Amphibians Reproduction

Amphibians play roles as keystone species in their environments; model

systems for molecular, developmental, and evolutionary biology; and
environmental sensors of the manifold habitats where they reside. The
worldwide decline in amphibian numbers and the increase in threatened
species have generated demand for the development of a suite of
reproduction technologies for these animals. The reproduction of
amphibians in captivity is often unsuccessful, mainly due to difficulty in
spawning and low survival rates from egg to early juvenile. Even recently
collected amphibians are often surprisingly difficult to reproduce in
captivity, including animals in apparently good condition. Nevertheless,
technologies for the reproduction of amphibians in captivity are developing
rapidly, and particular techniques for sperm cryopreservation and for the
induction of ovulation are undergoing improvement. The reproductive
mechanisms of amphibians are as varied as their phylogeny, microhabitats,
and life histories. The diversity of reproductive modes in the Amphibian
rivals that of fishes, a vertebrate class with approximately four times as
many species. Overall the frequency of reproduction, number and size of
oocytes, type of fertilization, stage of development at hatching, and
placement of eggs are highly variable. For instance, most caecilians and
salamanders spawn annually, although some spawn biannually or
intermittently. Before attempting to breed amphibians, and particularly in
the case of hormonal induction of ovulation, it is essential to confirm that
females are of breeding age and in good condition. The age of sexual
maturity in amphibians is generally lower in males than in females. Males
of some species regularly mature in less than 4 months whereas females
often first spawn in their second year to maximize reproductive investment
during risky spawning activity, when predation rates are particularly high
However, precocious juveniles of the spotted marsh frog (Lymnodynastis
tasmaniensis) may even reproduce when they are 40 to 80 days old In
Xenopus tropicalis , a standard laboratory model species, females mature at
6 months and are 65 mm in length. In most amphibians, egg numbers
increase with female weight. Xenopus spp. Peak in reproductive capability
at 80 to 104 mm and can lay four clutches totaling 20,000 eggs a year.
Reproductive success for amphibians requires spermiation, ovulation,
oviposition, fertilization, embryonic development, and metamorphosis are
accomplished.