Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Explain the mechanisms of reproduction that ensure the continuity of a species,

by analysing sexual and asexual methods of reproduction in a variety of
organisms, including but not limited to:
– animals: advantages of external and internal fertilisation
– plants: asexual and sexual reproduction
– fungi: budding, spores
– bacteria: binary fission
– protists: binary fission, budding
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the production of identical offspring from just
one parent.
Asexual reproduction produces new individuals by mitosis, a process of
nuclear division in which each daughter cell receives an identical copy of
every chromosome of the parent cell.
The offspring are therefore clones – individuals that are genetically
identical, unless genetic mutations occur.
Characteristics of asexual reproduction:
all new individuals are genetically identical to parent individuals
another individual (mate) is not required.

Asexual reproduction:
• occurs in unicellular organisms, fungi, plants and animals
• results in large numbers of new individuals being produced relatively quickly
• is an advantage in an unchanging environment when individuals are adapted
to their environment
• results in a lack of genetic variation in a population (individuals are
genetically identical to parents). If conditions become unfavourable, then all
individuals are vulnerable and could die, leading to extinction of the population.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction involves the mixing of genetic information from
two parents. Usually this involves the union of male and female gametes
(sperm and egg) to form a unique individual.
Most multicellular organisms, including humans, reproduce sexually.
Gametes are formed by the process of cell division called meiosis.
The reproductive systems of complex multicellular organisms such as
flowering plants and mammals feature specialised structures in which
haploid gametes are produced.
Characteristics of sexual reproduction:
unique genetic combinations are produced by the random assortment of
chromosomes during meiosis
fusion of haploid gametes during fertilisation produces a diploid zygote.
genetically unique individuals are formed from the genetic contribution of
two parents.
Haploid: having one set of chromosomes (ln).
Diploid: having two sets of chromosomes (2n).
Advantages and Disadvantages
The considerable benefit of sexual reproduction is evident from its
widespread occurrence in almost all eukaryotic organisms. The primary
advantage of meiosis and sexual reproduction is the generation of genetic
variation, which provides a survival advantage to a species in changing
environmental conditions.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
the need to find a mate
it requires more energy
it may be limited to certain times of the year (seasonal dependence).
Sexual reproduction in animals
Sexual reproduction is a mechanism that has evolved to ensure continuity of
species. In animals, a number of sexual reproductive strategies ensure that
reproduction occurs effectively in the environment in which an organism
lives.
Most animals are unisexual – there are separate male and female individuals.
However, a small range of animals are bisexual or hermaphrodites, where
each individual has both male and female reproductive organs.
Other reproductive strategies include the type of fertilisation (internal or
external), the number of gametes produced, the timing of gamete release,
where the young develop (outside or inside the body) and the nature of
parental care.
External and internal fertilisation

-
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the process by which the male and female gametes fuse to
form a diploid zygote.
Conditions needed for fertilisation:
Both male and female gametes need to be produced and ready at same time
Arrangements are required to bring the gametes in contact with each other
Water needs to be present to prevent the gametes drying out and allow the
male gametes (sperm) to swim to the female gamete (ova).
External Fertilisation
 Fertilisation takes place outside the body
 Most aquatic animals carry out external fertilisation as the water
environment allows the union of gametes to occur without
dehydration. Amphibians return to the water to reproduce.
 Male and female gametes are released into the water in the hope of
fertilisation
 To ensure fertilisation, millions of gametes are released
 The chances of fertilisation are increased because of:
- Cyclical reproductive behaviours triggered mostly by
environmental stimulus such as phases of the moon, changing water
levels, warmer water and abundance of food
- Synchronised timing of gamete production and release
- mating rituals (most amphibians) to ensure sperm and eggs are
released in very close proximity
Examples of external fertilisation
 External fertilisation
Advantages Disadvantages
Do not need to look for a partner Wastage of gametes
Massive release of gametes increases Gametes at high risk of predation
chances of successful fertilisation Fertilised eggs may be carried
Fertilised eggs may be carried away
away by ocean currents to
by ocean currents to better suited
unsuitable areas.
areas reducing competition and living
space for the parent generation.
Minimal contact and transmission of
bodily fluids
Internal fertilisation
 Occurs inside the body of the female in animals, or in the female part of the
plant in sexually reproducing plants
 The male gamete is transferred directly to the female gamete
 As a result, the number of female gametes is reduced greatly
 Number of male gametes produced is still as high
 Reproductive strategies:
Bringing the opposite sexes together with courtship and mating behaviours
Having a method of gamete transfer (penis or cloaca - is the posterior opening
that serves as the only such opening for the intestinal, reproductive, and
urinary tracts of certain animal species. )
Examples of internal fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
Advantages Disadvantages
Greater chance of gametes Courtship and/or mating
finding each other in the confined behaviour is required
space Sexually transmitted diseases due
Once fertilised the zygote is to transmission of bodily fluids
better protected and more likely
to survive and develop
Minimal wastage of gametes
Success of fertilisation

-
Success of External fertilisation
In an aquatic environment
Organisms that carry out external
fertilisation in an aquatic
environment are highly successful.
In this environment gametes do not
dry out but must produce large
numbers of gametes to compensate
for the losses from predation,
disease and dispersal to unsuitable
environments
In a terrestrial environment
Organisms attempting to carry
out external fertilisation on land
are not successful at all due to
their reliance upon a water
environment for fertilisation and
the transfer of gametes.
Success of Internal fertilisation
In an aquatic environment In a terrestrial environment
 Internal fertilisation has only been
Internal fertilisation is not a
possible on land because of overcoming
necessary adaptation for most the need of water for fertilisation.
 Very successful method of fertilisation
aquatic species but a successful
due to using the mechanism of direct
method of fertilisation by those transfer of gametes, avoiding
used in this environment. dehydration and loss by dispersal.
 The success of this form of fertilisation
Fewer gametes are required
is very high as the environment is
because of the higher chance of enclosed in a confined space protecting
from predation and disease.
gametes uniting.
 Even the driest environments can be
colonised successfully by using this
method.
Mechanisms of fertilisation and development in
Animals
Explain how the evolution of these reproductive
adaptations has increased the chances of
continuity
of the species
 Some adaptations of Australian species
to ensure fertilisation include:
 Bower Bird: They lack showy plumage, so
the male decorates its nest with bright blue
objects to attract the female. They have
elaborate courtship rituals
 Australian Brolgas: Performs an elaborate
dance before mating
 Common Trout: They come together during
the full moon of their mating season and
release their gametes into the water
 Sharks: The male gametes are transferred
directly into the female through claspers,
which go into the female’s opening, called a
cloaca.
 Whales, Seals and Dolphins: All have
internal fertilisation, where the male
gametes are deposited directly into the
female. They often have spectacular
courtship rituals.
Mechanisms to ensure survival of the embryo and of the
young after birth
Animal
 Staghorn coral
Survival of Embryo
 Release millions of gametes into the sea.
Environmental cues, such as water
temperature, tides and day length help
synchronise the reproductive cycle. When
one coral starts to spawn, pheromones
released along with gametes will stimulate
nearby individuals to spawn.
Survival of Young after Birth
 Within one day, fertilised eggs develop,
forming into swimming larvae. After a few
days at the surface, the larvae descend to
find a suitable site to form a new colony.
Unfortunately, many larvae are eaten by
 Case study - Monotremes
 In playtpuses and echidnas the production of gametes is seasonal, and both
male and female reproductive organs regress (reduce in size and stop
producing gametes) outside the breeding season.
 Egg-laying, incubation and hatching— take place in an underground burrow.
 The amount of yolk in monotreme eggs is large compared to the eggs of
marsupials and placentals, but much less than the amount in reptile eggs.
 In contrast to reptiles, the platypus embryo develops inside the egg within the
uterus for perhaps four weeks.
 The incubation period after laying appears to be about 10 days. The eggs are
tucked under the broad flat tail, and stuck together and to the fur of the
abdomen.
 After hatching, the young platypuses remain in the burrow for several
months, obtaining nutrition by suckling from their mother’s mammary
glands.
 The young platypuses leave the nest when they have grown fur and are about
30 cm long.
Mechanisms to ensure survival of the embryo and of the
young after birth
Animal
 Platypus
Survival of Embryo
 Embryo develops inside the egg
within the uterus for 4 weeks.
Incubation takes place for 10 days
in a nest or abdominal pouch. The
eggs remain stuck to the fur of
abdomen until they hatch.
Survival of Young after Birth
 After hatching, young platypus
remains in the burrow for several
months, obtaining nutrients by
suckling on milk. By licking her
skin. Young leave nest when they
have grown fur
 Case study - Amphibians
 The gastric-brooding frog, which has been found only in
southern Queensland, has a remarkable reproductive
behaviour.
 It exhibits external fertilisation and internal development.
 The female releases eggs, which are fertilised during
amplexus, as in other amphibians. But instead of leaving
the eggs to develop alone and unprotected, the female
swallows them.
 The larvae are incubated in the stomach, which functions
like a mammalian uterus. This gastric brooding or
incubation appears to last 6 or 7 weeks, during which time
the mother does not eat.
 Froglets are born through the mouth of the mother, once
they have completed their larval development.
Mechanisms to ensure survival of the embryo and of the
young after birth
Animal
 Gastric brooding frog
Survival of Embryo
 After external fertilisation, the female
swallows the eggs, and they are
incubated in the stomach. All digestive
processes stop for 6-7 weeks, where
they are protected and absorb nutrients
from the mother.
Survival of Young after Birth
 When the young frogs are ready, they
are regurgitated through the mouth.
External fertilisation and internal
development is an extreme example of
 Case study - Marsupials
 They have internal fertilisation and a very short gestation period in the uterus. At
birth, the young climb into the mother’s forward-opening pouch. They attach to a
teat and continue development while suckling. When they leave the pouch there
is a weaning period before parental care ends.
 In the red kangaroo, the young weigh less than a gram when born, after 33 days
in the uterus. They remain suckling in the pouch for 235 days and leave the
pouch weighing 4–5 kilograms. During the weaning period, which lasts up to 4
months, the young kangaroo (joey) suckles and eats grass.
 Under good environmental conditions, numbers can increase rapidly because
adult female kangaroos can be almost continuously pregnant. They can mate
again directly after giving birth. If the mother is still suckling her newborn
young, the fertilised egg does not develop until the young leaves the pouch. This
is known as delayed implantation.
 Female kangaroos are able to produce two kinds of milk at the same time. The
milk produced by the teat for the developing young in the pouch contains much
less fat than the milk produced by the teat being used by the joey inside the
pouch.
 Under adverse environmental conditions, such as during drought, young joeys do
not survive, and any fertilised egg does not implant. Females do not begin
Mechanisms to ensure survival of the embryo and of the
young after birth
Animal
 Kangaroo
Survival of Embryo
 Internal fertilisation and partial internal
development. They have very short gestation
period in the uterus. They also have an
extraordinary ability to control embryonic
development. Mothers can become pregnant again
just after giving birth. Embryo in diapause until
pouch becomes vacant or conditions are
favourable. The embryonic diapause is controlled
by the young in the pouch.
Survival of Young after Birth
 After birth, underdeveloped young crawls into
mother’s pouch and continues development while
feeding on milk, for 4 months.
 Sexual reproduction in plants

Sexual reproduction in plants also relies on the successful

fusion of male and female gametes. However, in plants,
this fusion is more difficult because plants grow in the
ground and cannot move. To understand the process of
sexual reproduction in plants, it is necessary to examine the
structure of flowers, which are the reproductive organs of
plants.
Parts of a typical flower
Pollination Fertilisation and Seed production
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.
 Pollen may be carried to the flower by wind or by animals, or even originate from the
same individual flower.
 Self-pollination is when pollen from a flowers anther pollinates the same flowers
stigma. In most species the pollen is produced at a different time from when the
stigma can receive it so that cross pollination doesn't occur often.
 Cross-pollination is when pollen from a flowers anther pollinates a flowers stigma
from a different plant. This ensures greater variation in the offspring.
 Fertilisation occurs after pollination when the pollen grain is transferred down the
style within a pollen tube, to the ovules contained in the ovary. During fertilisation, the
sperm cell that was transferred by the pollen tube fuses with the egg cell (ovum) inside
the ovule in the female part of the flower.
 Seed Production is when he fertilised ovule develops, protected within the ovary. The
ovule containing an embryo is now termed a seed and the surrounding ovary grows to
become a fruit.
Pollination by wind
Early seed plants were pollinated passively,
by the action of the wind.
 Present-day conifers and angiosperms are
wind-pollinated. The flowers of
angiosperms are small, greenish, odourless
and with reduced or absent petals.
Wind pollination is very inefficient (travels
less than 100m) so large quantities of pollen
are produced.
Wind-pollinated plants
Grass flowers – anthers are very
long and produce large amounts
of light pollen, which is easily
picked up by the wind. The
stigmas are also large and spread
out to receive the pollen.
Ash tree – lack petals and sepals.
Ash sheds copious amounts of
pollen that can travel about 110m.
Pollination by animals/birds/insects
Flowers that attract animals are more effective
in ensuring the transfer of pollen.
One-to-one relationship between a plant and
animal species reduces wastage of pollen by
ensuring that it is deposited on the correct
flower.
Animals that act as pollinators search in
flowers for a meal of nectar or pollen.
Flower scent, colour, markings, shape and
nectaries are important in attracting animals.
Pollination by birds
 Bird-pollinated plants produce large
amounts of nectar, less pollen than wind-
pollinated and are rarely fragrant because
birds have little sense of smell. Birds are
also attracted to bright flowers, especially
red. The red colour of the flower signals to
birds the presence of abundant nectar.
 NSW waratah – the flowers are tubular
and slightly curved with relatively high
rate of nectar production.
 Bird of paradise – part of the flower acts
as a perch and the action of the bird
inserting its beak to collect nectar forces
the pollen to become exposed to the birds
neck. In this way the pollen is carried from
plant to plant.
Pollination by insects
 Most pollinated by bees. They locate food
by odour, and then orient themselves on the
flower by shape, colour and texture. They
often visit blue and yellow flowers with
many having stripes or lines of dots that
indicate the location of the nectaries.
 Grass trigger plant – when a bee crawls
inside the flower to collect nectar the plant
is triggered to stamp pollen onto the bee in
the exact spot where the stigma from
another flower will pick it up.
 Hibbertia species – require buzz pollination
practised by the blue banded bee and
Australian carpenter bees. This involves the
bee holding onto the plant and vibrating to
get the pollen out.
Pollination by insects (cont’d)
 Flower shape can restrict access to pollen
and nectar to only those insects that have
appropriate tools or abilities. For example,
the nectar at the base of a long tubular
flower may only be accessed by insects that
have long mouthparts, such as butterflies,
moths, flies and bees with long, lapping
tongues.
 Native daisies – use bright colours and
sweet nectar to attract butterflies to assist
pollination.
 Cycads – rely on thrips for pollination. A
male cycad, cone laden with pollen. will
emit a strong and pungent scent that will
attract as many as 50 000 thrips. Female
cones also emit a scent once they are ready
to receive pollen, which then attracts the
pollen-laden thrips.
Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal is the spreading of seeds away from the parent plant.
Advantages of seed dispersal are:
Species are more likely to survive dangers such as disease, fire, or
environmental change if the seeds are covering a very widespread area. If the
seeds are not spread, the entire population can get wiped-out in one go
Decrease in competition for space, light, or nutrients. Less competition from
parent plant, or plants from same generation.
Seeds are dispersed by wind, water and animals. Australian native plants
have evolved a variety of adaptations to aid in the effective and successful
dispersal of their seeds.
Seed dispersal by wind
Some seeds are
aerodynamically designed to
be blown long distances by
the wind.
Feather spear grass -Seeds
attached to fine hairs which
float in the breeze and
carried hundreds of
kilometres.
Native daisies – have
feathery pappus.
Hakea – have winged seeds
Seed dispersal by animals
Seeds have structures such
as hooks or barbs, which
cling or stick to fur or
feathers of animals and
carried long distances
before they fall to the
ground.
 Sheep’s Burr- Seeds have
hooks that attach to the fur
of animals, and are carried
over large distances.
Seed dispersal by animals (cont’d)
 Other seeds are enclosed in bright
coloured fleshy fruits. Therefore,
any fruits or berries containing
seeds are mostly dispersed by birds.
 Some seeds can pass through the
digestive system of mammals or
birds which unknowingly transport
the seeds to new locations by
defecation.
 Nitre bush – depends on emus
eating the native grape and passed
in faeces.
 Mistletoe – has sticky seeds which
are deposited on trees by mistletoe
birds
Seed dispersal by animals (cont’d)
Acacia and Grevillea
seeds have some lipids
attached to their outsides.
This attracts ants which
carry the seed to their
nests where they consume
the lipids but leave the
hard seeds underground,
safe from fire. Wattles can
flourish and grow after the
hottest of bushfires.
Seed dispersal by fire
Eucalypts, banksias and  These Banksia seed pods have opened up after a
fire, allowing the seeds to fall to the ground
many other Australian
plants store their seeds
until the fire destroys the
branch or the entire plant.
Many have thick, woody
walls that protect the seeds
from heat of bushfires. The
heat of the fire allows the
capsules to open, releasing
the seeds for dispersal by
wind or other mechanisms.
Seed dispersal by water and explosion
Summary of different seed dispersal methods
Asexual reproduction in plants
 Asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is the making of a new individual without the use of sex cells. Only one
parent is required for the mitotic cell divisions to occur. The asexually produced individuals
are genetically identical to the parent.
 Some types of asexual reproduction are:

- binary fission - Every time a single celled organism undergoes mitosis, it creates
2 new organisms.
- budding - The parent produces a replica of itself by mitosis. This replica
continues to grow as a new organism, but is attached to the parent. This tends to
form large colonies, such as coral
- spore formation - Fungi reproduce asexually by producing thousands of single-
celled spores. These will germinate if the conditions are right. Ferns also produces
spores.
- vegetative propagation - Flowering plants produce new plants from points on
roots or stems called nodes. Grasses do and roses from plant cuttings
- regeneration - It is a process that organisms grow back body parts that have been
removed or lost. In some cases, it can be a form of asexual reproduction, of the
broken body part grows to form a new organism. Starfish and earthworms can do
this.
Vegetative reproduction- new plants cloned from parts of
adults.
Runners Rhizomes
 Runners are long, thin stems that grow  Underground horizontal stems which
along the surface of the soil. These invade areas near the parent plant with
stems contain nodes where new roots each node being able to give rise to a
and shoots are produced that can be new flowering shoot.
subdivided into new plants.
Vegetative reproduction (cont’d)
Suckers
The root of some plants produce
suckers which give rise to new
plants. Trees and shrubs that
sucker, such as reeds, wattles and
blackberries can spread quickly
into a vacant patch of habitat after
disturbance.
Asexual reproduction in other organisms
Budding -
In reproductive budding, an adult organism gives rise to a small bud,
which separates from the parent and grows into a new individual.
Organisms that undergo this process include:
Yeast - are microscopic unicellular organisms that are classified as fungi.
 Budding also occurs in some multicellular
organisms, including jellyfish, hydra and
grooved brain coral.
 When conditions are favourable, the cells
of the parent divide by mitosis and grow
into a multicellular outgrowth, which
develops into a smaller but identical
individual or bud. This bud detaches from
the parent and grows into a reproductive
adult.
 One advantage of budding is that, if there
is no variation in the environment, the
identical offspring will always be adapted
to their surroundings and survive to
reproduce successfully. However, if the
environment changes (for example, if a
new disease or pest enters), the entire
species may rapidly decline and die out.
 Binary fission
 Binary fission means splitting (fission) into two (binary).
 This is the main method of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms
such as bacteria (prokaryotes) and protists (unicellular eukaryotes).
 A newly divided cell grows to twice its size, replicates its genetic material
(DNA) and then splits into two cells with identical genetic material.
 A bacterial cell can double in number every twenty minutes in favourable
environmental conditions, thereby ensuring a rapid increase in numbers.
 The prokaryotic cell grows to full adult size, then replicates its single
DNA molecule and each copy of the DNA attaches to opposite ends of the
cell membrane. A range of proteins accumulate at the centre of the cell
and play a role in pinching off the cytoplasm and in ensuring that the
DNA is not damaged in the process. A new cell wall is then synthesised in
the area of cell cleavage. The new cells grow to full adult size before they
divide again. The timing and sequence of the steps are closely controlled
in the cell cycle.
Binary fission in protists
 Protists are unicellular eukaryotes that reproduce asexually by a type of binary
fission. This involves mitosis and the formation of a spindle within the cytoplasm
of the cell to distribute chromosomes equally.

 Binary fission has the advantage of enabling rapid population growth over a short
period of time in adverse conditions, as it requires only one parent. However, the
main limitation is that no genetic diversity is generated.
Spores
 Spores are tiny, unicellular reproductive cells that are produced in great numbers
by organisms such as fungi (moulds and mushrooms, for example) and some plants
(mosses and ferns).
 Structures called sporangia produce very large numbers of spores, which are light
and easily dispersed, travelling long distances by wind. Spores effectively expand
the distribution of the species and are able to colonise new environments. Unlike a
gamete, a spore does not need to fuse with another cell to produce a new individual.
 Spores also differ from seeds, as each spore is a single cell and therefore does not
contain an embryo or a food supply.
 Multicellular fungi such as mould and mushrooms are made up of threads or
filaments called hyphae that are branched and interconnected, forming the main
fungal body, called the mycelium (plural mycelia).
 An example of spore formation in a fungus occurs in the black mould Rhizopus
nigricans. These fungi are multinucleate, because there are many nuclei in the hyphae,
with no cross walls to separate them into individual cells.
 When environmental conditions are favourable, fungi reproduce asexually. They
develop large numbers of spore-producing units or sporangia, which grow upwards and
are visible as the greygreen part of mould seen on bread and fruit.
 Sporangia develop as specialised tips of hyphal threads. They have numerous haploid
nuclei, which develop into microscopic spores that are white at first and then turn black
as they ripen. Each spore has several nuclei and some cytoplasm, surrounded by a wall.
 Spores are produced in enormous numbers and are extremely light, enabling
widespread air dispersal. They carry genetic material identical to that of the parent.
 Under favourable environmental conditions, fungal spores germinate, absorbing water
through the wall, which activates the cytoplasm to grow. Nuclear divisions occur, more
cytoplasm is produced and the spore grows into a new mycelium. This process enables
fungi to reproduce rapidly, colonise a wide area and ensure the continuity of the
species.
Conditions under which asexual reproduction is
advantageous
Advantages of asexual reproduction
 Only one parent is required so energy is not wasted on producing large numbers of
gametes or on finding a mate. This is advantageous:
— in arid conditions or where environmental conditions are not as favourable
— when food supply may be short and there is a need to use less energy to reproduce
— when there is a small mating population or time constraints on finding a mate.
 It is a relatively quick process and large numbers of offspring can be produced
rapidly. This is an advantage when rapid recovery is needed after a decline in
numbers (e.g. after a bushfire or drought).
 If there is no variation in the environment then the identical offspring will always
be adapted to their surroundings and survive to reproduce successfully.
 Asexual reproduction is advantageous when environmental conditions are stable.
In this situation the offspring of the parent plants are identical, having features that
make them suited to the environment and likely to survive to reproduce
themselves. This type of reproduction allows rapid colonisation after harsh
conditions
Summary of examples of the advantages of asexual
reproduction in Australia