SUMMARY OF ALL

TOPICS AND
DISCUSSION
 Plant Reproduction and it’s Structure
 How Animals Reproduce?
 Genetic Information and Protein Synthesis
 Genetic Engineering and the uses of GMO
Heavenly Father,

You hold each of us in your loving hands.

Come fill our hearts, minds and bodies afresh with hope.
Help us to cast our worries upon you, so that we can embrace our learning today.
Bless us as we study and grow together.
Come and anoint those who teach and tutor us to be bringers of insight and knowledge.
Lord, watch over us all, keep us safe within your Almighty hand.

Amen.
Plant Reproduction
and its Structure
Plant Reproduction and its Structure
Reproduction is the production of offspring.
In sexual reproduction, an organism combines
the genetic information from each of its parents
and genetically unique. Sexual reproduction
occurs in flowers. In asexual reproduction, one
parent copies itself to form a genetically-identical
offspring.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction in plants is a method
that does not include gamete fusion or
chromosomal number changes. Asexual
reproduced offspring form either unicellular or
multicellular organisms acquire the set of genes
of their single parent.
How Asexual Reproduction Transpires?
Asexual Reproduction occurs by cell division during mitosis to
reproduce two or more genetically identical offspring.

Asexual Reproduction in plants occurs in two ways:

• Naturally
• Artificially
Natural Asexual Reproduction
• Natural methods of asexual reproduction include strategies
that plants have developed to self-propagate.
The Four Types of Natural Asexual Reproduction

1. Budding
2. Fragmentation
3. Vegetative Propagation
4. Spore Formation
 Budding
• Budding is a type of
asexual reproduction in
which a new organism
develops from an
outgrowth or bud due to
cell division at one
particular site
Fragmentation
• Fragmentation in
multicellular or colonial
organisms is a form of
asexual reproduction or
cloning, where an organisms
is split into fragment. Each
of these fragments develop
into mature, fully growth
individuals that are clones
of the original organisms
Vegetation
Propagation
• Vegetative Reproduction is
any form of asexual
reproduction occurring in
plants in which a new plant
grows from a fragment or
cutting of the parent plant or
a specialized reproductive
structure. Many plants
naturally reproduced this
way, but it can also be
included artificially
Spore
Formation
• Spore formation is an
asexual reproduction
method. Sporangia bursts,
producing minute single-
called, thin or thick walled
structures known as spores.
They grow into a new plant if
the conditions are right.
Asexual reproduction is
accomplished through the
use of spores.
Artificially Asexual Reproduction
• Artificial methods of asexual reproduction are frequently
employed to give rise to new, and sometimes novel,
plants.
The Four Types of Artificial Method
• Cutting
• Grafting
• Layering
• Micropropagation
 Cutting
• In this method, a part of a
plant is cut along with the
node and is buried in the
soil. The cutting is watered
regularly. This is the
cheapest method of
vegetative propagation in
plants
 Grafting
• In this method, the parts
of two different plants
are joined together such
that they continue to
grow as a single plant.
The rooted plant is
known as the stock. The
other plant is known as
the graft.
Micropropagation
• This is the method of
producing a large number
of plants from an explant
uner laboratory conditions
within a short time
interval. This facilitates the
growth of raare and
endangered plant species
that are difficult to grow
under natural conditions
How Sexual Reproduction Transpires
• Flowering plants reproduce sexually through a
process called pollination. The flowers contain
male sex organs called istemens and female sex
organs called pistils.
Parts of the Flower
Reproduction in
Animals
Presented by Group 2
 WHAT IS REPRODUCTION?
Reproduction means to reproduce. It is a biological
process by which an organism reproduces an
offspring who is biologically similar to the organism.
Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of
species, generation after generation. It is the main
feature of life on earth. ​
How Animals
Produce?
• There are some
animals produce
offspring through
ASEXUAL
reproduction while
other animals
produce offspring
through SEXUAL
reproduction​
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of
gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by
asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the
full set of genes of their single parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of
reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many
eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce
asexually.​
 Fission
Fission, also called binary fission, occurs in
some invertebrate, multi-celled organisms. It
is in some ways analogous to the process of
binary fission of single-celled prokaryotic
organisms. The term fission is applied to
instances in which an organism appears to
split itself into two parts and, if necessary,
regenerate the missing parts of each new
organism. For example, species of
turbellarian flatworms commonly called the
planarians, such as Dugesia dorotocephala,
are able to separate their bodies into head
and tail regions and then regenerate the
missing half in each of the two new
organisms. Sea anemones (Cnidaria), such as • Photo shows a larger cream-colored sea anemone
species of the genus Anthopleura will divide right next to another anemone of the same color
along the oral-aboral axis, and sea and shape, but smaller.
cucumbers (Echinodermata) of the genus
Holothuria, will divide into two halves across • The Anthopleura artemisia sea anemone can
the oral-aboral axis and regenerate the other reproduce through fission.
half in each of the resulting individuals.
Budding
• Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of
the body leading to a separation of the “bud” from the original organism and the
formation of two individuals, one smaller than the other. Budding occurs commonly in
some invertebrate animals such as hydras and corals. In hydras, a bud forms that
develops into an adult and breaks away from the main body

This shows a hydra, which has a stalk-like

body with tentacles growing out the top.
A smaller hydra is budding from the side
of the stalk.
Fragmentation
• Fragmentation is a type of reproduction which breaks an individual into parts
followed by regeneration. When the animal is capable of fragmentation, and when
parts are big enough, a separate individual will regrow from each part​
• Fragmentation can occur through accidental damage, from predators, or in natural
form of reproduction.

• The photo shows a brown sea star with five arms of slightly
varying lengths. Part b: This is a photo of a sea star with one
long arm and four very short arms.
Parthenogenesis​
• Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into an
individual without being fertilized by an organism. The result of the off spring can
either be haploid or diploid, depending on the process in the species.​
• Parthenogenesis can occur in invertebrates such as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, sick
insects, ants, wasps, and bees.

Picture shows how honey bee reproduce

by parthenogenesis in wich egg develop
into an embryo without being fertilized by
a sperm cell.​
Some vertebrate animals—such as certain
reptiles, amphibians, and fish—also reproduce
through parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis has
been observed in species in which the sexes
were separated in terrestrial or marine zoos.
Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead
shark, and a blacktop shark have produced
parthenogenic young when the fem
Fertilization
The fusion of a sperm and an egg is a process called fertilization. This can
occur either inside (internal fertilization) or outside (external fertilization)
the body of the female. Humans provide an example of the former,
whereas frog reproduction is an example of the latter.
External Fertilization
External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs
and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg,
fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process
of spawning where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s)
release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be
triggered by environmental signals, such as water temperature or the length of
daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp),
mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea
cucumbers). Frogs, corals, mayflies, and mosquitoes also spawn
• Photo shows mating toads. The
larger female carries the smaller
male on her back.
• During sexual reproduction in
toads, the male grasps the female
from behind and externally
fertilizes the eggs as they are
deposited.
Internal Fertilization
Internal fertilization occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic
animals also use this method. Internal fertilization may occur by the male directly
depositing sperm in the female during mating. It may also occur by the male depositing
sperm in the environment, usually in a protective structure, which a female picks up to
deposit the sperm in her reproductive tract. There are three ways that offspring are
produced following internal fertilization. In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the
female’s body and develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of
the egg
• In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, and the embryo obtains
its nourishment from the egg’s yolk. The eggs are retained in the female’s body
until they hatch inside of her, or she lays the eggs right before they hatch. This
process helps protect the eggs until hatching. This occurs in some bony fish (like
the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus, Figure 13.7 b), some sharks, lizards, some
snakes (garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate
animals (Madagascar hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa).
• In viviparity the young are born alive. They obtain their nourishment from the
female and are born in varying states of maturity. This occurs in most
mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles.
Section Summary:
Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically identical offspring, or
sexual when the genetic material from two individuals is combined to produce genetically
diverse offspring. Asexual reproduction in animals occurs through fission, budding,
fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. Sexual reproduction may involve fertilization inside the
body or in the external environment. A species may have separate sexes or combined sexes;
when the sexes are combined they may be expressed at different times in the life cycle. The
sex of an individual may be determined by various chromosomal systems or environmental
factors such as temperature.
Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called
fertilization. This can occur either outside the bodies or inside the female. The method of
fertilization varies among animals. Some species release the egg and sperm into the
environment, some species retain the egg and receive the sperm into the female body
and then expel the developing embryo covered with shell, while still other species retain
the developing offspring throughout the gestation period.
The Genetics
Genetic Information and Protein Synthesis
 What is Gene?
The basic physical and functional unit of heredity is
the gene. DNA is the material that makes up genes.
Some genes serve as blueprints for the production of
proteins. A short segment of DNA that contains coding
for proteins. Genes carry traits through generations.
 How Genes Work?
Offspring carry traits from their parents. However, not all of
the parents' traits appear in the offspring. The individual's
genes determine which traits will appear. Traits are
determined by genes and that genes are passed from one
generation to the next. Genes are located in chromosomes,
which are the structures in the nucleus of most cells. Genes
control most of your traits because your DNA directs the cell
to make proteins that determine the characteristics of a cell.
 The Flow of Genetic Information

Every new cell that develops in your body needs an exact copy of the DNA
from its parent cell. Humans and all other organisms must be able to transfer
copies of their DNA Into the offspring in order to continue their species. This is
done with the help of a copier enzyme. Messenger RNA or mRNA takes
genetic information from sections of the DNA from the nucleus out into the
cytoplasm. The DNA never leaves the nucleus. instead, "blueprint" copies of
particular genes within the DNA instructions are sent out into the cytoplasm
to direct the assembly of proteins.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid ( DNA)
is the molecule that contains the genetic information of
organisms. It is found in each cell in the organism and can tell
cells what proteins to make. It can be called a double helix
hence; the structure consists of two strands that wind around
each other like a twisted ladder. Each strand will have a
backbone made of alternating groups of sugar (deoxyribose)
and phosphate groups attached to each sugar is one of four
bases.
The DNA Structure
 What is the Protein Synthesis?
• Is the formation of proteins using the information coded
on DNA and carried out by RNA. each protein molecule is
made up of one or more polymers, called polypeptides,
consisting of a specific sequence of amino acids linked
together by peptide bonds.

• Is the process of all cells to use to make proteins,

which are responsible for all cell structure and
function
THE PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription takes place in the nucleus: as mentioned by (Beckett
B.S,2000), the gene coding for the protein is required to untwists then
unzips, the Hydrogen or the H-bonds between the strands break free
RNA nucleotides that will form complementary base pairs with one
strand of DNA bases.
During transcription, an mRNA molecule is synthesized from the gene
within the DNA. Each gene is copied from a fixed starting position
called promoter site. Here, an enzyme called RNA polynmerase binds
to one strand of the DNA double helix and moves along the DNA
strand.
THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
The process of assembling protein molecules from information encoded in
mRNA is called translation. After transcription, the mRNA strand leaves the
cell's nucleus and travels into the cytoplasm. Amino acids floating freely in the
cytoplasm are transported to the ribosomes by tRNA.

Translation takes place in the ribosomes of the cytoplasm, or found on the rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The ribosomes are the sites were proteins are
synthesize the mRNA strand attaches to a ribosome which is known as tRNA
molecules transport specific amino acids to the ribosome each of the, these are
the mRNA codon codes for a specific amino acid the anti-codons and codons
match up and form complementary base pairs peptide bonds form between the
adjacent amino acids to form the polypeptide (protein).
SUMMARY
:
Genetic Engineering