db
One octave below ( ω c ¿ 0.50
2 0 db -3.0 db
At corner frequency (ω c ¿ 1.0 -3.0 db -45.0°
One octave above (2ω c ¿ 2.0 -7.0 db -63.4° -6.0 db -1.0 db

One decade above (10ω c ¿ 10.0 -20.04db

-7.0 db -84.0°
-63.4° -20.0 db -0.04 db

1
ωT = 1 or ω = = ω b or ω c
T
Similarly for conjugate zero a reverse curve will be the Bode Plot.

Similarly for zero on real axis all- v e values will be + v e values. From this table, the last column the error in
magnitude of is plotted as a function of frequency as shown in the fig. drawn in next page. This curve is
used to obtain the accurate magnitude bode plots from the appropriate plots which are shown in the Fig. drawn in
next page. This curve is used to obtain the accurate magnitude bode plots from the approximate plots which are
1
shown in the fig. The error curve is symmetrical w. r. t corner or Break frequency, is ω b= and have the following
T
properties:
(i) The error is -3db at break frequency (ω b)
(ii) The error is -1 db one octave above and below the break frequency i.e. at 2ωb and ωb/2
(iii) The error is -0.4 db one decade above and below the break frequency i.e. at 10ωb and ωb/10.

(4) Complex conjugate pole and zero due to factor

This can be written in terms of the second order system constants

[ ( )]
2 −1
j2 δω jω
Ex. Considering the pole: 1+ +
ωn ωn
Where δ and ωn are the damping ration and natural frequency of oscillations of the system. The magnitude in

|[ ( )] | |( ) | √( )( )
2 −1
j 2 δω jω ω2 j 2 δω ω2 2 δω 2
db, = 1+ + =20 log 1− 2 + =−20 log 1− 2 +
ωn ωn ωn ωn ωn ωn
ω ω
Using asymptotic approximations, i.e. assuming <1 and >1; -20log i.e. for ω=0 and ω=∞ respectively, the
ωn ωn
ω
magnitude at these limiting frequencies are: for ωn <1; -20 log =0
 18

√( )( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
ω ω 2 δω ω ω
For >1;−20 log 1− 2
+ =−40 log db ; 2 i . e .4th power of ω
ωn ωn ωn ωn ωn
It is clear that at lower frequency the magnitude plot is a straight line of zero slope at zero db ordinate while at
higher frequency the plot is also straight line of -40 db /decade slope. These straight lines interest at the point

where −40 log 1=0=−40 lot ( ωω )

n
i.e. ω = ω n = ω b

[ ( )]
( )
2 −1
j2 δω jω 2 δω
∅= 1+ + =−tan −1
ωn ωn ω
2
1− 2
ωn

ω
The asymptotic magnitude vs. plot is sketched below: in Fig. 4
ωn

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40 ω /ω n
0.1 1.0 10 100

E. g: Illustrative: (1) G ( s ) H (s)=¿ (Illustrative Example-1: Shown below

Solution:

i. e.

40

20
 19

1 10 = ω b

100
(
ω i. e .
ω ω
=
ω n 10 )
(A) Procedure for magnitude vs. Frequency plot.
(1) Determine the transfer function of the system.
(2) Substitute s=j ω in the transfer function of the system and obtain the frequency function of the
system and then factorize the numerator and the denominator.
(3) Plot for the constant gain for K.
(4) For poles /zeros at origin sketch the plots.
(5) For poles/zeros on the real axis, obtain the break frequencies and sketch the approximate
asymptotic plot. Using the error curve make the necessary correction to have
(6) For complete conjugate poles /zeros obtain the break frequency (i.e. ω = ω c = ω b) sketch the
approximate plots and using the error curves get the accurate plot.
(7) Obtain the complete magnitude plot for the system by adding graphically all the plots for
magnitude sketched above.
(B) Procedure for phase angle v s frequency plot:
(1) Sketch separately for k, (j ω)±N, (1+jωT)±1
(2) For each pole zero on the real axis plot the following points on the semi log graph paper Ø (ω) v s ω
plot is obtained by joining all the points with a smooth curve.
(i) Point for the phase angle of 0° at zero frequency.
(ii) Point for the phase angle of -45° (pole) at the break frequency +45° (zero)
(iii) Point for the phase angle of -26.6° (pole) / +26.6° (zero) at the frequency one octave below the
break frequency i.e. at ω b/2.
(iv) Point for the phase angle of -5.7° (pole) /5.7° (zero) at the frequency on decade below the
corner frequency i.e. at ω b/10.
(v) Point for the phase angle of -63.4° (pole) /+63.4° (zero) at the frequency one octave above the
break frequency i.e. at 2ωb.
(vi) Point for the phase angle of -84.3° (pole) /+84.3° (zero) at the frequency one decade above the
break frequency i.e. at 10ωb.
(vii) Point for the phase angle of -90° (pole) /+90° (zero) at infinite frequency.
(3) For each complex conjugate pole/zero, Calculate and plot the phase angle at various frequencies
and join these points by smooth curve to obtain the phase angle bode plot.
(4) However Ø (ω) v s ω plot to be accurate plot but not approximate plot. At different frequencies
angles of all factors are added algebraically and total angle point to be determined and finally these
points to be joined to gate Ø (ω) plot.
 20

Example 1:
( 1+100 s ) (1+ s)
G ( s )=
( 1+ 10 s )(1+ 0.1 s)
Get the Magnitude Bade Plot
Factors

(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)
 21

32(1+0.5 s)
E. g: 2 G ( s ) H (s)=
s ( 1+0.1 s ) (1+ 0.2 s)
32(1+0.5 jω)
G ( jω ) H ( jω )= ;ω =1, 2, 5, 10 & k = 32, 20log 32
jω ( 1+0.1 jω ) (1+0.2 jω) c
22
 23

C. Relative Stability:
Quantitatively, the distance between the GH – plot and the (-1, j0) point gives measure of the relative
stability of the closed loop system. More specifically, the Gain Margin and the Phase Margin have been
generally used to specify the degree of relative stability of a control system.
Gain Margin and Phase Margin:
J v = Im GH ( jω)

α
0
−180
(−1+ jo) o
φ U = Re GH ( jω)

Fig: 1 A typical GH ( jω) plot (Nyquist / polar plot)

Definition: Gain Margin is the factor by which the system gain can be increased to drive it to the verge of

instability. In Fig. 1 it is seen that at ω = ω2 the phase angle is 180° and the Magnitude

. If the gain of the system is increased by a factor then at becomes 1

And hence the GH (j ω) plot will pass through the critical point (-1 + j0), driving the system to
the verge of instability. Therefore, the gain margin, GM may be defined as the reciprocal of the gain at the
frequency at which the phase angle becomes 180°. The frequency at which the phase angle is 180° is called

the phase cross over frequency with reference to Fig. 1 . In decibels,

GM = -20 log (α ) db-formula for GM.
Since α is less than 1 for stable systems, log α is negative and hence GM is db is positive.
The frequency at which,|GH ( jω)|=1 , is called the gain crossover frequency. It is given b the
intersection of the GH (j ω) – plot and a unit circle centre at the origin as shown in Fig. 1. At this frequency

is equal to (180+Ø). If an additional phase log (means –v e) equal to Ø is introduced at the

gain cross over frequency, the will become - 180°, while the magnitude remains unity. The GH (jω)
plot will then pass through the critical point driving the system to the verge of instability. This additional
phase leg Ø is known as the phase Margin (P.M). The Phase Margin is thus defined as the amount of
additional phase leg at the gain cross over frequency required to bring the system’ to the verge (or point)
of instability. In Fig. 1, it is shown that the P.M is measured positive in counter clock wise direction from the
–v e real axis. The P.M like G.M is always positive for stable feedback systems.
P. M i.e. ∅=GH ( jω ) +180 - Formula for P.M.

Where the angle at , the gain crossover frequency is measured negatively.

 24

For any stable system P.M should be positive. A large G. M or large P.M indicates a very stable feedback
system but usually a very sluggish one. Usually a G. M of about 6db or a P.M of about 30° results in a
reasonably good degree of relative stability. It may however be observed that occasionally a good G. M
may not imply a good P.M and vice versa.

In Fig. 1(a), the critical point (-1 + j0) is encircled if when °, and . In terms of Bode

Plot curves, this means that the critical point (-1 +j0) is encircled if when
;

. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 2(a)

|GH ( jω)|>1 Gain Crossover

| |
Gain Crossover
GH ( jω) ↑ 0 Log ω.

¿ db
| |
Log ω.
GH ( jω) 0
↑
¿ db
The G. M. i. e
(GHjω)<0

Log ω.
-180
|
GH ( jω) ↑
¿ db | -Ve P.M.
-Ve P.M. |
GH ( jω)
¿ db |
-180
↑
Log ω.

Phase Crossover
+Ve P.M.
Phase Crossover

Fig. 2(a) Unstable System Fig. 2 (b) Stable System

In Fig. 2(a), encirclement is likewise implied by < - 180° when . This corresponds to

( - 180° and GH(j)ω on the Bode plot. The result will be an unstable system i.e. P.M is –ve.
Now let us consider a case where the frequency response GH (jω) does not encircle the (-1 + j0)

point in the GH (jω) – plane. This happens when , and also when

, . This corresponds on the Bode Plot, to ,

, and , respectively, the system is stable and depicted in Fig. 2(b).

The gain margin and phase margin are indicated for a stable system shown in Fig. 1(b) and in Bode
Plot Diagram of Fig. 2(b). It is to be noted that a G. M>1 [GH – Pane (Polar Plot)]. Corresponds to a GM>0db
[Bode Plot} refers to a stable system. Similarly P.M is also +ve for a stable system.
Note: G.M is Negative of the Gain at the phase cross over frequency i.e. the frequency where the
Phase of G H (j ω) is -180°. Similarly P.M is P.M is 180° less that the phase angle at the gain crossover
frequency i.e. where the gain is 0 db 180° less than the phase angle at the gain crossover frequency i.e.
where the gain is 0 db.
It should be noted that a positive GM couple with a negative PM (and vice versa) is impossible.
Stability Criteria from Crossover Frequencies:
if gain crossover frequency is less than the phase crossover frequency, the system is stable. And if the
phase crossover frequency is less that the gain crossover frequency the system is Unstable.
Important use of Bode Diagram:
 25

Gain Parameter adjustment: Log magnitude and phase shift curves are first plotted for k = 1. Then for any
other value of K(+ve), the phase plot is unaltered and only the magnitude curve has to be shifted upward or
down –wards by 20log K db.
(1) Phase Margin: This is equal to Ø m = 180° + angle of GH (j ω) at the gain crossover frequency point. It is
designated as the angle Ø m = 180° + Ø.
(2) Gain Margin: This is the additional gain A that just makes the system unstable, expressed in terms of
the transfer function at the frequency (ω c) is ⎸GH (j ω c) ⎸α = 1 i.e. for stale system the G. M. will come
below the zero db line.
(3) Gain Crossover: This is the point on the plot of the G H (j ω) at which the magnitude is ⎸GH (j ω )⎸
= 0 db. The frequency at gain crossover is called the gain crossover frequency ω c
(4) Phase Crossover: This is the point on the plot of the G H (j ω) at which the phase angle is -180°. The
frequency at which phase crossover occurs is called the phase crossover frequency ω c
Illustrative Example (2): Adjustment of G. M. and P. M. (Plots shown below)

Example 3: Determine the Gain Margin of Unity feedback system having an open loop frequency
function
10
G ( jω )= Using Bade Plots.
jω ( 0.1 jω+1 ) (0.05 jω+1)
Also find the open loop gain for (i) a G. M. of 20db and (ii) a P. M. of 30°
Solution: Bode Plot shown in page 25.
26
 27

4. Nyquist Plot: (Nyquist Stability Criterion)

Introduction: This relates the location of the roots of the Ch. Eqn. to the open – loop frequency response of the
system.
Unlike the root locus technique, computation of closed loop poles is not required but the stability study can be
carried out graphically from the open-loop frequency response. Hence experimentally / graphically determined open-
loop frequency response can be used direct by for the study of stability when the feedback is closed.

Features: If possesses the following features:

(1) It provides the same amount of information on the absolute stability of a feedback system as the Routh Hurwitz
criterion.
(2) It also indicates the degree of stability of a stable system and gives information on how the system stability
may be improved, if necessary
(3) The Nyquist locus gives information concerning the frequency response of the system.

The Nyquist stability criterion is based on a theorem of complex variable due Cauchy,
commonly known as “Principle of Argument”.

Introduction:

R (s) + E (s) G (s) C (s)

-

H (s)

C( s) G(s) Zero factors

=M ( s ) closed−loop Transfer Function= = of closed loop
R( s) 1+G ( s ) H ( s ) Pole Factors

Let F ( s ) =g ( s )=1+G ( s ) H ( s )=( s+ z 1 ) ¿ ¿

The zeros of F(s) are at –z1, -z2 ⋯ ⋯- z m = are the roots of Ch. Eqn.
= closed Loop Poles
C( s) G(s)
= Poles of M (s) = =
R( s) F( s)
For a stable closed loop system, none of these Ch. Roots has a positive real part. But no particular
restriction on the location of the poles of F (s), which are at s = 0, -p 1, -p2 ⋯ ⋯ -p n = these are open loop
poles.

Note:- The poles of F (s) are the same as these of G (s) H (s). If one of the poles of G (s) H (s) lies in the right half of
the s-plane, the open-loop system is unstable; however, the closed-loop system can still be stable if all the zeros of
F(s) are found in the left half of s-plane.

That is why, to reduce the steady state error of the systems high forward gain is provided but there
by inner loop system becomes unstable – But by providing proper design the entire closed loop sytem is
made stable.
Identification of Poles and Zeros:
(a) The loop gain (i. e. G (s) H(s)) zeros = the zeros of G (s) H (s)
(b) The poles of G (s) H (s) = the poles of F (s) (i. e. 1+ G (s) H (s)

(c) (
The closed-loop i . e .
C (s )
R (s) )
Poles = the zeros of F(s) (i. e. 1+ G (s) H (s) i.e. the denominator of
C(s)
R(s)
 28

= The roots of Ch. Eqn.

Comments:- For a stable feedback control system, there is no restriction on the location of the poles and
zeros of the loop-gain function (i. e. G(s) H(s)) but the closed loop poles (i. e. the poles of G(s) / R(s) = Zeros
of F (s)) must all be located in the left help of the s-plane i.e. the zeros of F(s).
C( s)
Note:- It is difficult to identify or determine the zeros of F(s) i.e. the poles of by factorization. Hence
R( s)
indirect way it is ascertained whether the zeros of F(s) are lieing in the right hand side of s-plane. Nyquist
C( s)
criterion based on Principle of Argument helps in determining the no of zeros of F(s) or the poles of .
R( s)
The Principle of Argument:-
The Nyquist criterion was originated from the principle of argument in complex variable theories.
Let F(s) be a single valued rational function which is analytic everywhere in a specified region except
at a finite number of point in the s-plane
let s be a complex variable i.e. s = i. e. σ + jω on the complex s-plane. Then the function F(s) is also
complex (being a dependent variable) and may be defined as F(s) = u + J u and represented on the complex
F(s) plan with coordinates is and U.
Eqn.1. Indicates that for every point s in the s-plane at which F(s) or g(s) is analytic (F(s) is analytic in the s-
plane provided the function F(s) and all its derivates exists.) (The points in the s-plane where the function
(Or its derivatives) does not exists are called singular points.
The poles of a function are singular points. We can find a corresponding point F(s) in the F(s) –
plane. Alternatively, it can be stated that the function F(s) maps the points in the s-plane in to the F(s) –
plane.
Since any number of points of analyticity in the s-plane, can be mapped into the F(s)-plane, it
follows that for a contour in the s-plane which does not go through any singular point, there corresponds a
contour in the F(s) – plane as shown below.
s-Plane I m (j u)
Jω F(s1) F(s)-Plane
s1 s2 F (s1)

s3

F (s3)
s

Fig: (a). Arbitrary chosen s-plane locus Fig: (b). Corresponding F(s) locos
(It is a continuous closed path (It is also continuous closed path)

It corresponding to the points, in the s-plane, a point F(s) located in the F-plane, as the locus, the
corresponding Plane, as the locus in traced starting from the point s 1 in clockwise direction (arbitrarily
chosen) and then returning to s 1 after going through all the points on the locus, the corresponding
locus will start from the point F (s 1) and go through the points F(s2), F(s3) . . . . . and back to the starting
point F(s1). The direction of traverse of may be either clockwise or counter clockwise depending on the
particular function.
29
30
31
32
 33

Example 1: Draw the Nyquist plot and assess the stability of the closed-loop system whose open-loop
s+ 4
transfer function is G ( s ) H ( s )=
( s+1 ) ( s−1 )
We observe that there is one open-loop pole i.e. s=1 in the right half of s-plane implies open loop
→

unstable. Let us investigate the closed-loop stability.

N = Z – P where P = 1
−(4+ jω) −( √ 16+ω )
2
( j ω+ 4 )
The frequency function G (j ω) H (j ω) = = =
( jω+1 )( jω−1 ) 1+ ω
2
1+ω
2

Let us have the Nyquist−Plot =

→
−4
1+ω 2
−j
ω
1+ ω 2
; φ=tan
−1 ω
4 (+ −tan −1
ω
−1
−tan −1
ω
1 )
Nyquist Path/contour
Section I : + j 0 ¿ lim ∣ GH ∣=0 , θ=−900 (−90+90−90=−90 )
¿ ω→ j ∞
lim ∣GH ∣ 0
=−4 , 0
ω→ j 0

Section – II – j 0 ¿ lim ∣GH ∣=−4 ; θ=00

¿ ω→ j 0

lim ∣GH ∣=−4 ; j 0=+ 900

ω →− j 0
Section – III
lim ∣GH ∣ 0
S = -j0 to -j∞ =−4 ; j 0=+ 90
ω →− j 0

lim ∣GH ∣ 0
=−0 ; j0=+90
ω →− j ∞
Section – IV
lim ∣GH ∣ =−0 ; j0=+90 0
S= -j∞ to j∞
ω →− j ∞

lim ∣GH ∣ 0
=−0 ;− j 0=−90
ω →− j ∞

− jω ¿−4=−4
Inter section of with Real axis: =0 → ω=0=¿ . Part =0 , ω Real Part /
1+ ω2
ω=0

−4 − jω
Inter section with in 2
=0 → ω=∞=Real Part=0 ,∈ part ω=∞= 2
=0
1+ ω 1+ω
 34

Im. GH Plane
−¿¿
ω=0 4 +90 ω=−∞
-4+j0 0 −0+ j
90 Re.

0 0
ω=−∞ 90 90 ω=+∞
 35

−0+ j −0+ j

N = √ GH (i.e. the Nyquist Plot) encircles (-1 +j0) point once = in the clockwise direction which is taken to
be -1
P = Z – P P is in anticlockwise direction so P = +1
-1 = Z – (+1) ∴ Z = 1 – 1 = 0
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
 44

VOL-3: K3
Close loop frequency response:

Frequency Domain Specifications

1. Resonant peak Mr: This is the maximum values of M, the magnitude of closed loop frequency
response.
2. Resonant frequency, ωr: This is the frequency at which the resonant peak Mr occurs;
3. Bandwidth, ωb: It is the range of frequencies for which the system gain is more than -3db.
4. Cut – off rate: It is the slope of the log – magnitude cure near the cut off frequency.
5. Cut – off Frequency ωc: The frequency at which the log – magnitude or gain is – 3db.
6. G. M. of P. M. (definitions) ar given vol-3- K2
1. Construction of constant M and constant N Circles:
45
46
47
48
49
50
 51

The M and N circles of G (j ω) in the gain – phase plane are transformed into M and N contours in
rectangular coordinates. A point on the constant M Locus in G (j ω) – plane is transferred to the gain-phase
plane by drawing the vector directed from the origin of G (j ω) plane to the particular point on the M circle
and then measuring the length, angle in db and degrees respectively. These values of length and angles are
the coordinates of the corresponding point in the gain-phase plane as shown in Fig (b). The critical point in
G (j ω) plane corresponds to the point of zero db and -188 in the gain phase plane. Plots of M and N circles
in gain-phase plane are known as Nichol’s Chart Fig. (b).
Constant M and N circles in the Nichol’s chart are deformed into squashed circles. The complete
Nichol’s chart extends for the phase angle of G (j ω) from 0 to -368 but the region of 𝜱 (ω) generally used
for analysis of system is between – 900 and -2700. These curves repeat after every 1800 internal.
C( jω)
E g: Using Nichol’s chart obtain the gain-phase plot for the closed loop frequency function of
R ( jω )
20
the unity feedback system having open loop transfer function G(s)=
s ( s+ 2 ) (s +5)
2
S l n. G ( jω )= =M (ω) 𝜱(ω)
jω ( 1+ 0.2 jω )( 1+0.5 jω )

2
Where M ( ω )=
ω √( 1+0.04 ω2 ) ¿ ¿ ¿

I m. (jω )
G (jω )
M=1.5 M In db
G3
M=3
M2 G2
G4 o 𝜱
indegree
𝜱1
𝜱3 Re. G (jω ) 𝜱2
𝜱4
𝜱2
Critical Point 𝜱3 𝜱4
(-1, 0)Critical point
Fig (a) (Polar-coordinates) -2700-9- (-1, 0)Critical point 900
(Polar-Plot)
Fig (b) (Rectangular coordinates)
-1800
Example 1 (7.26) Using Nicholas chart obtain the gain phase plot for the closed loop
C( jω)
frequency function R( jω) of the unity feedback system having open loop transfer function
2u
G ( s )=
s ( s+ 2 )(s +5)
Solution For the given system
20 2
G ( s )= = .. (7.233)
s ( s+ 2 )( s +5) s ( 1+ 0.5 s ) (1+0.2 s)
Substituting s = jω in Eq. (7.233)
2
G ( jω )= =M (ω)/φ(ω) .... (7.234)
( jω ) ( 1+ 0.5 jω ) (1+ 0.2 jω)
 52

Where

M (ω)=M=
2
ω √( 1+ 0.25 ω ) (1+04 ¿ ω )¿
2 2
2 −1
φ ( ω )=φ=−90−tan 0.5 ω−tan 0.2 ω
} ....

(7.235)

From Eq.(7.235) the values of M and 𝜱 from for various frequencies are tabulated in
Table 7.15. From these values the gain phase plot of the open frequency function G (jω) is
sketched in the Nicholas chart of Fig. 7.68.
A table is prepared for magnitude is db angle in degrees for the G (j ω).
(Open loop data) Table 7.15 (of verma page 467)

ω in rad. / sec M in db = mega of G(j ω) 𝜱 in degrees

0.2 +20 -99.80
0.3 +16 -103.0
0.5 +11.8 -1100.0
1.0 +4.2 -120.20
1.5 0 -145.00
2.0 -4.0 -157.00
3.0 -10.0 -177.00
4.0 -16.0 -195.00

From than table 7.15, the gain phase plot of the open loop frequency function G (j ω) is sketched in the
Nichol’s chart (Fig. 7.68 (of verma Page 467)) as shown in the next page 7.
 53

A table is prepared for magnitude is db angle in degrees for the G (j ω).

(Open loop data) Table 7.15 (of verma page 467)

M in db = mega of G(j ω) 𝜱 in degrees From than table 7.15, the gain

Win rad / sec phase plot of the open loop
0.2 +20 -99.8 0
frequency function G (j ω) is
0.3 +16 -103.0 sketched in the Nichol’s chart
0.5 +11.8 0
-110 .0 (Fig. 7.68 (of verma Page 467))
1.0 +4.2 -120.2 0
as shown in the next page 7.
0
1.5 0 -145.0
2.0 -4.0 -157.00
3.0 -10.0 -177.00
4.0 -16.0 -195.00
From the intersection points of constant M circles with the magnitude phase plot of G (j ω) in the
Nichol’s chart of Fig. 7.68 the closed loop frequency response date are tabulated in Table 7.16, shown in
page 7. From the table the closed loop frequency response of the system is plotted in the Magnitude the
plane as shown in Fig. 7.69 of page 7. From this magnitude phase to phage plot, the gain margin and phase
margin of the system are 8 db and 30 degrees respectively.
 54

Table 7.16(closed loop data)

M in dp 𝜱 in degree

0.25 -15.0
0.50 -18.0
9.70 -27.0
1.0 -30.0
1.4 -41.0
2.0 -50.0
2.3 -60.0
3.0 -68.0
2.0 -128.0
0.0 -150.0
-2.0 -159.0
-8.0 -180.0
-12.0 -190.0
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MAGNITUDE IN db

Fig: 7.69. Closed Loop frequency response: