MODULE 5 HEREDITARY
Reproduction
- Reproduction occurs in individual organisms to ensure the continuity of a species for
generations. This occurs in all organisms in various forms entail asexual or sexual
reproduction as well as internal and external fertilisation.
Type Internal
Definition Is when the male transfers his
gametes directly into the female
reproductive tract for fertilisation to
occur. This mainly occurs in
mammals, birds and reptiles.
Advantages - Can take place on dry land
- Less gametes have to be
produced
- More likely to be successful
because male gametes are
released near that of a female
- Gametes and zygote are
protected from predation and
disease
- Developing young are fed and
protected by parents increasing
their survival chances.
- Embryos are protected inside the
mother until born
Disadvantag - Fewer progeny
es - Mating rituals and practice are
more complex to get to the point
of copulation
- Potential of spreading sexually
transmitted diseases throughout
the population
- Requires a lot of ongoing energy
to protect the zygote before it is
born
- Parental care is long and
demanding
o Animals reproduce through either internal or external fertilisation.
External
Is when the male fertilises a
female’s egg outside the female’s
body. Therefore, resulting in the
zygote developing outside the
parent’s body. This occurs in
aquatic environments e.g. fish
reproduce this way
- More rapid and prolific
- Female can continue to
reproduce without pausing for
the birth of an offspring
- Parents do not expend energy
for gestation and caring of
young
- Young are widely dispersed,
reducing competition with their
parents and each other
- More gametes are produced
- No control of gametes after
released
- Decreased chance of
successful fertilisation
- Zygote are exposed to
predation
- Must take place in aquatic
environments.
o All Plants reproduce are capable of reproducing sexually however, some can also
reproduce asexually.
- Sexual reproduction occurs within plants through the fusion between a male and
female gamete. In order for fertilisation to occur, the male gametes inside the
pollen must be carried from the anthers to the stigma (this process is called
pollination). For pollination to occur, the plants are dependent upon wind, water
and animals to allow for this process to occur. This results in either
cross-pollination or self-pollination to occur. Seeds from inside the ovary are often
dispersed resulting in new organisms being formed. Germination is the last stage
of this cycle.
- Asexual reproduction occurs when one parent passes all their genetic information
to their offspring. This often occurs in the form of runners, rhizomes, suckers and
apomixis.

o Fungi reproduce asexually through 2 different means entailing that of budding and
spores.
- Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new cell arises from an
outgrowth from the parent. This bud is smaller yet genetically identical to the
parent cell. Repeated budding forms a chain of buds that are independent from
each other. The bud tends to pinch inward from the base to detach from the

parent cells.
- Spores are tiny haploid unicellular reproductive cells capable of developing into
an adult without fusion with a second cell. This is seen as when the spores are
released into the environment by wind or water and by chance land in a suitable
environment, a new daughter cell germinates identical to the parent cell.

o Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission in which the parent cell splits into
2 identical daughter cells.

o Protists reproduce through both binary fission and budding. Within binary fission this
process differs to that in bacteria due to each cell containing a membrane bound
nucleus, thus prior to their separation replications need to occur. This process results
in the parent splitting and becoming into 2 identical daughter cells. They also
reproduce through budding the same as that occurring within the fungi, in which new
organisms grow off from the parent and then detach.
● Within mammals there are 3 main features involved in reproduction: fertilisation,
implementation and hormonal control of pregnancy and birth.
o Fertilisation refers to the fusion of 2 haploid gametes to form a single diploid zygote
cell. This cell contains the genetic material of both egg and sperm which equal half of
the information from both paternal and maternal DNA.
o Implementation refers to the attachment and embedding of the blastocyst into the
lining of the uterus. This is an important stage as it commences the development of
the blastocyst into a foetus.
o Hormonal control of pregnancy and birth hormones are important as they are
responsible for the communication between organs and tissues to regulate
physiological and behavioural processes. E.g. progesterone is a hormone produced
in the ovary which stimulates early preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. This is
noted by the endometrium thickening which helps support the pregnancy in the first
few weeks when the placenta is still developing. Prior to birth levels of this hormone
drops to facilitate labour.

● Scientific manipulation of plants and animals has been used in an attempt to assist and
improve reproduction.
o Plants have been manipulated to increase the amount of produce produced. This is
seen through maize as it has been selectively bred, to create the high yielding
modern maize we have today.
o Animals have also been selectively bred to attract people to buy them. As seen
through domestic dogs, as they selectively breed the dogs with the most attractive
characteristics.
Cell replication
● Cell replication occurs to ensure the continuity of an organism. Through it enabling
growth and development, maintenance and repair as well as restoring the nucleus to
cytoplasm ratio. This occurs through the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
o Mitosis and meiosis are 2 types of cell replication that occur within the human body.
They are a very similar process except that mitosis does all cells but gametes whilst
meiosis does only gametes.

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Genetic recombination
Number of cells
Number of Chromosomes
Location
Does not change the
genetic information
2 genetically identical
daughter cells
Have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent
cell (diploid, 2n)
Occurs in the somatic cells
Rearranges the genetic
information between the
chromosome pairs creating
genetic variation
(crossover)
4 genetically unique
daughter cells
Have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent
cell (haploid, n)
Only occurs in the gonads.

- Mitosis refers to the division of the

nucleus into 2 genetically identical
daughter nuclei, thus eventually forming a
daughter. This only occurs in the somatic
cells of an organism. At the end of this
process cytokinesis takes place dividing
and separating the 2 nuclei and other
organelles to form 2 complete and
identical daughter cells. Interphase also
takes place; this is where the cell spends
most of its time carrying out cellular
functions and preparing for cell division.

- Meiosis is the division of gametes into 4 different daughter cells. It is the formation of
gametes from germ cells. This process is very similar to that of which occurs within
meiosis except that each stage occurs twice. In meiosis 1 the homologous
chromosomes are separated and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced. Crossing
over and recombination often occur as well. During meiosis 2 each of the 2 haploid
daughter cells divide into 2, producing 4 unique daughter cells. Independent
assortment and random segregation in meiosis is what causes genetic variation as
 homologous chromosomes are separated and randomly assorted into haploid cells.

o Nucleotides are the chemical building blocks of DNA and RNA. Each of which
contains a phosphate, a sugar and a nitrogenous base (Adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine or uracil). With DNA the 4 bases are: A, G, T and C (A and T, G and C link
together). Within RNA A and U, G and C link together.

DNA replication occurs through:

- Parent DNA helix starts to separate its strands from one end as enzymes break
the hydrogen bonds joining the bases
- Free nucleotides attach to complementary partners on each strand from the open
end towards the replication fork
- 2 identical sets of DNAs are formed that each coil back into a double helix.
 o DNA replication allows cells to be replicated through meiosis and mitosis, which are
essential processes in reproduction, as mitosis allows simpler organisms such as
bacteria to multiply through asexual reproduction, while meiosis creates gametes
which allow sexual reproduction. So, cell replication is essential to species continuity
by allowing asexual and sexual reproduction.

DNA and Polypeptide synthesis

● Comparison of DNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
● Polypeptide synthesis is the process by which cells assemble new proteins, through
initially creating amino acids -> polypeptide chains -> proteins.
o Polypeptide synthesis occurs in 2 stages of which are transcription and translation.
- Transcription is the first stage that occurs in polypeptide synthesis in which the
DNA information is copied into mRNA (due to it being too large to leave the
nucleus). This occurs through the RNA polymerase binding to the section of DNA
thus forming a chain of RNA nucleotides to form a new complementary strand
known as RNA.
- Translation is the final stage of polypeptide synthesis where the base sequence of
mRNA is used to produce the amino sequence of a polypeptide. This occurs with
the help of tRNA who link the different anticodons with the complementary
codons forming these polypeptide chains, which is eventually processed in the
cell resulting in the required proteins being able to be available for use.
o There are 2 main types of RNA, being that of tRNA and mRNA.
- mRNA (messenger RNA) is a single stranded molecule that is formed in the
nucleus by the process of transcription. This molecule carries the complementary
copy of DNA outside the nucleus to the cytosol where it binds to the ribosome
ready for translation. This is an important molecule as it is the only way in which
DNA material can leave the nucleus due to it otherwise being too large.
- tRNA (transfer RNA) are molecules that transfer the amino acids from the
cytoplasm to the ribosome where they are joined to a polypeptide chain based on
the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The specific sequence of the 3 bases
at the anticodon end determines which amino acids will be carried by the tRNA.
o The function and importance of polypeptide synthesis: Within a cell there is a
genome consisting of thousands of genes. These genes that are expressed
determine which proteins are produced, giving the cell its functionality and
characteristics. Gene expression is the process through which information from a
gene is used to synthesise a specific functional gene product (a polypeptide or length
of RNA). The regulation of this determines that the correct polypeptides are proteins
that are created when needed. E.g. growth hormone proteins are produced in infants
until the complete growth as a teenager. However, after this is completed it is
switched off as it is no longer required. And plasma B is only produced when the
human body is fighting an infection.
o The phenotype of an organism is affected by an individual’s genotype and the
environment. This is exemplified through the case of humans, as a human is
incapable of growing to the full height potential that is coded in their genotype if they
are severely undernourished or suffer from a bone disease that affects their height.
This is also seen within flamingos as their diet through the consumption of
carotenoids affects the shade of pink.

● There are multiple structures and functions of proteins, thus enabling all to have differing
roles.
- Primary structure is a linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain of
a protein.
- Secondary structure is the folding or coiling of the polypeptide chains in proteins
due to hydrogen bonds. The main forms are: alpha helix, beta-pleated sheets and
random coils.
- Tertiary structure is the structure in proteins created by further folding as a result
of bonds forming between the R groups of amino acids, leading to greater stability
than the folding in secondary structure
 - Quaternary structure is 2 or more polypeptide chains joined as a single functional
protein.

Genetic variation
● Meiotic combinations refer to the type of offspring that will be created dependent upon
the types of alleles available.
o Types of dominance:
- Autosomal dominance refers to the state in which one trait is dominant over
another. E.g. Mendel’s pea plants in which T(tall) is dominant over t (small). TT =
Tall, Tt = Tall, tt = Short
- Sex linkage inheritance is a pattern for traits that are locate on the genes of the
sex chromosomes and therefore may be inherited in different ratios in males and
females. E.g. colour blindness is more frequent in males than females.
- Co-dominance refers to the expression of both alleles in an expression. E.g. for
Roan cows RR = red, WW = White, RW = Roan
- Incomplete dominance is a condition in which a gene is expressed as a blending
of the characteristics of the two alleles present in a hybrid (neither allele is
dominant or recessive). E.g. for snapdragon flowers RR = Red, WW = White, RW
= Pink
- Multi-allelic describes a single-gene trait for which there are 3 or more alleles, e.g.
ABO blood groups.
 Genotype Phenotype

AA or AO A

BB or BO B

AB AB
(codominance)

OO O

o Frequencies of a gene in a population:

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒 (𝐺)𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒 (𝐺) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒 (𝐺+𝑔)𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Inheritance patterns in the population

● DNA technologies have been used by scientists to gain a greater understanding of

inheritance patterns available in populations. This can be seen as they can take
individual genome maps to see if individuals have a genetic makeup potentially coding
for diseases and disorders.
o DNA sequencing is the process of determining the exact nucleotide sequence of a
gene on a chromosome (AGTC).
This differs to that of DNA
profiling through this technique
being used to identify and
compare individuals based on
characteristics in their DNA.
The child's father is male 2 as
the DNA sequencing in the
STRs (short tandem repeats)
are more alike.

● Data analysis has been conducted

using large scale data to identify
trends, patterns and relationships
help scientists gain a greater
understanding of past and current
events as well as predicting those in
the future.

o Population genetics for conservation management principal aim is to avoid the

extinction of species by applying conservation methods that ensure the maintenance
of biodiversity, through it combining the principles of applied ecology with an
understanding of evolutionary biology. This helps allow scientists come up with plans
to reduce the extinction of species from the past by learning off them e.g. the wooly
 mammoth extinction was caused due to their being a lack of genetic availability within
their gene pool.
o Population genetics for the inheritance of diseases and disorders is also used to help
diagnose individuals. This is seen when babies are born, through them undergoing a
screening programme to test for single nucleotide polymorphism associated with
cystic fibrosis, fatty acid oxidation and urea cycle disorders.
o Population genetics relating to human evolution has been used by scientists to gain a
greater understanding of the beginning of the human race. This is seen through the
use of mitochondrial DNA, thus as a result they have concluded that humans first
existed in Africa and their migration patterns.
 Module 6 GENETIC CHANGE
Mutation

● Mutagens are any substances or processes that can dramatically increase the rate of
mutations through altering an organism’s DNA.
o Electromagnetic radiation sources refer to the physical sources of radiation that
affects an individual’s DNA, this occurs through both particle and electromagnetic
radiation. There are 2 types:
- Ionising radiation: is a mutagen through it breaking down chemical bonds in
individuals thus causing damage to DNA and basic cellular functions. Repeated
exposure to ionising radiation can cause cancer. Types of ionising radiation
includes: x-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays.
- Non-ionising radiation: is not associated with damage to DNA though as the
energy emission is low, thus unable to cause cellular damage.
o Chemical mutagens refer to the chemical factors that cause mutations. This can
occur through ingesting chemicals or inhaling poisons. There are 3 types:
- Intercalating agents: are chemicals that insert into the bonds between DNA
nucleotides, altering the shape of the DNA thus leading to subsequent errors in
replication.
- Base analogues: are chemicals whose molecular structure is similar enough to
the DNA bases that it can be incorporated into sequences instead of the
appropriate bases, making the DNA non-functional.
- DNA reactive chemicals: are any chemicals that are known to react directly with
DNA. This affects the DNA as it causes breakages and cross links in DNA
strands.
o Naturally occurring mutagens are biological factors that can cause mutations through
interfering with the function of oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes. There are 2
types:
- Retroviruses: are an RNA virus that use reverse transcription to copy their RNA
genome into DNA for integration into the chromosome of the host.
- Transposable elements: are short DNA sequences that move around the
genome. They can cause errors in replication and interfere in the function of
certain genes.

● Mutations occur in 2 forms. This is a way that genetic variation is caused within species.
o Point mutations refers to the change to a single base pair of DNA only affecting a
single gene. Within this form there are 2 types:
- Substitution mutations: is when an individual nucleotide is replaced by a different
nucleotide. This alteration can cause a silent mutation (no effect), missense
mutation (creates a different amino acid) and nonsense mutation (stop codon).
- Frameshift mutation: is a mutation in which the reading frame of mRNA is shifted
so that the triplets of bases that normally form codons are no longer grouped
 together. Resulting in a gene being translated unnaturally from the position of the
mutation onwards. This occurs due to insertions or deletions.
o Chromosomal mutations are a large-scale change in genetic material where either
the overall structure of the chromosome is changed or the entire number of
chromosomes in a cell is altered. There are 5 types:
- Duplication mutations: is the replication of a section of a chromosome resulting in
multiple copies of the same gene appearing.
- Inversion mutations: is where a section of the DNA sequence breaks off, rotates
180 degrees (flips) and reattaches to the same chromosome.
- Deletion mutations: is the nucleotides added to an existing sequence.
- Translocation mutations: is when a whole chromosome or a segment of a
chromosome becomes attached to or exchanged with another chromosome or
segment.

● Somatic and germ-line mutations are the 2 types of mutations, they differ through the
effect they have on individuals.

Type Somatic Germline

Definition Only occur in the somatic cells
(non-gamete cells) of
organisms. These mutations
will only affect this individual
as it cannot be passed onto
offspring. These are typically
caused by environmental
factors.
Example Skin cancer
Are mutations that occur on
reproductive cells that give
rise to gametes and thus are
heritable to offspring. This
mutation does not affect the
person, only their offspring. It
occurs either naturally or
through mutagens.
Trisomy 21 causes down
syndrome

● Coding and non-coding segments of DNA for mutations determine the detrimental effect
to the organism. Generally, if a mutation occurs on the coding region of DNA it typically
alters the end product of a protein, through creating a different amino acid. However, it
does have the possibility also to cause a nonsense mutation. If a mutation occurs on the
non-coding section of DNA it causes developmental problems if it is in the somatic cells.
It can also lead to over or under expression of a gene.

● Mutations cause new alleles to become apparent. This is highlighted through it affecting
the transcription and translation processes thus leading to a change to genetic variation.
This ultimately causes changes evolutionarily especially as genetic drift occurs. Resulting
in people from different continents having slightly altered features e.g. skin colour to
ensure their better adaptation.

Biotechnology

● Genetic Engineering has allowed modified corn such as Bt corn to be produced. Bt corn
has a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) incorporated into its genome. The Bt gene
allows the corn to produce a toxin that kills caterpillars when they eat it, thus reducing the
number of caterpillars present in the ecosystem. This may reduce the food available for
species that feed on them, thus affecting food chains and food webs potentially reducing
the number of species that can survive and therefore biodiversity. But corn may also
 reduce the biodiversity of the caterpillar population as susceptible varieties are killed and
only those that are resistant survive to reproduce.
● Artificial Insemination in agriculture involves collecting semen from desirable male
animals such as bulls. Semen can be frozen, stored and transported to other locations
and can be used to inseminate many females in order to produce multiple offspring with
desirable traits. This results in a loss of biodiversity as one male has many offspring. All
the offspring will be genetically half siblings so will have reduced genetic variation.

● Social implications refer to the effects that the financial positions, lifestyle and the social
profile of an individual and community affect the use of a certain biotechnology.
o Social equity, accessibility and cost: biotechnology has allowed greater access to
goods. This can be seen through DNA technologies allowing for the creation of safer
vaccines whilst it also allows the improvement of nutrition in crops. This is noted by
the genetic modified organism of golden rice, as it has been altered to include more
vitamins in its yield including vitamin A to improve the health of individuals in 3 rd world
countries.
o Health concerns have been raised surrounding the safety of new technology for
humans. Reports have suggested GM foods have the potential to cause toxic effects
on humans.
● Ethical implications

Genetic technology
● Advantages and disadvantages of current genetic technologies

Technology Process Advantages Disadvantages

Selective Humans are able to control ● Allows farmers to improve ● Loss of diversity
breeding which males and females are the quality of animal/plant
bred and produce offspring
with desirable traits. Both
parent individuals are
different varieties of the same
species so that the resultant
offspring is fertile.

IVF Egg is fertilised outside of ● Screening of embryos ● Reduced biodiversity

the female and in a petri reduces genetic defects ● Expensive
dish. Resulting zygotes are ●
cultured until they have
progressed to an early stage
of development. The
fresh/frozen cultured embryo
is inserted using a ​catheter
​into the uterus of the
biological mother, a
surrogate, or stored for
research.

Gene The correction of genetic ● Allows for treatment of ● Can be harmful to

therapy disorders by introducing genetic diseases patient
normal functioning genes into ● Often religious
cells viewpoints oppose
this as they deem it
unethical.
 MODULE 7 INFECTIOUS DISEASE
CAUSES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE
General Definitions:

Disease = any condition that disrupts the normal functioning of an organism. It usually
causes symptoms, ranging from mild to severe

Infectious disease = A disease that can be spread from one organism to another and is
caused by a pathogen

Non-infectious disease = A disease that is not caused by a pathogen. It is caused by

genetics, the environment and/or cell malfunctions

Pathogen = A causative agent of infectious diseases

Asymptomatic Carrier = person is infected by pathogen but does not show symptoms of
disease

Symptomatic carrier = person is infected by pathogen but does not show signs of disease

Spontaneous generation = suggests that life could come into existence from non- living
matter

Germ theory = states that many diseases are caused by specific micro-organisms

PATHOGENS

Pathogen Type of cell No. of cells Typical Description Example

size

Prions Non-cellular None 10nm A protein Mad Cow

Disease

Virus Non-cellular None 80nm A protein outer case HIV, Influenza

protects

Bacteria Prokaryotic Unicellular 1um Prokaryotic cell with cell Salmonella,

walls, DNA present but Tuberculosis
no nucleus, often has
structure to aid mobility

Fungi Eukaryotic Unicellular or 4um - Eukaryotic cell with cell Thrush,

Multicellular unicellular walls, DNA inside a Ringworm
nucleus, yeast are often
round in shape, but fungi
can also form irregular
branching shapes
Protozoa Eukaryotic Unicellular 50um Eularyotic cells with no Giardia
cell walls, often has
structures to aid mobility

Macroscopic Eukaryotic Multicellular >1mm A wide variety of Ticks,

parasites mulitcellular eukaryotic Tapeworm
organisms

Infectious diseases caused by pathogens

Viral Disease: Influenza A

- Caused by the Influenza type A virus

- Symptoms: sore throat, fever, headache, fatigue
- Mode of transmission:

- Vehicle–air transmission via water droplets from sneezing or coughing

- Indirect–inhalation or oral ingestion after unknowingly touching the virus

Bacterial disease: Tuberculosis

- Caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis

- Symptoms: coughing, chest pain, fever, chills
- Mode of transmission

- Vehicle–air transmission via water droplets (released due to coughing or

sneezing)

Fungal disease: Oral and Vaginal thrush

- Caused by Candida albicans (yeast)

- Symptoms:

- Oral – white bumps inside mouth, burning in mouth, loss of taste

- Vaginal – itching or burning, discomfort during sex or urination, stinging

- Mode of transmission:

- Direct – through physical contact (eg. Kissing)

Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur

Robert Koch

Koch identified the microbial origins of many diseases by developing a procedure for
isolating and identifying disease-causing microbes. He applied his investigations by finding
the causative agents of several infectious diseases, including anthrax, cholera and
tuberculosis
Koch’s postulates:
1. Suspected causative agent must be present in all diseased organisms

2. Causative agents must be isolated and grown in pure culture

3. Cultured agents must cause same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible
host

4. Same agent must be re-isolated from inoculated diseased organism

His postulates don’t apply to all pathogens as they require a causative agent that can be
grown in pure culture (on a plate eg. Agar) – only bacteria and some fungi can be grown in
such conditions
Louis Pasteur

Pasteur investigated the causes of fermentation and the cause of some wine becoming sour.
He showed that live microbes (yeast) caused fermentation and that when bacteria were
present, the wine went sour. His observations that ‘disease’ in wine was caused by
microbes, led him to believe that microbes
could cause disease in humans. He
developed the technique of pasteurisation,
involving heating liquids to high temperatures
and then rapidly cooling them, to kill microbes
in wine, milk and other liquids. Pasteur’s
famous experiment using swam-neck flasks
refuted the idea of spontaneous generation as
microbes only developed in the flask open to it
– helping people to realise that microbes were
carried by air, or by other means, as
suggested by the germ theory

Causes and effects of diseases on

agricultural production

Plant diseases

Causes Effects

- Pathogens: bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa,
macro-parasites
- Abiotic factors: drought, frost, nutrient
deficiency
- Pests: fruit flies (macro-parasite), wheat stem
rust, etc.
- Inhibits ability to carry out normal functions
- Reduction in productivity and costs associated
with prevention – impact trade
- Crop loss
- Diminished food security

Animal diseases

Causes Effects

Pathogens: bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa,
macroscopic-parasites
- Economic impacts: livestock industry may be
impacted by disease outbreak, leading to a
decrease in economic income
- Food security: may severely impact
agriculture, which impacts at-risk populations
facing poverty or malnutrition
- Health risks: animal disease have the
potential to infect human hosts, may affect
farmers and handlers, as well as those who
consume the products
Pathogenic adaptations facilitating entry into hosts:

​ - Cell wall-degrading enzymes = break down the plant cell wall

- Toxins = may damage host tissues or disable the immune system (eg. By
inhibiting phagocytosis)
- Effector proteins = secreted into or around the host cell which supresses
host defence processes
- Adhesion to host cells = allows pathogen to stick in the extracellular
environment, promoting the colonisation of tissues and organs of hosts
- Extremophiles = pathogens with the ability to survive in hostile environments
(eg. Very high pH or temperature)
​

RESPONSES TO PATHOGENS

Barriers to entry – 1st line of defence

Structural and physiological adaptations

that work to stop pathogens entering the
body

Types of barriers

- Physical barriers:

Eyelashes, skin, cilia

- Chemical barriers:

Tears, sweat, mucous

membranes, stomach acid,
enzymes in mouth

- Behavioural barriers:

Blinking, excreting

The innate immune system – 2nd line of defence

General, non-specific mechanisms that try to destroy any pathogens that enter the
body. This response is improved with re-exposure to the same pathogen

Antigen = anything that triggers an immune response (eg. The pathogen, a splinter,
pollen (for some people)
Phagocytosis

- WBC can act as Phagocytes

(Neutrophils and Macrophages)
by carrying out phagocytosis
- A phagocyte can engulf microbes
via endocytosis
- The vacuole formed from
endocytosis then fuses with a
lysosome allowing chemicals and
enzymes to destroy the microbe

The inflammatory response

- Injuries cause the release of chemicals that trigger an inflammatory response

- Causes an increase in blood flow to the injured site and nearby capillaries to
dilate and become permeable
- Benefits = allow blood components to exit the capillary and enter the tissue
- Can cause pain and fever as well as localised redness, heat and swelling

Secretion of antimicrobial proteins (eg.

Interferon, cytokinesis)

- Some proteins directly attack

antigens, while others help trigger
further immune responses

- Lysosomes: enzymes that break

cell walls

- Complement system: cause cells

of invading microbes to burst

- Interferon: involved in the immune

response to viruses

Natural Killer Cells

Cells that are a specialised type of WBC that can recognise body cells infected by a
virus. NK Cells will attach to a virus-infected cell and release chemicals that cause
the cell to undergo apoptosis (cell suicide)

- They can also recognise tumour cells

The adaptive immune response (aka. Acquired immunity) – 3 rd line of defence
Specific mechanism that acts to destroy a specific type of pathogen that has entered
the body – WBC can identify specific pathogens by their antigen and adapt defences
to accurately target each one. This response is improved with re-exposure to the
same pathogen – memory B and T cells

- Lymphocyte = white blood cells

T-lymphocytes (T-cells)

- Produced in bone marrow, mature

in the thymus
- Cell-Mediated Immune Response
- T-cells attack body cells that are
infected by pathogens or growing
abnormally as cancers

Helper T-cells = Interact with Phagocytes

to set off the specific immune response

Cytotoxic (killer) T-cells= Attack body cells

which are infected by pathogens

Suppressor T-Cells = Suppress the immune response after an infection is defeated

Memory T-Cells = Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same
pathogen

B-lymphocytes (B-cells)

- Produced and mature in bone marrow

- Antibody-Mediated Immune response (aka. Hormonal Immunity)
- Antibodies attack pathogens which are NOT inside body cells, but in the
blood, lymph or tissue fluid

Plasma B-cells = Produce antibodies to fight the current infection

Memory B-cells = Remain in the system to respond to future infections by the same
pathogen
The immune system enacts a coordinated response to pathogen exposure,
mediated predominantly by WBCs, B cells and T cells.

1. Pathogen first enters the body (eg. Bacteria) – is detected as foreign due to
the presence of non-self-antigens on its surface
2. Inflammation allows increased blood flow to the site, allowing WBCs to
migrate from blood to infected tissue
3. Non-specific responses, including phagocytosis, occur. Phagocytes engulf the
pathogen
4. Phagocytes present the foreign antigens on their surface (becoming an
antigen-presenting cell) for recognition by B cells and T helper cells
5. Phagocytes and Helper T cells both release cytokines that activate Plasma B
cells (release pathogen-specific antibodies to immobilise foreign cells) and
Cytotoxic T cells (kill infected cells by releasing cytotoxins)
6. Plasma B Cells clone to make more Plasma B cells and Memory B Cells
7. Cytotoxic T cells clone to make more Cytotoxic T cells and Memory T Cells
8. Antibodies attach to pathogen
9. Phagocyte engulfs antigen and antibody – turning into an antigen-presenting
cell… etc.
10. Pathogen is cleared from site
11. Suppressor T cells come in and dampen the immune response, suppressing
killer T cells once the infection has passed
12. Memory B and T cells circulate providing long-term immunity

PREVENTION, TREATMENT, CONTROL

LOCAL REGIONAL GLOBAL

- Immunisation creates
herd immunity - Consideration of - Communication
environmental conditions between countries and
- Personal hygiene – water supply, sanitation with global health
practices (eg. Washing facilities, food, climate, organisations (eg. WHO)
hands) flooding

- Safe health practices - Improving swift - Implementation of

(eg. Staying at home identification – continued quarantine measures
when sick) surveillance, rapid
recognition of presence,
- Provisions of public efficient diagnosis of the - Monitoring movements
health information to microbial cause of potentially affected
increase knowledge of individuals
disease and prevention
Preventing infectious disease

- Hygiene (eg. Hand washing, insect repellent, condoms)

- Prevents transmission

- Quarantine (eg. Isolating a sick person, airports banning potential disease-carrying

objects entering Australia)

- Prevents transmission

- Vaccination = exposure to a safe dose of a pathogen to develop memory B and T

cells

- Provides immunitY

- Prior exposure to disease = having the disease before o Provides immunity via. B
and T cells
- Getting given specific antibodies (eg. Via breast milk, hospital injections) o Provides
temporary immunity
- Public health campaigns = any campaign encouraging people to prevent disease
through other methods
- Pesticides = chemicals that kill insects

- Prevents some vector transmission (eg. Malaria)

- Prevents crop disease

- Genetically Engineering (eg. BT cotton is protected against insect pests)

- Can prevent some specific disease – good for plants

Antiviral = a class of antimicrobial used to treat viral infections, but inhibiting the
development of the pathogen inside the host cell

- Not able to destroy virus’s; they only inhibit the development of the pathogen
- To inhibit development, antivirals may target a number of different stages in
the virus life cycle
- It is very difficult to develop effective antiviral drugs because viruses use the
host cell machinery in order to replicate – the key is to target the molecules
which interfere with the virus, but not with the host cell processes
- Another difficulty is the rapid evolution of viruses and wide variation between
them
- Antivirals can be expensive and overuse can lead to antiviral resistance
Types of antivirals:
- Before cell entry: blocking the virus’ ability to infiltrate a cell
- During viral synthesis: drugs that inhibit the ability of a virus to synthesise its
requisite components inside the host cell. This may include:

- Inhibition of reverse transcription

- Inhibition of transcription
- Inhibition of protease ability

- Release phase: blocking the ability for a virus to be released from the host cell,
inhibiting its ability to transmit to further cells

Antibiotics = a class of antimicrobials used to treat bacterial infections. This may be

achieved either by killing the infective bacteria or by inhibiting its growth
- Often sources from chemicals naturally produced in organisms
- There are many different types; each type only works for certain types of bacteria
- There are many ways antibiotics may stop the growth or kill bacteria. This involves
the inhibition of key processes in bacterial growth, including:

- Interference with cell membrane permeability

- Interference with nucleic acid synthesis
- Interference with protein synthesis
- Interference with cell wall synthesis

- Antibiotic resistance (caused by a number of factors such as misuse or overuse) is

an increasing issue for disease control
- Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria evolved using the fundamental principles of
evolution by natural selection:

1. Within every population of bacteria, a few are antibiotic resistant due to

natural variation and mutation
2. Whenever someone uses antibiotics, most of the bacteria are killed, but the
few resistant ones survive
3. These then reproduce, with antibiotic resistance becoming a dominant trait in
the population
4. Additionally, we know that bacteria are able to pass genetic information to
each other using plasmids
Definitions:

Epidemic = a sudden increase in the prevalence of a disease above the

endemic rate
Pandemic = a sudden increase in the prevalence of the disease across
multiple countries and/or multiple continents
Outbreak = a sudden increase in the prevalence of a disease above the
endemic rate within a small or specific geographic area
Endemic level of disease = the baseline rate at which a specific disease
typically occurs in a given population

Pandemic Case - Seasonal Influenza

Causative Pathogen Virus - Influenza A and B virus

Mode of Transmission
- Direct transmission – via large respiratory droplets from an infected
individual to a susceptible individual
- Indirect transmission – via fomites
- Vehicle transmission – via droplets travelling through the air

Symptoms Sore throat, fever, headache, fatigue

Pandemic Details
2009 Pandemic:

- Occurred between 2009-2010

- Caused by the Influenza A virus
- Most cases were mild, however globally there were an estimated that
100,000-400,000 deaths in the first year alone
- Was the first pandemic when a vaccine was developed,
produced and deployed in multiple countries in the first year
- There were more cases in young people than the typical seasonal flu

Control Methods (local,

regional, global) - WHO raised the pandemic alert early on, signalling countries to
accelerate their preparations for the new influenza pandemic
- Airports focused on rapid identification of influenza cases amongst
returning travellers through boarder screening and assessment of
travellers from affected areas at international airports
- Late in the first year of the pandemic, a vaccine was released to
increase immunity, decreasing the number of available hosts for the
disease

Effectiveness of control
methods The methods used to control the disease were moderately effective as
WHO was able to signal the end of the pandemic by August 2010,
meaning the disease was controlled within a relatively short time.
However, as there was an outbreak in the first place, the initial efforts to
control the disease were not as effective.
Dengue Fever

- Caused by a virus
- Vector transmission between people by female mosquitos
- Causes flu-like symptoms usually lasting about one-week, however in some
dengue virus infections, a more severe, deadly form of disease occurs
- There is no cure
- Prevention – using insect repellent, insect nets and protective clothing

Incidence Prevelance Mortality Rates

- 390 million infections globally
per year
- 75% of the global population
exposed to dengue fever live in
the Asia-Pacific region
- Found in tropical and - 22 million deaths globally per
sub-tropical climates year
- Most countries in south- east
Asia experience a higher
burden of DF
- Higher ratio males than
females hospitalised
- Expected rate of DF will
increase overtime due to
climate change, globalisation,
trvel and trade factors and
socioeconomic factors

Traditional disease remedies

Ancient Hebrew hygiene – washing hands was emphasised and they were banned
from easting animals that we now know have an increased risk of transferring
disease when poorly prepared or cooked, therefore reducing their risk of infectious
disease

Bloodletting – ancient Egyptians developed a ‘treatment’ of draining blood

(bloodletting) in an attempt to control disease in Europe, which could be ineffective
and harmful as some diseases such as HIV are spread through blood, so by
exposing blood to others could potentially cause an increase in the incidences of
disease
 MODULE 8 NON-INFECTIOUS
DISEASE/DISORDERS
Homeostasis

- The maintenance of a stable, relatively constant internal state within an organism,

despite environmental changes

- Maintained by the nervous and endocrine system

- Homeostasis involves maintaining a constant:

- Internal body temperature of 37 degrees Celsius

- Blood sugar levels
- Blood volume
- Blood solute concentration
- Blood pressure
- Blood pH of 7.4
​

Negative feedback = when a variable triggers a counteracting response in order to

bring the body back to a set point

Positive feedback = when a variable triggers a response that intensifies the variable

Temperature

- Internal body temperature = 37 degrees Celsius

- Rarely changes from 37 degrees Celsius, in fact, when raised by just one degree to
38 degrees Celsius, you have a fever
Responses to external temperature changes to help maintain the correct internal
temperature:
- Environment too cold (hypothermia):

- Skeletal muscles contract involuntarily – shivering

- Blood vessels constrict
- Hairs on skin stand on end to reduce air currents
- Behavioural changes – eg. crossing arms, putting on more clothes
- Thyroid hormone increases rate of reaction – they generate heat
- Environment too hot (hyperthermia):

- Sweat glands release sweat

- Blood vessels dilate
- Hairs on skin lie flat to let air currents get near skin
- Behavioural changes – eg. Moving into shade, drinking water
- Thyroid hormone decreases rate of reactions – reduce heat generation

Glucose

​ - Blood glucose levels (BGL) must be kept at a relatively constant level to

ensure that cells maintain an appropriate rate of cellular respiration to provide
energy to keep you alive
​ - Glucose = a sugar
- BLG rise after eating food
- BLG falls during intense exercise
- Glucose first enters the blood from the small intestines
 BLG is regulated by insulin and glucagon
- Insulin is produced by the pancreas
and is released when glucose levels are too
HIGH
- Insulin causes excess glucose to
move into cells and the liver stop sugar from
being released
- Glucagon is released by the
pancreas when glucose levels are too LOW
- Glucagon causes the liver and cells
to release stored sugar
- Diabetes is the condition in which
the pancreas has trouble regulating BLG

Water Concentration

- Maintenance of homeostasis for water and solute concentration in the blood,

issue and cells
- Allows diffusion in and out of cells to
occur correctly
- Contributes to blood volume and
pressure
- Osmoregulation = the balance of
water and salt
- Hypothalamus has osmoreceptors
that detects the amount of water
relative to salts in blood:
- When there is insufficient water
content in the blood – hypothalamus
caused the pituitary gland to release
anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) into the
bloodstream

- ADH acts on the kidneys and

caused them to reabsorb more water
– hence, reduces the amount of
water lost through urination

- When there is too much water content in the blood – less ADH is released,
increasing the amount of water lost through urination
Adaptations = traits or features of an organism that allow it to better survive and
reproduce in its environment

Adaptions Definitions Trends and Patterns

Structural Relate to the size - Movement: shaded areas or wet

and shape of an environments helps regulate heat exposure
organism and its OR crossing arms, or putting on more
various body parts clothes to conserve heat
- Use of muscles: muscle contractions
create metabolic heat
- Sunbaking: increasing surface area
available for heat absorption
- Licking: enabling more heat to be
evaporated through saliva
- Drinking water: to replenish fluids to
maintain cells in a consistent, isotonic state

Behavioural Relate to how and - Insulation (g. feathers, fur, hair) traps a
organisms body layer of air next to the skin which reduces
works transfer of heat to the environment
- Surface area to volume ratio as more
compact bodies reduces the surface area
available for heat exchange, allowing
animals to retail heat more effectively

Psychological Relate to an - Vasoconstriction (constricting blood

organism’s vessels) and vasodilation (dilating blood
behaviour vessels) allow animals to regulate the SA:V
ratio of their circulatory systems to retain or
expel heat when required
- Metabolic rates can be increased to
increase the production of heat energy
internally, or decreased to cool body
temperature
- Sweating as perspiration allows sweat to
evaporate from the surface of the skin,
which has an evaporative cooling effect
- Panting allows evaporation from internal
body surfaces, such as nasal passages,
mouth and lungs which also has an
evaporative cooling effect
Ectotherms

- Cold blooded
- Have greater variation in internal temperature than endotherms § Rely mainly
on external sources of heat
- Most fish, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates are ectothermic

Endotherms

- Warm blooded
- Animals that can generate most of their heat internally
- Allows them maintain a relatively constant internal body temperature, in spite
of significant variations in environmental temperature
- Mammals and birds are endothermic

Homeostasis mechanisms

- Hypothalamus (in the brain) = involved in the regulation of temperature,

hunger and thirst, links the nervous and endocrine system
- Liver = regulation of BGL, producing red blood cells, aiding digestion
- Pancreas = helps to regulate BGL by producing hormones insulin and
glucagon
- Kidneys = filters the blood to remove nitrogenous wastes (urea) and to
balance water and ion levels to aid in osmoregulation

The nervous system

- Consists of nerves that extend all over the body and connect back to the spinal
cord and brain
- Nerves allow the brain to receive and respond to information (stimuli) from the
internal and external environments
- Stimuli – light, heat, sounds, pressure, chemical concentrations
- In humans, sensory organs (ears, eyes, nose, skin and tongue) have sensory
receptors that detect various stimuli
- Sensory neurons (nerve cells) in the nerves transmit the information as
electrochemical signals to a control centre (usually the brain) where it is processed
- The control centre responds by activating motor neurons in nerves to transmit the
information to an effector organ

- Effector = responds to stimuli (eg. Cause muscle movements or endocrine glands

release hormones)
 STIMULUS → RECEPTOR → CONTROL CENTRE →
EFFECTOR → RESPONSE

The Endocrine System

The collection of glands which regulate:

- Metabolism
- Growth and development
- Tissue function
- Sexual reproduction
- Sleep
- Mood etc

Excretion

- The removal of metabolic waste and excess materials from the cells of an
organism
- Assist in the maintenance of homeostasis by removing wastes and aiding
osmoregulation (the balance of water and salt)
- Materials excreted include carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, excess salts
and excess water
- Human excrete via sweating, exhalation and urination
- Kidneys are used to filter nitrogenous wastes from the blood for excretion
- Nitrogenous waste = by-products from breaking down any proteins that are
consumed in food. Tend to initially form ammonia, which mammals convert to
urea and excrete in urine. Birds and reptiles convert it to uric acid (white
paste)

Carbon dioxide Nitrogenous waste

How is it produced? Cellular respiration Breaking down of proteins

How is it excreted Exhalation Urine (mammals), uric acid

(birds)

What organ removes this Lungs Kidneys

from the blood?

How often is it excreted? Constantly Often (1-2 + times/day)

Converting Nitrogenous Waste

- Nitrogenous wastes occur as a by-product of protein metabolism

- Initially they occur as ammonia – is highly toxic and needs to be diluted by lots
of water
- Some organisms use energy to convert it into urea or uric acid, which are less
toxic
- They need to be excreted as they are harmful if they accumulate

Urea Uric Acid

Energy to produce it Low High

Amount of water required to More water Less water

dilute it

Organisms that excrete this Mammals, adult amphibians, Insects, birds, snails, reptiles
form of waste some marine species

Mechanisms in plants that allow water balance to be maintained

- Maintaining homeostasis is essential for plant health

- Lose water via transpiration from the stomata in the leaves during gas
exchange
- Water replaced by absorbing form the soil → plants living in tropical areas
highly developed in this.
- Plants in dry areas adaptions to minimise water loss and maintain water
balance

Adaptions include:

- Smaller leaves → reduces SA:V ratio, reducing surface area for transpiration
- Closing somata → inhibits water loss through leaves
- Light coloured leaves with reflective surfaces → reduces sunlight exposure
and therefore transpiration
- Cuticles covering leaves → seal in water
- Succulents,, thick, fleshy leaves/stems that can store water → used when
water access is low
Causes and effects of non-infectious diseases in humans

Non infectious Causes Examples

disease

Genetic diseases - gene or chromosomal - Down Syndrome (chromosomal

abnormalities caused by mutations abnormality)
- such mutations may result from - Cystic fibrosis (single gene
errors during gamete formation disorder)
- genetic diseases may be inherited - Phenylketonuria (PKU)
from parents, or as a result of
acquired changes to pre-existing
genes

Environemntal - interaction with environment and - Minamata (ingestion of large

diseases exposure to physical factors such as
radiation
- exposure to harmful or toxic
chemicals such as toxic metals or
noxious gases
- exposure to extreme temperatures
amounts of mercury)
- Frostbite (tissue damage)
- Mutations to DNA within cells
(from high exposure to radiation
levels)

Nutritional diseases - issues with diet (e.g. excessive or - Scurvy

insufficient food consumption) - Type 2 Diabetes
- problems with digestion - Vitamin A deficiency
- consumption with incorrect
amounts of specific foods/vitamins

Cancer - many cancers are caused by many - Cervical cancer (from HPV
different factors, including infectious exposure)
agents, genetic disorders, exposure - Breast cancer
to mutagenic factors in the - Melanoma
environment (e.g. radiation), and - Lung cancer
lifestyle habits (e.g. smoking)

Nutritional disease: Vitamin A deficiency

Causes: inadequate intake of vitamin A, fat malabsorption or liver disorders

Symptoms: dry eyes, dry skin, frequent infections, dry spots on skin, can lead to
blindness Treatments: consumption of vitamin A rich foods, such as eggs, chicken,
milk or carrots
Genetic disease: Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Causes: occurs in 1 in 10,000 live births due to a mutation to the PAH gene on
chromosome 12 – has an enzyme that helps break down the amino acid,
phenylalanine (phe), which is contained in many foods

Symptoms: can lead to brain damage, intellectual disabilities, behavioural symptoms

or seizures

Treatments: diet modification to avoid protein-rich foods and to take phe-free protein
supplements

Cancer: Cervical cancer

Causes: HPV (sexually transmitted disease) is the cause of over 99% of cervical
cancer cases Symptoms: unusual vaginal bleeding and discharge, loss of fertility and
death

Treatments: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy

Type 2 Diabetes

Description - Condition in which the body becomes resistant to insulin and is gradually
unable to produce it
- This leads to a build-up of glucose in the blood, which can cause damage
to systems in the body
- Causes include genetic factors, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy diets

Risk Factors - poor diet

- lack of exercise
- obesity
- gender
- age
- genetic predisposition (family history)

Treatment + - Initial treatment = lifestyle changes (diet low in sugar and regular exercise)
Management - Insulin injections are given if lifestyle changes are not sufficient
- Insulin injections come from transgenic bacteria with the human
insulin genes

Incidence - Number of people with diabetes has quadrupled over the past 30 years
- Predicted increase in adults with diabetes between 2010 and 2030

Prevelance Males have an overall higher prevalence than females

- Highest prevalence percentage of diabetes is in those aged 75+

Mortality Rates - Currently causes 5 million deaths per year, mostly as a result of CVD
- Type 2 diabetes is expected to become the seventh most prevalent cause
of death globally by 2030
What makes a good epidemiological study design?

What data to collect?

- Can be from records e.g. death statistics

- Can be a survey

- Two groups must be surveyed: (1) people are affected (2) people who are not
affected

- Group (2) is the control group for validity

- To be reliable – should be as large a sample size as possible (eg. 1000 in each

group) - To be valid – Two groups need to have similar demographics (age, gender,
ethnicity, SES)

What data analysis will be done?

- Similarities and differences between groups

- Look for patterns

How can we control and/or study the disease?

- Experiments to find causality if a trend is found

- Various control measures (eg. Public health campaigns)

Genetic engineering allows us to make changes to the genetic code, thus allowing
us to edit sequences causing non-infectious disease. A number of genetic
engineering techniques may allow for the prevention of non-infectious disease,
including:

Gene therapy: the correction of genetic disorders by introducing a normal,

functioning gene into cells

- This is achieved by inserting corrected gene sequences into a cell where a

defect has occurred
- Techniques used to inject new genetic material include the insertion of viral
vectors, use of a gene gun, and inorganic nanoparticles
- This can be used to treat:

→ Severe combines immune deficiency

→ Haemophilia

→ Parkinson’s disease
CRISPR: a gene editing system by which point mutations may be accurately
introduced into genomes

- CRISPR may be used to improve gene therapies by making point mutations

to dysfunctional cells
- Such changes will alter the genomes of all edited cells, as well as any cells
which grow from them, resulting in a lasting somatic cell edit

Embryo screening or editing: increased access and decreased costs of whole

genome sequencing opens up the possibility to screen embryos for genetic disorders

- This may be particularly beneficial for couples who carry known genes for
disease
- Screening allows selection of embryos only without genetic defects for
implantation
- Editing technologies, especially at the early embryo stage, open up the
possibility that whole organism changes may be made to the offspring

Hearing loss

Steps of hearing:

1. Pinna collects sound waves which pass through the ear canal
2. Waves reach the ear drum (Tympanic Membrane) causing it to vibrate
3. Vibrations pass to the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear

4. Ossicles amplify the noise and pass it to the inner ear

5. Vibrations pass through fluid of cochlear, making tiny hairs move
6. This causes electrical signals to travel through the auditory nerve to the brain
Role of the Ear Drum:

When sounds waves in the ear canal reach the ear drum, it vibrates at the same
frequency, passing these vibrations on to the middle ear bones

Role of the Ossicles:

The ossicles receive vibrations from the ear drum and amplify these vibrations,
passing them on to the fluid in the inner ear

Role of the Organ of Corti:

The Organ of Corti in the inner ear contains hair cells that can detect vibrations. The
movement of the hair cells causes cilia to vibrate. These vibrations are converted
into electrical nerve impulses that can be sent along the cochlear nerve to the brain
to be interpreted as sound
Technologies to deal with hearing loss

Technology What it does Parts of ear that Benefits Limitations

must function
for technology
to assist hearing
loss

Hearing aids Amplifies sounds External, middle, - Increase - Do not pick up

waves that enter inner, cochlear volume of sound all frequencies,
the external ear nerve waves entering so don’t work well
the ear canal, with background
improving hearing noise
- Relatively - Rely on the
cheap natural
- Don’t require mechanisms of
surgery hearing, so it is
- Can be essential that the
adjusted to ear drum, middle
selectively detect ear and inner ear
frequencies for are still functional
which hearing - Can’t
loss has occurred swim/shower with
them
- Have to take off
to recharge

Bone conduction Sends sounds as Inner ear and - Amplifies the - Requires
implants vibrations through cochlear nerve natural surgery
bone directly to movement of the - Small risk of
the inner ear, ossicular chain new growth of
bypassing the resulting in the bone around the
external and quality of the re- implant site after
middle ear established surgery
hearing to
improve

Cochlear Sends sounds as Cochlear nerve - Work best - Pitch and

implants electrical when implanted timbre are difficult
impulses directly before the age of to hear
to the cochlear 5 - It is difficult to
(auditory) nerve - Facilitate isolate one voice
to be interpreted hearing to occur talking in a crowd
by the brain in people with - Training is
significant often required to
hearing loss learn how to
- Allow young ‘hear’ using the
children with implant
hearing loss to - Do not fully
learn spoken reproduce the
language sounds
- Societal experienced by
benefits – more someone with full
involved in hearing
society; can - Expensive and
contribute more require surgery
easily (eg. Job)
Visual Disorders

Parts of the Eye

- Sclera = tough white coating that covers and protects the eyeball
- Iris = coloured part of the eye, contains muscles that contract or relax to
change the diameter of the pupil to be smaller or larger, depending on light
levels
- Pupil = an opening in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter the eye
- Cornea = the transparent, front surface of the eye that is over the iris and
pupil. Light bends as it passes through this layer to enter the eye
- Conjunctiva= a thin, translucent membrane covering the sclera and lining the
eyelids
- Lens = a transparent, bi-convex disc that
focuses light onto the retina
- Aqueous and vitreous humours = two
regions of jelly-like fluid – one in front of the
pupil and the other inside the eyeball cavity,
light must pass through these to reach the
retina
- Retina = a sensory membrane lining the
inner surface at the back of the eye
containing photoreceptor cells and nerves
that allow light impulses to be changed into
electrical signals
- Optic nerve = carries electrical signals from
the retina to the brain, which interprets these
signals to form images

Eye Conditions

Accomodation = the ability of the lens to change shape to allow focus on near and
far objects

Hyperopia (long-sightedness / far-sightedness):

​ - Blurry vision is experienced for objects

that are near
- This causes light to focus behind the
retina
- Shape of the eye is too ellipse or the
curve of the cornea is too straight
- A CONVEX lens refract light to converge
(come closer
- This makes the focal point in the eye
 occur in less distance
- This corrects hyperopia, as their focal point is naturally behind the retina,
which is too far

Myopia (short-sightedness /
near-sightedness):
- Blurry vision is experienced for objects
that are far away
- This causes light to focus in front of the
retina
- Shape of the eye is too oval or the curve
of the cornea is too round
- A CONCAVE lens refracts light to
diverge (spread apart)
- This makes the focal point in the eye
occur further away (in more distance)
- This corrects myopia, as their focal point
naturally before the retina, which is too short

Astigmatism:
- Visual disorder that can be caused by
the cornea or by the lens
- Corneal astigmatism = the curve in the
cornea is asymmetrical
- Lenticular astigmatism = the surface
curve of the lens is asymmetrical
- Light focuses in two different places (eg.
before and after the retina)

Presbyopia:
- Age-related visual disorder involving a
refractive error that causes blurry vision
- Typically causes light to focus behind
the retina of the eye, similarly to hyperopia
- As people age, the lens loses elasticity
overtime making it more difficult to change
shape and focus
- Typically begins in those aged 40 +
years
- The lens becomes too stiff to change
shape correctly, affecting the ability of light to
focus on the retina at the correct
- Treatment – multifocal glasses/contacts, readers and eye glasses
Concave and Convex Lenses

​ - Convex lenses in glasses or

contacts can correct hyperopia –
light focuses beyond the retina in
this condition when looking at close
objects, so a convex lens corrects
the focus of light by converging light
before entering the eye
- Concave lenses in glasses or
contacts can correct myopia – light
focuses before the retina in this
condition when looking at far
objects, so concave lenses make
the light diverge more before
entering the eye, so it comes to a
point on the retina

Advantages Disadvantages

Glasses - Easy to take on and off - Some people don’t like

- Fashionable the appearance of
- Can incorporate sun glasses
protection - Can break during sport
- Can be expensive

Contact Lenses - Useful for sport - Can be difficult for

- Less obvious to other some to put in/out
people than glasses - Risk of eye infection
- Reduces oxygen to
eye

Eye Surgery - LASIK

What is it? LASIK is a popular method of laser eye surgery that can be used to correct
refractive errors by using a cool laser with ultraviolet radiation

Risks? - Overcorrection or under correction (blurry vision)

- Partial or complete blindness

Procedure steps 1. Local anaesthetic is applied using eye drops

2. The eyelid is held open by a lid separating device
3. An ultrathin flap is made in the top layers of the cornea using a laser
4. The corneal flap is temporarily lifted back
5. A cool laser is used to remove corneal tissue to correct the shape of
the cornea
6. The corneal flap is returned to its correct position
Loss of Kidney function

Kidneys

- The kidneys constantly filter the blood

to remove nitrogenous wastes (e.g.
urea) and to remove excess salts and
water
- These are filtered out of the blood by
nephrons within the kidney, which
can be excreted from the body
- Excretion is essential to maintain
other aspects of homeostasis,
including maintaining the correct
concentration of water and salts in
the blood, blood volume and blood
pressure
- Renal artery = brings blood into the kidney
- Renal vein = brings blood out of kidney
- Ureter = takes urine out of kidney

Kidney Nephrons;

- Blood enters each kidney via a renal artery that branches into capillaries that
take blood to the nephrons
- Filtration:

→ the glomerulus, a knot of capillaries, allows parts of the blood to enter the
first part of a nephron, the Bowmans Capsule

→ the Bowmans Capsule filters blood from capillaries based on size - only
small particles such as water and dissolved materials can enter, not large
particles (e.g. blood cells)
 - Reabsorption:

→ filtrate that was collected

travels along the tubule of the
nephron, most substances
being reabsorbed by the body

→ any substances not

absorbed exit the nephron via
the collecting duct and are
then transported as urine
(nitrogenous wastes, water
and ions)

- Urine from nephrons is taken via tubes called ureters to be stored in the
bladder, then released via the urethra

Treatments for kidney failure

Kidney transplants

- The preferred treatment in most cases of kidney failure is a kidney transplant

- However, transplant organs need to be carefully matched to recipients to prevent
host immune responses destroying the introduced organ
- Often have to wait a couple of years before a transplant becomes a treatment
option for them

Kidney Dialysis (Haemodialysis)

What is it? How does it work? Benefits Limitations

- Kidney dialysis is a - Involves the - Keeps patient alive - Time consuming – 3

life-prolonged patients’ blood being - Corrects water and times per week for 4-5
treatment for people pumped through a salt concentrations to hours
with kidney failure dialyser maintain homeostasis - Costly – can be very
- The most common - Within the dialyser expensive
form of kidney dialysis the blood passes - Does not typically - Risk of infection with
is haemodialysis through many tiny cause pain the exposure of blood
tubes made of semi- - ‘Cleans’ blood
- Haemodialysis permeable - Many patients still
needs to be done at membranes die – does not cure
least three times per - The tubes are kidney failure, only
week, with each constantly treats
session lasting 4-5 surrounded by a fluid
hours called dialysate
- The dialyser allows
the blood to be
‘cleaned’ and helps to
regulate the
homeostasis of water
and ion concentrations