UNIT IV

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
ANALYSIS
 Bode Plot
• Bode plot is usually a combination of a Bode
magnitude plot and Bode phase plot.
• A Bode magnitude plot is a graph of log magnitude
(y) versus log frequency (x), to show the frequency
response of a linear, time-invariant system.
• A Bode phase plot is a graph of phase versus log
frequency usually used in conjunction with the
magnitude plot, to evaluate how much a frequency
will be phase-shifted.
 Poles and Zeros and Transfer Functions
Transfer Function: A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output to the input with all initial
conditions equal to zero. Transfer functions are defined
only for linear time invariant systems.

Considerations: Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio

of two polynomials in the complex variable, s.

Factorization: A transfer function can be factored into the following form.

K ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) ... ( s  z m )
G (s) 
( s  p1 )( s  p2 ) ... ( s  pn )

The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.

 Poles, Zeros and the S-Plane
An Example: You are given the following transfer function. Show the
poles and zeros in the s-plane.
 s  s 
112 * 1  1  
( s  8)( s  14)  8  14 
G (s)  
s ( s  4)( s  10)  s  s 
40 * s1  1  
 4  10  j axis
 s  s 
2.8 * 1  1  
 8  14 
G (s)  S - plane
 s  s 
s1  1  
 4  10 
origin
o x o x x
-14 -10 -8 -4 0  axis

.
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Characterization: Considering the transfer function of the

previous slide. We note that we have 4 different
types of terms in the previous general form:
These are:
1 1
K , , , ( s / z  1)
s ( s / p  1)
B

Expressing in dB: Given the tranfer function:

K ( jw / z 1)
G ( jw)  B

( jw)( jw / p 1)

20 log | G ( jw |  20 log K  20 log | ( jw / z  1) | 20 log | jw | 20 log | jw / p  1 |

B
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: We have 4 distinct terms to consider:

20logKB

20log|(jw/z +1)|

-20log|jw|

-20log|(jw/p + 1)|

wlg
 1 1 1 1 1 1

This is a sheet of 5 cycle, semi-log paper.

This is the type of paper usually used for
preparing Bode plots.

dB Mag
Phase
(deg)

 (rad/sec)
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The gain term, 20logKB, is just so many

dB and this is a straight line on Bode paper,
independent of omega (radian frequency).

The term, - 20log|jw| = - 20logw, when plotted

on semi-log paper is a straight line sloping at
-20dB/decade. It has a magnitude of 0 at w = 1.

20
-20db/dec

-20

=1
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The term, - 20log|(jw/p + 1), is drawn with the

following approximation: If w < p we use the
approximation that –20log|(jw/p + 1 )| = 0 dB,
a flat line on the Bode. If w > p we use the
approximation of –20log(w/p), which slopes at
-20dB/dec starting at w = p. Illustrated below.
It is easy to show that the plot has an error of
-3dB at w = p and – 1 dB at w = p/2 and w = 2p.
One can easily make these corrections if it is
appropriate.

20

0
-20db/dec
-20

-40

 =p .
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots
Mechanics: When we have a term of 20log|(jw/z + 1)| we
approximate it be a straight line of slop 0 dB/dec
when w < z. We approximate it as 20log(w/z)
when w > z, which is a straight line on Bode paper
with a slope of + 20dB/dec. Illustrated below.

20
+20db/dec
0

-20

-40

=z

.
Example 1:

Given: 50, 000( jw  10)

G ( jw) 
( jw  1)( jw  500)

First: Always, always, always get the poles and zeros in a form such that
the constants are associated with the jw terms. In the above example
we do this by factoring out the 10 in the numerator and the 500 in the
denominator.

50, 000 x10( jw /10  1) 100( jw /10  1)

G ( jw)  
500( jw  1)( jw / 500  1) ( jw  1)( jw / 500  1)

Second: When you have neither poles nor zeros at 0, start the Bode
at 20log10K = 20log10100 = 40 dB in this case.
Example 1: (continued)

Third: Observe the order in which the poles and zeros occur.
This is the secret of being able to quickly sketch the Bode.
In this example we first have a pole occurring at 1 which
causes the Bode to break at 1 and slope – 20 dB/dec.
Next, we see a zero occurs at 10 and this causes a
slope of +20 dB/dec which cancels out the – 20 dB/dec,
resulting in a flat line ( 0 db/dec). Finally, we have a
pole that occurs at w = 500 which causes the Bode
to slope down at – 20 dB/dec.

We are now ready to draw the Bode.

Before we draw the Bode we should observe the range

over which the transfer function has active poles and zeros.
This determines the scale we pick for the w (rad/sec)
at the bottom of the Bode.

The dB scale depends on the magnitude of the plot and

experience is the best teacher here.
 Bode Plot Magnitude for 100(1 + jw/10)/(1 + jw/1)(1 + jw/500)

1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

0
dB Mag

-20

-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

 (rad/sec)
 Phase for Bode Plots
Comment: Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw
or approximate as the magnitude. In this course we will use
an analytical method for determining the phase if we want to
make a sketch of the phase.

Illustration: Consider the transfer function of the previous

example.
We express the angle as follows:
G ( jw)  tan ( w / 10)  tan ( w / 1)  tan ( w / 500)
1 1 1

We are essentially taking the angle of each pole and zero.

Each of these are expressed as the tan-1(j part/real part)

Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine

a good idea of what is happening to the phase.

.
 Bode Plots
Example 2: Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
100(1  s / 10)
G ( s) 
s (1  s / 100)
2

Consider first only the two terms of

100
jw

Which, when expressed in dB, are; 20log100 – 20 logw.

This is plotted below.

The is
40
-20db/dec a tentative line we use
dB 20 until we encounter the
first pole(s) or zero(s)
0
not at the origin.
-20

.
1  (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 2: (continued) The completed plot is shown below.
100(1  s / 10)
G ( s) 
s (1  s / 100)
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
60

-20db/dec
40

20

dB Mag -40 db/dec Phase (deg)

0

-20

100(1  s / 10)
G ( s) 
-40 s (1  s / 100)
2

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 3:
80(1  jw)3
Given: G( s)  20log80 = 38 dB
( jw)3 (1  jw / 20) 2
1 1 1 1 1 1

-60 dB/dec

60

dB Mag 40

-40 dB/dec
20

-20 .

0.1 1 10 100
 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 4:
10(1  jw / 2)
Given: G ( jw) 
(1  j 0.025w)(1  jw / 500) 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

+ 20 dB/dec
20 -40 dB/dec

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-20 Sort of a low

pass filter
-40

-60
2
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Given:
(1  jw / 30) (1 jw / 100)
2 2

G ( jw) 
(1 jw / 2) (1 jw / 1700)
2 2

Example 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-40 dB/dec
-20 Sort of a low
pass filter
+ 40 dB/dec
-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Given: problem 11.15 text

640( jw  1)(0.01 jw  1) 64( jw  1)(0.01 jw  1)

Example 6 H ( jw)  
( jw) ( jw  10)
2
( jw) (0.1 jw  1)
2

.
-40dB/dec

40 . -20db/dec

20
.
-40dB/dec
dB mag 0

-20 . -20dB/dec

-40 .

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

 Bode Plots

Design Problem: Design a G(s) that has the following Bode plot.

Example 7

40
30 dB

20
+40 dB/dec -40dB/dec

0
dB mag
? ?

30 900
0.1 1 10 100 1000
 rad/sec
 Bode Plots
Procedure: The two break frequencies need to be found.
Recall:
#dec = log10[w2/w1]
Then we have:

(#dec)( 40dB/dec) = 30 dB

log10[w1/30] = 0.75 w1 = 5.33 rad/sec

Also:

log10[w2/900] (-40dB/dec) = - 30dB

This gives w2 = 5060 rad/sec

.
 Bode Plots
Procedure:

(1  s / 5.3) 2 (1  s / 5060) 2
G(s) 
(1  s / 30)2 (1  s / 900) 2
Clearing:
( s  5.3)2 ( s  5060) 2
G( s) 
( s  30) 2 ( s  900) 2

Use Matlab and conv:

N 1  ( s 2  10.6s  28.1) N 2  ( s 2  10120s  2.56 xe 7 )

N1 = [1 10.6 28.1] N2 = [1 10120 2.56e+7]
N = conv(N1,N2)
1 1.86e+3 2.58e+7 2.73e+8 7.222e+8

s4 s3 s2 s1 s0

.
 Bode Plots
Procedure: The final G(s) is given by;

( s  10130.6 s  2.571e s  2.716e s  7.194e )

4 3 8 2 8 8

G(s) 
( s  1860 s  9.189e s  5.022e s  7.29e )
4 3 2 2 7 8

Testing: We now want to test the filter. We will check it at  = 5.3 rad/sec
And  = 164. At  = 5.3 the filter has a gain of 6 dB or about 2.
At  = 164 the filter has a gain of 30 dB or about 31.6.

We will check this out using MATLAB and particularly, Simulink.

 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 8 (Assume a minimum phase system)

Not to scale
68

20 db/dec

-20 db/dec
30

20
db/dec
dB

1 110 850

 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 9 (Assume a minimum phase system)

100 dB
-40 dB/dec

Not to scale
50 dB
-20 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec

10 dB
-40 dB/dec

0.5 40 300
w (rad/sec)
Appendix
Semilog paper
 1 1 1 1 1 1

dB Mag
P
(
 Nyquist Plot
• A Nyquist plot is used in automatic control and
signal processing for assessing the stability of a
system with feedback.
• It is represented by a graph in polar coordinates
in which the gain and phase of a frequency
response are plotted.
• Feedback is a circular causal process whereby
some proportion of a system's output is
returned (fed back) to the input. This is often
used to control the dynamic behavior of the
system.
 Nyquist Plot (cont)
• Nyquist plots are used to detect the likelihood that
a metal will get corrosion.
• An important aspect in determining this is the Rp
(polarization resistance) factor.
• It can be calculated as follows:
Rp = ΔE / ΔI, where:
ΔE = polarization from corrosion potential
ΔI = polarization current
 Rp Factor
• The higher the Rp factor, the higher the corrosion
resistance.
Typical Nyquist Plot for an Excellent Coating Nyquis Plot for a Damaged Coating
Typical Bode Plot for an Excellent Coating Bode Plot for a Damaged Coating

**Thick, high quality coatings characteristically have almost infinite resistance and very low capacitance. **
 Nyquist Plots Today
• Nyquist and related plots are classic
methods of assessing stability, but have been
supplemented or supplanted by computer-
based mathematical tools in recent years.
• Still, such plots remain a convenient method
for an engineer to get an intuitive feel of
how a metal will react to a corrosive
environment.