QUARTER 1 - GRADE 11

General Biology 1

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
1
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The Editors

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
PIVOT 4A Learner’s Material
Quarter 1
First Edition, 2020

General Biology 1
Grade 11
Job S. Zape, Jr.
PIVOT 4A SLMs Development Lead

Caselyn T. Roxas

Edward DJ. Garcia, Asher H. Pasco

Content Creator & Writer

Jaypee E. Lopo
Internal Reviewer & Editor

Fe M. Ong-ongowan, Lhovie A. Cauilan, Ephraim L. Gibas

Theresa M. Pantaleon & Frederick SJ. Roxas
Layout Artist & Illustrator

Jhucel A. del Rosario & Melanie Mae N. Moreno

Graphic Artist & Cover Designer

Ephraim L. Gibas
IT & Logistics

Published by: Department of Education Region IV-A CALABARZON

Regional Director:
Assistant Regional Director
PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
 Guide in Using PIVOT Learner’s Material

For the Parents/Guardian

This module aims to assist you, dear parents, guardians, or

siblings of the learners, to understand how materials and activities
are used in the new normal. It is designed to provide the information,
activities, and new learning that learners need to work on.

Activities presented in this module are based on the Most

Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs) for General Biology 1 as
prescribed by the Department of Education.

Further, this learning resource hopes to engage the learners in

guided and independent learning activities at their own pace and
time. Furthermore, this also aims to help learners acquire the needed
21st century skills while taking into consideration their needs and
circumstances.

You are expected to assist the child in the tasks and ensure the
learner’s mastery of the subject matter. Be reminded that learners
have to answer all the activities in their own notebook.

For the Learners

The module is designed to suit your needs and interests using

the IDEA instructional process. This will help you attain the
prescribed grade-level knowledge, skills, attitude, and values at your
own pace outside the normal classroom setting.

The module is composed of different types of activities that are

arranged according to graduated levels of difficulty—from simple to
complex. You are expected to answer all activities on separate
sheets of paper and submit the outputs to your respective teachers
on the time and date agreed upon.

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 PARTS OF PIVOT LEARNER’S MATERIAL

Parts of the LM Description

What I need to
know The teacher utilizes appropriate strategies in presenting
Introduction

the MELC and desired learning outcomes for the day or

week, purpose of the lesson, core content and
relevant samples. This allows teachers to maximize
learners awareness of their own knowledge as regards
content and skills required for the lesson
What is new

What I know The teacher presents activities, tasks , contents of

Development

value and interest to the learners. This shall expose the

learners on what he/she knew, what he /she does not
know and what she/he wanted to know and learn. Most
What is in of the activities and tasks must simply and
directly revolved around the concepts to develop and
master the skills or the MELC.
What is it

The teacher allows the learners to be engaged in

What is more
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meaningfully connect their learnings after doing the
Engagement

tasks in the D. This part exposes the learner to real life

situations /tasks that shall ignite his/ her interests to meet
What I can do the expectation, make their performance
satisfactory or produce a product or performance
which lead him/ her to understand fully the skills and
What else I can concepts .
do

What I have The teacher brings the learners to a process where

Assimilation

learned they shall demonstrate ideas, interpretation, mindset or

values and create pieces of information that will form
part of their knowledge in reflecting, relating or using it
effectively in any situation or context. This part
encourages learners in creating conceptual structures
What I can
giving them the avenue to integrate new and old
achieve
learnings.

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WEEK
Cellular Structure
1 Lesson 1
I
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is
composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutri-
ents from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
functions. Cells also contain the body’s hereditary material and can make copies
of themselves. Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of
these parts, called organelles, are specialized structures that perform certain
tasks within the cell.
In this lesson, you are to explain the postulates of the cell theory. And De-
scribe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles

Cell Theory
The word cell was used to refer as the basic units of life. We owe the word
“cell” to the work of a British scientist named Robert Hooke. He was one of the
earliest scientists to study living things under a microscope. In 1665, he examined
a thin slice of cork bark of an oak tree under his microscope and found it to be
composed of many arranged rectangular compartments. He called this empty com-
partments “cell”.
In the late 1600s, Dutch businessman Anton van Leeuwenhoek became one
of the first people o use a microscope to study nature. Using only a single powerful
lens, van Leeuwenhoek crafted instruments that could produce magnified images
of very small objects. His simple microscope enabled him to see things no one had
ever seen before. He was the first person to see tiny living organisms in a drop of
water.
Another significant findings about cells was made in 1838 by the German
botanist Matthias Schleiden, he examined various plant structure and observed
that they were composed of cells. In 1839, Theodore Schwann, a German zoolo-
gist, examined different parts of an animal and he made the same observation.
They established the idea which was developed into the Cell Theory that the bod-
ies of all plants and animals are composed of cells. In 1858 the cell theory was de-
veloped further by Rudolf Virchow of Germany. He maintained that living cells
come from pre-existing living cells by cell division

The cell theory may be summarized as follows:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells;
2. Cells are the basic unit structure and function in living things;
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

Cell: Structure and Function

The cell, the structural and functional unit of all living things, is very com-
plex. Differences in size, shape and internal makeup of the cells of the human
body reflect their specific roles in the body. Nonetheless, cells do have common
features and functions.

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STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

Nucleus Large structure surrounded by Storage of genetic Information

double membrane

Nucleolus Granular body within nucleus; Site for ribosomal RNA Syn-
consist of RNA and protein thesis; ribosome subunit as-
sembly

Chromosomes Composed of a complex of DNA Contain genes (unit of heredi-

and protein known as chroma- tary information) the govern
tin; condense during cell divi- structure and activity of cell
sion, becoming visible as rod
like chromosomes

Cell wall Contains cellulose fibrils (found Protection, maintain cell

in plants, prokaryotes, fungi shape, prevent excessive up-
and some protists take of water

Plasma Membrane boundary of the cell Encloses cellular contents;

Membrane regulates movement of materi-
als in and out of the cell; help
maintain cell shapes ; com-
municate with other cells

Endoplasmic Network of internal mem- Synthesize lipids and modi-

Reticulum branes extending through cyto- fies many proteins; origin of
plasm intracellular transport vesicles
that carry proteins

Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes on outer sur- Lipid biosynthesis

face

Rough ER Ribosome stud outer surface Manufacture proteins

Ribosomes Granules composed of RNA and Manufactured of many pro-

proteins ; some attached to ER; teins destined for secretion for
some free to cytosol secretion or for incorporation
into membranes
Synthesize polypeptides into
both prokaryotes and eukary-
otes
Golgi Complex Stacks of flattened membrane Modifies proteins; package se-
sacs creted proteins; sorts other
proteins to vacuoles and other

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 STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

Lysosomes Membranous sacs (in ani- Contain an enzymes to breakdown

mals) ingested materials, secretion and
wastes.

Vacuoles Membranous sacs (mostly in Store materials, waste, water,

plants, fungi and algae) maintain hydrostatic pressure

Peroxisomes Membranous sacs contain- Site of many diverse metabolic re-

ing a variety of enzymes actions

Mitochondria Sacs consisting of two mem- Site of most reactions of cellular

branes; inner membrane is respiration; transformation of ener-
folded to forms cristae and gy originating from glucose or li-
encloses matrix pids into ATP energy

Plastid (e.g. Double-membrane d struc- Site of photosynthesis; chlorophyll

chloroplast) tured enclosing internal captures light energy ; ATP and
thylakoid membranes chlo- other energy rich compounds are
roplast contain chlorophyll formed and then used to convert
in thylakoid membranes CO2 to glucose.

Microtubules Hollow tubes made of subu- Provide structural support; have

nits of tubulin protein role in cell and organelle movement
and cell divisions; component of
cilia, flagella, centrioles, basal bod-
ies.

Microfilaments Solid, rod-like structures Provide structural support; play

consisting of actin protein role in cell and organelle movement
and cell division.

D
Learning Task 1
Direction: Complete the three basic components of the cell theory by arrang-
ing these words in proper order and explain each how these theories are formed.
All your answers must be written on a separate sheet of paper.

1. LIVING OF CELLS OR ONE ALL MORE THINGS COMPOSED ARE

2. IS UNIT THE BASIC CELL LIFE OF THE
3. FROM ARISE CELLS PRE-EXISTING CELLS AL

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Learning Task 2
Directions: Complete the following passage by filing in the correct missing
words or phrases.
A cell is defined as ______________________________________ Cells were first de-
scribe by the English Scientist __________________ who thought they assembled the
tiny rooms, or cells, where monks live. (Actually, ________________ did not see liv-
ing cells-just the ___________of dead cork cells.) Cells contained structures called
_____________. This terms means tiny ______________.
The discovery of cells and their internal part was made possible by the inven-
tion of the _____________ by the scientist named ________________. During the next
two hundred years, the work of many scientist including __________________,
______________________, and _____________________ lead to the development of the
______________ theory.

E
Learning Task 3
Directions: Read each description and identify the cell structure. Write your
answer on the space provided.

__________1. I’m real “powerhouse”. __________6. I’m a series of tubes.

That’s plain to see. I break down Found throughout the cell. I transport
food To release energy proteins And other things as well

__________2. I’m strong and stiff. Get- __________7. I’m full of holes, Flexible,
ting through me is tough. I’m found and thin. I control what gets out. As
only in plants. But I guess that’s well as what comes in.
enough

__________3. My name means colored __________8. Proteins are made here

bodies And I contain DNA. I pass on even though I’m quite small. You can
traits to new cells. In a systematic find me in the cytoplasm Or attached to
way E.R’s wall.

__________4. I’m the brain of the cell __________9. I’ve been called storage
Or so they say I regulate activities tank By those with little taste. I’m a sac
From day to day filled with water, food, enzymes or
waste.

__________5. Found only in plant __________10. Since I contain many en-

cells I’m green as can be I make food zymes I can digest an injured cells. And
for plant using the sun’s energy can break down a large molecule into
smaller one as well

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Learning Task 4
Directions: Answer the following questions on separate sheet of paper.
1. What did you learn about the cell theory?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What contribution did A. Hooke B. Schleiden C. Schwann and D. Virchow
made, to the development of the cell concept?
A. Hooke____________________________________________________________
B. Schleiden________________________________________________________
C. Schwann_________________________________________________________
D. Virchow__________________________________________________________
3. Cell theory explains that________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Directions: Cell is like our home. Each part of the cell (and your house has
responsibilities that must be done and certain organelles (people or places) to do
them. Identify the function of the following parts of the cell. Then, identify which
person does the same job (or a place like it) in the you home. The first one is done
for you as an example to follow.

Organelle Function People or Places in our

home that has the same
function
Nucleus Control center of the Father
cell
Mitochondrion
Lysosome

Ribosome
Rough ER
Smooth ER

Cell Membrane
Golgi Bodies
Centrioles

Nucleolus

A
Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of
that wall? A single brick, of course. Like a brick wall, your body is composed of
basic building blocks. The basic building blocks of your body are cells.
The cell (from Latin _____, meaning "___________") is the basic __________,
____________, and ______________ unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the
____________ unit of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called
the "building __________ of life". The study of cells is called ___________.

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 Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells WEEK

Lesson 2 2
I
All living organisms (bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals) have
cellular organization and may contain one or many cells. The organisms with only
one cell in their body are called unicellular organisms (bacteria, blue green algae,
some algae, Protozoa, etc.).
The organisms having many cells in their body are called multicellular organ-
isms (fungi, most plants and animals). Any living organism may contain only one
type of cell either A. Prokaryotic cells; B. Eukaryotic cells. The terms prokaryotic
and eukaryotic were suggested by Hans Ris in the 1960’s. This classification is
based on their complexity .
In this lesson you need to distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ac-
cording to their distinguishing features and classify different cell type (plant and
animal tissues and specify the function of each.

Prokaryotic Cells
A prokaryote is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nu-
cleus or any other membrane bound organelle. Most prokaryotes have a pepti-
doglycan capsule. The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cells
maintain its shape and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cells to at-
tach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili or fimbri-
ae, Flagella (sing = flagellum) are used for locomotion. Pili (sing = pilus) are used
to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation.
Fimbriae (sing = fimbria ) are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.

PILI
CAPSULE
CELL WALL

CELL MEMBRANE

RIBOSOMES
FLAGELLUM
CHOMOSONAL DNA

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively
referred to as the endomembrane system involved in various functions. Simple
compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can form by budding off other mem-
branes. Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of endocyto-
sis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle.

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 It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived
from such vesicles.
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane (commonly referred to as
a nuclear envelope), with pores that allow material to move in and out. Various
tube and sheet like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the
endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in protein transport and matura-
tion. It includes the rough ER where ribosomes are attached to synthesize pro-
teins, which enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter
vesicles, which bud off from the smooth ER.
In most eukaryotes, these protein-carrying vesicles are released and further
modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes. Vesi-
cles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain en-
zymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used
to break down peroxide, which is toxic otherwise.
NUCLEUS NUCLEAR ENVELOPE MICROTUBULE ANIMAL CELL

CHROMATIN CENTROSOME
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
NUCLEOLUS
MICROFILAMENTS
PEROXISOME
PLASMA MEM-
LYSOSOME

GOLGI APPARATUS
CYTOSOL
CYTOPLASM
ROUGH ER MITOCHONDRI-
VACUOLE
SMOOTH ER
SMOOTH ER ROUGH ER
PLANT CELL
NUCLEUS

CELL WALL

PLASMA
MEMBRANE RIBOSOMES
CYTOPLASM
GOLGI
CENTRAL APPARATUS
VACUOLE

MITOCHONDRION
CYTOSKELETON CYTOSOL
PEROXISOME
PLASTID
CHLOROPLAST
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 Summary of cellular components in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
(animal and plant cells)

Cell Function / Features Present in Present Present in

Component Prokary- in Ani- Plant
otes? mal Cells?
Cells?
Plasma Separate cell from external en- Yes Yes Yes
Membrane vironment; control passage of
organic molecules, ion, water,
& wastes into & out of cell
Cytoplasm Site of many metabolic reac- Yes Yes Yes
tions; medium in which orga-
nelles are found
Nucleolus Contains Genetic Materials No Yes Yes
(DNA)

Nucleus Cell Organelle that houses No Yes Yes

DNA & direct synthesis of ribo-
somes and proteins
Ribosomes Synthesizes proteins Yes Yes Yes

Mitochondria Produce ATP/Site of Cellular No Yes Yes

Peroxisomes Oxidize thus break down fatty No Yes Yes

acids & amino acid and detoxi-
fy poisons
Vesicles & Store and transport; perform No Yes Yes
Vacuoles digestive function in plant cells

Centrosome Source of microtubules in ani- No Yes No

mal cells

Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; No Yes No

recycling of worn out orga-
nelles
Cell Wall Protect; serve as structural Yes, pri- No Yes, pri-
support and maintain cell marily pep- marily cel-
shape tidoglycan lulose
Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll No No Yes

Endoplasmic Modifies protein and synthe- No Yes Yes

Reticulum size lipids

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 Golgi Modifies, sort, tags, package No Yes Yes
Apparatus and distribute lipids & protein
Cytoskeleton Maintain cell shape, secure Yes Yes Yes
organelles position, allows cy-
toplasm & vesicles to move
within cells and enable cellular
organism to move inde-
pendently
Central Vac- Regulate water concentration No No Yes
uole
Flagella Facilitate cellular locomotion Some Some No, except
for some
sperm cell
Cilia Cellular locomotion movement Some Some No
of particles along extracellular
surface of plasma and filtra-
tion

D
Learning Task 1
Directions: Fill in the Venn diagram to compare and contrast the structure of
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
CELL CELL

For the chart below, place a check in the box if the cell has that component.

Organelle Plant Animal Bacteria

.
1. Nucleus

2. Chloroplast

3. Cilia

4. Cell Wall

5. Ribosome
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Learning Task 2
Directions: Answer the following questions. Write your answer in separate
sheet of paper

1. What is one main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

2. Give an example of a prokaryotic organism.
3. What cell parts do Animal cells have that Plant cells do not have?
4. What cell parts do Plant cells have that Animal cells do not have?
5. Why do Plant cells have cell walls and Animal cells do not?
6. Why do think Plant cells have bigger vacuoles than Animal cells?

E
Learning Task 3
Directions: Create an alternative model of plant/animal or prokaryotic cells
made from edible materials.
1. Choose Prokaryotic Cell or Plant/Animal Cell, first, you need to decide whether
you will create a plant cell or animal cell or prokaryotic cell. Remember plant cells
and animal cells and prokaryotic cells are shaped differently and contain different
parts.
2. Choose edible materials that are available to your place. Reminders you don’t
need to expend too much money
3. Consider the Parts of the Cell, now you need to make a list of all the parts, or
organelles, that need to be included in your 3D cell model. Organelles are the
"mini organs" that are found inside every plant and animal cell. Each organelle
has a different function and physical appearance, and together they work to keep
the cell alive.
4. Build Your Model, as you begin building, make sure to start with the base of
your 3D Edible cell model. Once all of your organelles are securely attached to the
base of your model, label the organelles. Toothpicks and stickers make great la-
bels, and when you are finished take a picture and post if to your social media ac-
count they let everyone know you final output of your cell model. Use the hashtag
#EdibleCellModelGenBio1

A
Links to Learning
x To conduct virtual microscopy lab and review the parts of a cell, work through
the steps of this interactive assignment (https://digital.scetv.org/knowitall/
hobbyshop/Microscope/index.html)

In this modules I learned that ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
I realized that ___________________________________________________________
I can apply what I have learned in ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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WEEK
Cell Modification & Cell Cycle
3 Lesson 3
I
There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit, the character-
istics of life. Living things are made up of cells. They metabolize, grow and devel-
op, respond to stimulus, adapt to their environment and reproduce. Life on Earth
exhibits organization. The atom is smallest unit of matter, followed by molecules,
which are combinations of atoms. When these molecules are grouped together,
they ultimately form a cell.
In this lesson your are expected to describe some cells modification that
leads to adaptation to carry out specialized functions and characterize the phases
of the cell cycle and their control points.

The cell is the basic unit of life. In multicellular, organisms like plants and
animals, cells are grouped as tissues to perform a specific function. Different tis-
sues can be grouped further and form organs. The organs form organ systems
that makes the function of the body more complex and efficient. Organs system
will then form the whole organisms. All living things exhibit organization, whether
they are unicellular or multicellular organisms.
There are hundreds of types of cells, but the four main types are epithelial
cells, connective tissue cells, muscle cells and nerve cells.

Epithelial Tissue—This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as

coverings or as linings of organs and cavities.
Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells with tight junctions (i.e.,
a type of cell modification). Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as barriers
for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:
cuboidal—for secretion
simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffu
sion
stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked be
cause of varying height; for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia
(i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps the mucus).

Connective Tissue—These tissues are composed of the following:

Blood —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water,
salts, and dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for
defense (WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.
Connective Tissue Proper (CTP)—made up of loose connective tissue that is
found in the skin and fibrous connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fi-
bers found in tendons and ligaments. Adipose tissues are also examples of loose
connective tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
energy.

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 Cartilage —characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sul-
fate. Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Car-
tilage functions as cushion between bones.
Bone —mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called oste-
oblasts which deposit collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and nerves
are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric circles of osteons

Muscle Tissue—These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fi-
bers that allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is
a response to signals coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these muscles can
be categorized into the following:
skeletal—striated; voluntary movements
cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction;
involuntary
smooth—not striated; involuntary

Nervous Tissue—These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons

and glial cells that function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and
transmit electrical signals throughout the animal body. Neurons connect to other
neurons to send signals. The dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives im-
pulses from other neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is trans-
mitted to other neurons.

One of the distinct characteristics of living things is being able to preserve

themselves. Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to repair or
replace damaged parts. Cell cycle enables a living thing to continue its existence
by multiplying itself in controlled and systematic processes. This lesson will en-
hance your understanding on cell cycle.

Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell divi-
sion that produces two new daughter cells. Cells on the path to cell division pro-
ceed through series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth,
DNA replication, and division that produces two identical daughter cells. The cell
cycle has two major phases; interphase and the mitotic phase.

Interphase
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also
preparing for cell division. In order for a cell to move from interphase into mitotic
phase, many internal condition must be met. The three stages of interphase are
called G1, S and G2.
G1 phase (First Gap)
The first stage of interphase in called the G1 phase. During this time, cell
grows and more organelles are produced, increasing the volume of the cytoplasm.
The cell is quite active at the biochemical level.

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The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associ-
ated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the
task of replicating each chromosomes in the nucleus.

S phases (Synthesis of DNA)

Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in semi-condensed chromatin
configuration. In the S phase, DNA replication can proceed through the mecha-
nism that result in the formation of identical DNA molecules—sister chromatid–
that are joined at a point by centromeric region. The centrosome is duplicated
during the S phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosome during mitosis. At the
center of each animal cell, the centrosomes of animal cells are associated with a
pair of rod-like objects, the centrioles, which are at right angles to each other.
Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosome
of other eukaryotic species, such as plants and most fungi.

G2 phase (Second Gap)

In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes pro-
teins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicat-
ed, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic phase.
There may be additional cell growth during G2. the final preparation for the mitot-
ic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first stage of mito-
sis.

Dividing phase (Mitotic phase)

The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chro-
mosomes are condensed, aligned, separated, and moved to opposite poles of the
cell, and then are divided into two new identical daughter cells. Mitosis technically
refers to the division of a parental cell into two which entails cytoplasmic division
as well. Division of the cytoplasm of a cell into two is distinct from nuclear divi-
sion. More detailed of this phase will be on next week. (week 4)

G0 phase
Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern in which a newly formed
daughter cell immediately enters the preparatory phases of interphase, closely fol-
lowed by the mitotic phase. Cells in G0 phase are not actively preparing to divid-
ed. The cell is in quiescent state that occurs when cell exit the cell cycle. Some
cells enter G0 temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of G1. other
cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells,
permanently remain in G0.

The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjust-
ed by external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‘stop’ and ‘go-
ahead’ signals can regulate the cell cycle. Animal cells have built-in ‘stop’ signals
that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until overridden by ‘go-ahead’ signals.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point ,the G1 checkpoint ensures that
the cell is large enough to divide and that enough nutrients are available to sup-
port the resulting daughter cells.
The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been suc-
cessfully completed. The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures that all of the chromo-
somes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
Kinase—a protein which activates or deactivates another protein by phos-
phorylating them. Kinases give the ‘go-ahead’ signals at the G1 and G2 check-
points. The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be activated.

D
Learning Task 1
Direction: Answer the following statements. Write your answer on separate
sheet of paper
1. How many stages are there in cell cycle?
2. Put the following stages of mitosis in order: anaphase, prophase, metaphase,
and telophase.
3. Put the following stages of the cell cycle in order: G2, S, G1, M.
4. Put the following in order: G2, G1, S, mitosis, cytokinesis.
5. Put the following actions in order: DNA replication, cell grows, cell division, cell
prepares for mitosis.
6. Explain why cells don’t just continue to grow larger as organisms grow larger.
Why do cells divide? (Write in complete sentences)
7. Are the cells depicted plant or animal cells? Explain your answer.
8. If it were the other type of cell what would be different in the diagrams?
9. Why is mitosis important?
10. Predict what would happen if cytokinesis was skipped.

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Learning Task 2
Directions: Identify the following statements. Write your answer on separate
sheet of paper.

1. What is a series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide?
2. What is the longest stage of the cell cycle called?
3. During what stage does the G1, S, and G2 phases happen?
4. During what phase of the cell cycle does mitosis and cytokinesis occur?
5. During what phase of the cell cycle does cell division occur?
6. During what phase of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?
7. During what phase of the cell cycle does the cell grow?
8. During what phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare for mitosis?
9. Put the following stages of the cell cycle in order: G2, S, G1, M.
10. Explain why cells don’t just continue to grow larger as organisms grow larger.
Why do cells divide? (Write in complete sentences)

E
Learning Task 3
Directions: Identify which type of connective tissue (A-C), epithelial tissue (D-
F), and muscle tissue (G-I) is being described.
A. _______________transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste through
the body by travelling through the vessels called arteries and veins.
B. _______________is a type of dense connective tissue that connects muscles to
bones and connects bone to bone.
C. _______________is a type of connective tissue with one of the hardest extracellu-
lar matrixes that forms a protective structure used for muscle attachment.
D. _______________found in respiratory tract (trachea), usually lined with cilia.
E. _______________found in air sacs/alveoli of the lungs, capillaries.
F. _______________found in digestive tract for secretion and active absorption
G. _______________muscles of the heart; involuntary movements.
H. _______________involuntary contractions of digestive tract like esophagus,
stomach and intestines.
I. ________________striated; voluntary movements like biceps and abdominal
muscles.

A
The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of event. Cells on the path to cell divi-
sion proceed through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated.

In this modules I learned that ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
I realized that ___________________________________________________________
I can apply what I have learned in ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
20
 Cell Division WEEK

Lesson 4 4
I
The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristics of all living or-
ganisms. Countless cell division subsequently occur in controlled manner to pro-
duce a complex, multicellular organism. In other words, that original single cell is
the ancestor of every other cell in the body.
Once an individual is fully grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to re-
pair or regenerate tissues. For example, new blood and skin cells are constantly
being produced. All multicellular organisms use cell division for growth and for
the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
In this lesson your are expected to describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis giv-
en 2n=6; Explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis and identify
disorders and diseases that result from malfunction of the cell during the cell cy-
cle

Mitosis
Mitosis (apparent division) is nuclear division; the process by which the nu-
cleus divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to each other and it is usually followed by cytokinesis in
which the cell itself divides to yield two identical daughter cells. This process is
divided into a series of phases—prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase
During prophase, the “first phase”, the nuclear envelope starts to disassoci-
ate into small vesicles, and the membranous organelles (such as Golgi apparatus
and ER), fragments and disperse toward the periphery of the cell. The nucleolus
disappear. The centrosome begin to move to opposite poles of the cell. Microtu-
bules that will form the mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing
them farther apart as the microtubule fibers lengthen. The sister chromatids begin
to coil more tightly with the aid of condensing proteins and become visible under a
light microscope.
Prometaphase
During prometaphase, the (fist change phase), many processes that began in
prophase continue to advance. The remnants of the nuclear envelope fragment.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules assemble and
stretch across the length of the former nuclear area. Chromosomes become more
condensed and discrete. Each sister chromatid develop a protein structure called
a kinetochore in the centromeric region. The protein of the kinetochore attract and
bind mitotic spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend from the
centrosomes, some of these microtubules come into contact with and firmly bind
to the kinetochores. Once a mitotic fiber attaches to a chromosomes, the chromo-
some will be oriented until the kinetochores or sister chromatids face the opposite
poles. Eventually, all the sister chromatids will be attach via their kinetochore to
microtubules from opposing poles. Spindle microtubules that do not engage the
chromosomes are called polar microtubules.

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21
These microtubules overlap each other midway between the two poles and contrib-
ute to cell elongation. Astral microtubules are located near the poles, aid in spin-
dle orientation, and required for the regulation of mitosis.

Metaphase
During metaphase, the “change phase”, all the chromosomes are aligned in a
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, midway between the two
poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are still tightly attached to each other by
cohesion protein. At this time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed.

Anaphase
During anaphase, the “upward phase”, the cohesion proteins degrade and
the sister chromatids separate at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
chromosome (because each possesses its own centromere), is pulled rapidly to-
ward the centrosome to which its microtubule is attached. The cell becomes visi-
bly elongated as the polar microtubules slide against each other at the metaphase
plate where they overlap.

Telophase
During telophase, the “distance phase”, the chromosomes reach the opposite
poles and begin to decondense, relaxing into a chromatin configuration. The mi-
totic spindles are depolymerized into tubulin monomers that will be used to as-
semble cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell. The nuclear envelopes
form around the chromosomes.

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis or ‘cell motion” is the second main stage of the mitotic phase
during which cell division is completed via the physical separation of the cytoplas-
mic components into two daughter cells. Division is not complete until the cell
components have been apportioned and completely separated into the two daugh-
ter cells. The chromosomes moved close to the spindle pole regions, and the spin-
dle mid-zone begins to clear. In this middle region of the spindle, a thin line of ves-
icles begins to accumulate. This vesicle aggregation is an indication to the for-
mation of a new cell wall that will be situated midway along the length of the origi-
nal cell and hence form boundary between the newly separating daughter cells.

Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

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Errors in mitosis
Errors in cell division is generally due to nondisjunction (or failure to sepa-
rate) od chromosomes or sister chromatids and may result to chromosomal muta-
tion. Mosaicism is a consequence of mitosis passing on the mutation to some
cells. It’s a condition where some cells in an individual have a mutant version of a
gene while other cells in the same individual have a normal version of the same
gene. This is because mitosis is a process undergone by somatic cells ( not the egg
or sperm cell), and only cells that are produced from the errant cell will have the
mutation. If the mutant genotype is widespread and harmful enough, the muta-
tion can have a major impact. Mosaicism usually result from non-disjunction of
sister chromatids during the fetal development. Two examples of disease linked to
mosaicism are hemophilia, a blood clothing disorder and Marfan syndrome, or un-
usual long limbs.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the second type of cell division occurring in the gametic cells. Mei-
osis is the process of cell division that occurs only in the germ cells of eukaryotes
unlike mitosis which takes place in the somatic cells. Unlike mitosis meiosis is on-
ly initiated once in the life cycle of eukaryotes. The cells produced by meiosis are
known as gametes or spores.
Meiosis leads to reduction of chromosome number, of a diploid cell (2n) to
half (n). Meiosis begins with one diploid cell containing two copies of each chromo-
some and ultimately produces four haploid cells containing one copy of each chro-
mosome which have undergone recombination, giving rise to genetic diversity in
the offspring.
Meiosis can be separated into two phases which are meiosis I and meiosis II
and they can be further subdivided into numerous phases which have particular
identifiable features.

Meiosis I
The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of chromosomes
(reduction division). In most cases, the division is accompanied by cytokinesis.

Prophase I
During this phase DNA is exchanged between homologous chromosomes or
sister chromatids in a process called homologous recombination. The replicated
chromosomes are called bivalents and have two chromosomes and four chroma-
tids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. This phase can be further
subdivided into leptonema, zygonema, pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
1. Leptonema—Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are al ready visible.
The number of chromosomes present is the same as the number in the diploid
cell.
2. Zygonema—Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around
each other in a highly specific manner. The pairing is called synapsis. And be-
cause the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 3. Pachynema—Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of
physical exchange between homologues takes place at specific regions. The
process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called crossing-over.
Through the mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous chromo-
somes are recombined (genetic recombination).
4. Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate f r o m
each other. It is at this point where crossing-over is shown to have taken place.
The area of contact between two non-sister chromatids, called chiasma, become
evident. •
5. Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more c o n -
densed and the chiasma often terminalize or move down the chromatids to the
ends. This delays the separation of homologous chromosomes.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As kinetochore
microtubules from both centrioles attach to their respective kinetochores, the ho-
mologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle,
due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the micro-
tubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. The
physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random ori-
entation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate, with respect to the orienta-
tion of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line .
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart by shortening of spindle fibers,
each chromosome still containing a pair of sister chromatids. The cell then elon-
gates in preparation for division down the center . Chromosomes are at two differ-
ent poles in the cell and the nuclear envelopes may reform, or the cell may quickly
start meiosis II. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but
each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids
Telophase I
The two daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each
chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The spindle net-
works disappear, and a new nuclear membrane forms. The chromosomes decon-
densation occurs and finally cytokinesis pinches the cell membrane in animal
cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation
of two daughter cells.

Meiosis II
The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to mitotic division.
The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that each daughter
cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in mitosis, the
number is reduced to half in meiosis.
Prophase II
In prophase II the nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappear. Centrioles move
to opposite poles and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division.
Metaphase II
In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
24
spindle fibers from the centrosomes (centrioles) at each pole. The new equatorial
metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendic-
ular to the previous plate.
Anaphase II
This is followed by anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allowing
microtubules attached to the kinetochores to pull the sister chromatids apart. The
sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move
toward opposing poles.
Telophase II
The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is
marked by uncoiling and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disappearance
of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell wall formation even-
tually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromo-
somes. Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells .
Cytokinesis
The telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The two nuclei
are compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and complete the mitotic cell
division process. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a con-
striction in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells are formed. The con-
striction is often called cleavage, or cell furrow. However, in most plant cells this
constriction is not evident. Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assem-
bled between the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the cell plate is coat-
ed with a cell wall that eventually forms the two progeny cells
Haploid Cells

Meiosis I Meiosis II Cytokinesis

Interphase Prometaphase I Anaphase I

Prophase II Metaphase II Telophase II

Prometaphase II Anaphase II

Prophase I Telophase I
Metaphase I

Cytokinesis

Errors in Meiosis
Non-disjunction of homologous chromosomes, during meiosis I or non-
disjunction of sister chromatids during meiosis II result to a sperm/egg cell that
lacks 1 chromosomes (monosomy) or one that has extra chromosome (trisomy).
Most common disorder resulting from non-disjunction during meiosis is Down
Syndrome, where an individual has 3 copies of chromosome 21, instead of 2.
hence, this disorder is also known as Trisomy 21. Other trisomy disorders are;
Patau Syndrome (trisomy 13), Edward Syndrome (trisomy 18) and Klinefelter's
Syndrome (XXY). An example of monosomy disorders is Turners Syndrome (XO),
where an individual has only the single sex chromosomes X instead of XX (female)
or XY (male).

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Meiosis Mitosis

1. Requires two nuclear divisions 1. Requires one nuclear division

2. Chromosomes synapse and cross 2. Chromosomes do not synapse nor

over cross over

3. Centromeres survive Anaphase I 3. Centromeres dissolve in mitotic ana-

phase

4. Halves chromosome number 4. Preserves chromosome number

5. Produces four daughter nuclei 5. Produces two daughter nuclei

6. Produces daughter cells genet- 6. Produces daughter cells genetically

ically different from parent and each different from parent and each other
other

7. Used only for sexual reproduction 7. Used for asexual reproduction and
growth

Meiosis I Compare to Mitosis

Meiosis I Mitosis

Prophase I Prophase

Pairing of homologous chromosomes No pairing of chromosomes

Metaphase I Metaphase

Bivalents at metaphase plate Duplicated chromosomes at meta-

phase plate
Anaphase I Anaphase

Homologues of each bivalent sepa- Sister chromatids separate, becoming

rate and duplicated chromosomes daughter chromosomes that move to
move to poles the poles

Telophase I Telophase

Two haploid daughter cells not iden- Two diploid daughter cells, identical
tical to the parent cell to the parent cell

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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Meiosis II Compare to Mitosis

Meiosis II Mitosis

Prophase II Prophase
No pairing of chromosomes No pairing of chromosomes

Metaphase II Metaphase
Haploid number of duplicated chromo- Diploid number of duplicated chromo-
somes at metaphase plate somes at metaphase plate

Anaphase II Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate, becoming Sister chromatids separate, becoming

daughter chromosomes that move to daughter chromosomes that move to
the poles the poles

Telophase II Telophase
Four haploid daughters cells not ge- Two diploid daughter cells, identical to
netically identical the parent cell

D
Learning task 1
Direction: Illustrate the Cell Cycle through a Diagram. Label the stages of
Cell Division as you have illustrated. Indicate the number of hours in each stage
of Cell Cycle. (G1 – Blue, G2 – Orange, SYNTHES IS – Red, MPHASE; PROPHASE –
Violet, METAPHASE – Green, ANAPHASE –Yellow, TELOPHASE –Pink. And Com-
plete the table below.

Stages of Cell Events

Cycle

G0 Phase

G1 Phase

G2 Phase

S Phase

M Phase
Mitosis
Meiosis

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
27
Learning Task 2
Directions: Fill in the blank of the following statement. Write the letter of
your answer in the space provided.
A. Prophase D. Microtubules G. Chromatid J. Spindle fiber
B. Interphase E. Anaphase H. Cytokinesis K. Cell plate
C. Telophase F. Centromere I. Mitosis

______________1. During what phase of mitosis do centromeres divide and the

chromosomes move toward their respective poles?
______________2. What is the phase where chromatin condenses to form chromo-
somes?
______________3. What is the name of the structure that connects the two chro-
matids?
______________4. In a chromosome pair connected by a centromere, what is each
individual chromosome called?
______________5. What are the two parts of cell division?
______________6. What structure forms in prophase along which the chromo-
somes move?
______________7. Which phase of mitosis is the last phase that chromatids are
together?
______________8. Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by a non- dividing
cell?
______________9. What structure is produced when protein fibers radiate from
centrioles?
______________10. What forms across the center of a plant cell near the end of tel-
ophase?

E
Learning Task 3
Directions: Use illustration or pictures to identify the key events at each
stages of meiosis.

Stages of Meiosis Events

Interphase
Prophase I
Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Interphase
PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
28
Learning Task 4
Directions: Draw the chromosomes in the cell as it undergoes Mitosis and
Meiosis. And Answer the guide questions given below.
Mitosis

Meiosis

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Why is mitosis important?
2. Predict what would happen if an individual had faulty spindle fibers.
3. Predict what would happen if cytokinesis was skipped.
4. Define cancer
5. What are the causes of cancer?

A
Links to Learning
x Revisit the stages of mitosis in this site (https://biomanbio.com/
HTML5GamesandLabs/Genegames/mitosismoverpage.html
x Watch what occurs in mitosis and meiosis (https://www.youtube.com/watch?

In this modules I learned that ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
I realized that ___________________________________________________________
I can apply what I have learned in ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
29
WEEK
Cellular Membrane
5 Lesson 5
I
With the pandemic today in the Philippines, you can just imagine our Caga-
yan de Oro‘s front liners and law enforcers at the check points of a city or security
guards at the mall entrances as plasma membranes (cell membranes) which have
a lot of things to do such as permitting who‘ll enter the establishment (represents
the cell) or not and even exiting is checked as well; Carrying goods in a truck or
individuals on a motorcycle towards a particular cordoned area which depicts dif-
ferent means or ways on how materials are transported in and out of the cell -
thus the transport mechanisms.
For this week you are expected to describe the structural components of the
cell membrane and relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to
its function.
In cellular biology, membrane transport refers to the collection of mecha-
nisms that regulate the passage of solutes such as ions and small molecules
through biological membranes, which are lipid bilayers that contain proteins em-
bedded in them.
Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane) plays a vital role in the transport mecha-
nisms and separates the living cell from its surroundings. To perform these roles,
it needs lipids, which make a semi-permeable barrier between the cell and its en-
vironment. It also needs proteins, which are involved in cross-membrane
transport and cell communication, and carbohydrates (sugars and sugar chains),
which decorate both the proteins and lipids and help cells recognize each other .

Fluid Mosaic Model

The existence of the plasma membrane was discovered on the 1890s, and its
chemical components were determined in 1915. The fluid mosaic model was pro-
posed by Seymour J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson. The model has evolved over-
time, but it is still best account for the structure and functions of the plasma
membrane, as we now understand them. The fluid mosaic model describe the
plasma membrane as a fluid structure with a mosaic components– including
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane
a fluid character. Plasma membrane range from 5 to 10 nm in thickness.

Glycoprotein Glycolipid

Phospholipid
Peripheral bilayer
Membrane Cholesterol
Integral Mem- Protein channel
Proteins
brane Proteins Cytoskeletal filaments

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 The principal component of a plasma membrane are lipids (phospholipids
and cholesterol), proteins and carbohydrates that are attached to some of the li-
pids and some of the proteins. A phospholipids is a molecule consisting of glycer-
ol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate-linked head groups. Cholesterol, another li-
pids composed of four fused carbon rings, is found alongside phospholipids in the
core of the membrane. Carbohydrate are present only on the exterior surface of
the plasma membrane and are attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins or at-
tached to lipids forming glycolipids.

Phospholipids
A phospholipids molecule consist of a three-carbon glycerol backbone with
two fatty acid molecules attached to carbon 1 and 2, and a phosphate-containing
group attached to the third carbon. This arrangement gives the overall molecule
an area described as its head (the phosphate containing group), which has a polar
character or negative charge, and an area called tail (the fatty acids), which has no
charge, and are non polar. The head can form hydrogen bonds, but the tail can-
not. A molecule with this arrangement of a positively or negatively charged area
and uncharged, or nonpolar area is referred to as amphipathic or “dual loving”.
The main fabric of the membrane is composed of amphiphilic phospholipids
molecules. The hydrophilic or “water-loving” areas of these molecules are in con-
tact with the aqueous fluid both inside and outside of the cell. The hydrophilic re-
gions of the phospholipids tend to form hydrogen bonds with water and other po-
lar molecules on both the exterior and interior of the cell. Thus, the membrane
surfaces that face the interior and exterior of the cell are hydrophilic. On the other
hand, hydrophobic or “water-hating” molecules tend to be nonpolar and prefer
nonpolar environments. When placed in water, hydrophobic molecules tend to
form a ball or cluster. The interior of the cell membrane is hydrophobic and will
not interact with water. Therefore, phospholipids form an excellent two layer mem-
brane that separates fluid within the cell from the outside of the cell.

Proteins
Proteins makes up the second major components of plasma membranes. In-
tegral proteins are, as their name suggests, integrated completely into the mem-
brane structure, and their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with
the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins are found
on the exterior and interior surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral
proteins or to phospholipids. These, along with integral proteins, may serve as en-
zymes, as structural attachments for the fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of
the cell’s recognition sites. Peripheral proteins are sometimes referred to as “cell-
specific” proteins. The body recognize its own protein and attacks foreign proteins
associated with invasive pathogens like virus and bacteria.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membrane. They
are always found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to protein
(forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). Carbohydrates form spe-
cialized site on the cell surface that allow the cell to be recognized, this recognition

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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function is very important to cells, as it allows the immune system to differentiate
between body cells (called self) and foreign cells or tissues (called non-self). These
carbohydrates on the exterior surface of the cell—the carbohydrate components of
both glycoproteins and glycolipids—are collectively referred to as the glycocalyx
(meaning sugar coating). The glycocalyx is highly hydrophilic and attracts large
amount of water to the surface of the cell. This aids in the interaction of the cell
with its watery environment and its cell ability to obtain substance dissolved in
the water. The glycocalyx is also important for cell identification, self/non-self de-
termination and embryonic development, and is used in cell-cell attachments to
form tissues.
Membrane Fluidity
The fluid mosaic model helps to illustrate the nature of plasma membrane.
The integral proteins and lipids exist in the membrane as separate, but loosely at-
tached molecules. The membrane is not like a balloon, however, that can expand
and contract; rather, it is fairly rigid and can burst if penetrated or if a cell takes
in too much water. However because of its fluid nature, a very fine needle can eas-
ily penetrate a plasma membrane without causing it to burst, and the membrane
will flow and seal itself when the needle is extracted. The fluidity of plasma mem-
brane is due to two component: phospholipids and cholesterol.

Structural Component of Plasma Membrane

Component Location Feature/Function

Phospholipids Main fabric of the membrane the most abundant lipid in the
plasma membrane and are am-
phipathic molecules

Cholesterol Tucked between the hydrophobic Dampen effects of temperature

tails of the membrane phospho-
lipids

Integral Embedded in the phospholipid Transport of substance through

Proteins bilayer; may or may not extend membrane
through both layers

Peripheral On the inner or outer surface of Cell recognition

Proteins the phospholipid bilayer, but not
embedded in its hydrophobic
core

Carbohydrate Attached to proteins or lipids on

Chains the extracellular side of the teraction with the aqueous en-
membrane (forming glycopro- vironment
teins and glycolipids

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
32
 D
Learning Task 1
Directions: Provide the description of each structural components of the cell
membrane regarding its location and features inside the empty blanks.
Component Location Feature / Function

Phospholipids Main fabric of the membrane
Cholesterol 2. ___________________
_______________________
Integral Proteins Embedded in the phospholipid bi-
layer; may or may not extend
through both layers
Peripheral On the inner or outer surface of the
phospholipid bilayer, but not em-
Proteins bedded in its hydrophobic core
Carbohydrate 5. ___________________
_______________________
Chains
the most abundant lipid in the plas-
ma membrane 1.___________________
Dampen effects of temperature
3. ___________________
______________________
4. ___________________
______________________
tion with the aqueous environment

E
Learning Task 2
Directions Construct a cell membrane model from indigenous or recyclable
materials.
1. Prepare your final draft sketch with labels of the indigenous /recyclable mate-
rials that you will utilize for each of the structural components for this activity.
2. Prepare your indigenous /recyclable materials and tools kits to start construct-
ing the cell membrane model.
3. Set your output on a 2x2 sturdy and used illustration board or any platform.
4. Keep your output in a safe place and submit it on the exact date of submission
to be announced by your teacher

Learning Task 3
Directions: Answer the following questions.
1. What happens to the plasma membrane if the weather gets cold?
2. Are there structural components involved in the membrane that are affected
from the rise and fall of the temperature? What are those structures?
3. What does it imply regarding the fatty acid or hydrocarbon tail‘s shape when
compared and contrasted in relation with transport mechanism? Explain your
answer.

A
The modern understanding of the __________________ is referred to as the
_________________. The plasma membrane is composed of a _____________ of
_______________, with their _____________, fatty acid tails in contact with each oth-
er. Cell excludes some substance, ____________ others, and _____________others, all
in _________________ quantities.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
33
WEEK
Transport Mechanism
6 Lesson 6
I
Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leave a cell,
and prevent some harmful materials from entering and some essential materials
from leaving. In other words, plasma membranes are selectively permeable—they
allow some substances to pass through, but not others. If they were to lose this
selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to sustain itself, and it would be de-
stroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances. They must have
a way of obtaining these materials from extracellular fluids. This may happen pas-
sively, as certain materials move back and forth, or the cell may have special
mechanisms that facilitate transport. Some materials are so important to a cell
that it spends some of its energy, hydrolyzing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to ob-
tain these materials. Red blood cells use some of their energy doing just that. Most
cells spend the majority of their energy to maintain an imbalance of sodium and
potassium ions between the cell's interior and exterior, as well as on protein syn-
thesis.
The most direct forms of membrane transport are passive. Passive transport
is a naturally occurring phenomenon and does not require the cell to exert any of
its energy to accomplish the movement. In passive transport, substances move
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. A physical
space in which there is a single substance concentration range has a concentra-
tion gradient
For this week you are expected to explain transport mechanism in cells
(diffusion osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport) and differentiate exocy-
tosis and endocytosis.

Selective Permeability/Differential Permeability

Plasma membranes lack symmetry: the membrane's exterior is not identical
to its interior. There is a significant difference between the arrangement of pro-
teins and phospholipids and between the two leaflets that form a membrane. On
the membrane's interior, some proteins serve to anchor the membrane to cytoskel-
eton's fibers. . There are peripheral proteins on the membrane's exterior that bind
extracellular matrix elements. Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, are
also on the plasma membrane's exterior surface. These carbohydrate complexes
help the cell bind required substances in the extracellular fluid. This adds consid-
erably to plasma membrane's selective nature.
The plasma membrane's exterior surface is not identical to its interior sur-
face. Recall that plasma membranes are amphiphilic: They have hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions. This characteristic helps move some materials through the
membrane and hinders the movement of others. Non-polar and lipid-soluble mate-
rial with a low molecular weight can easily slip through the membrane's hydro-
phobic lipid core. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
readily pass through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract and other tis-
sues. Fat-soluble drugs and hormones also gain easy entry into cells and readily
transport themselves into the body‘s tissues and organs. Oxygen and carbon

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
34
dioxide molecules have no charge and pass through membranes by simple diffu-
sion. Polar substances present problems for the membrane. While some polar mol-
ecules connect easily with the cell's outside, they cannot readily pass through the
plasma membrane's lipid core. Additionally, while small ions could easily slip
through the spaces in the membrane's mosaic, their charge prevents them from
doing so. Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must have spe-
cial means of penetrating plasma membranes. Simple sugars and amino acids al-
so need the help of various transmembrane proteins (channels) to transport them-
selves across plasma membranes.

The Transport Mechanisms

Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until the con-
centration is equal across a space. Diffusion expends no energy. On the contrary,
concentration gradients are a form of potential energy, dissipated as the gradient
is eliminated. Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular flu-
id, has its own concentration gradient, independent of the concentration gradients
of other materials. Within the system, there will be different rates of diffusion of
the different substance in the medium.
Diffusion is a passive movement of molecules from a region of high concen-
tration to a region of low concentration. (Concentration gradient is the difference
in concentration between the two regions) Small, uncharged molecules like O2,
CO2 and H2O can move easily through the membrane. Works well over short dis-
tances. Once molecules enter the cell, the rate of diffusion slows. Limits cell size

Extracellular Fluid

Lipid Bilayer
Plasma Mem-
brane

Cytoplasm
Time

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water though semipermeable membrane accord-
ing to the concentration gradient of water across the membrane, which is inversely
proportional to the concentration of solutes. It means osmosis is the diffusion of
the solvent across a semi-permeable membrane separating two solutions.
(Diffusion of water). Water molecules move from a region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration. Direction depends on the relative concentration of
water molecules on either side of the cell membrane.

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Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell and equal amounts
of water move in and out of the cell. Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater
than that inside the cell, water moves into the cell, may cause cell to burst (lysis)
Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than outside. Water moves out of the
cell, may cause the cell to shrink (plasmolysis)
Tonicity
Tonicity describe how an extracellular solution can change the volume of a
cell by affecting osmosis. A solutions tonicity often directly correlates with osmo-
larity of the solution. In hypotonic solution, the extracellular fluid has lower osmo-
larity than the fluid inside the cell, and water enters the cell. As for hypertonic, it
refers to the extracellular fluid having a higher osmolarity than the cells cyto-
plasm; therefore, the fluid contains less water than the cell does. In an isotonic
solution, the extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cell. If the osmolar-
ity of the cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement
of water into and out of the cells.

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

Facilitated Transport
In facilitated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, materials diffuse
across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane proteins. A concentra-
tion gradients exist that would allow these materials to diffuse into the cell with-
out expending cellular energy. However, these are ions and polar molecules that
are repelled by the hydrophobic parts of the cell membrane. Facilitated transport
proteins shield these materials from the repulsive force of the membrane, allowing
them to diffuse into the cell. The material being transported is first attached to
protein or glycoprotein receptors on the exterior surface of plasma membrane.
This allow the material that is needed by the cell to be removed from the extracel-
lular fluid. The substance are then passed to specific integral proteins that facili-
tate their passage. Some of these integral proteins are collections of beta pleated
sheets that form a pore or channel through the phospholipid bilayer. Other are
carrier proteins which bind with the substance and aid its diffusion though mem-
brane.
It assists with the movement of large molecules like glucose. Passive move-
ment of a substance into or out of the cell by means of carrier proteins or channel
proteins. Moves molecules from high to low regions of concentration. Carrier pro-
teins: Transports noncharged molecules with a specific shape. Channel proteins:
Tunnel shape that transports small charged molecules. does not require water
molecules for other molecules to transfer.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 Extracellular

Carrier Protein Cytoplasm

Active Transport
Active Transport mechanisms require the use of the cell’s energy, usually in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell
against its concentration gradient—that is, if the concentration of the substance
inside the cell is greater that its concentration in the extracellular fluid (and vice
versa) - the cell must use energy to move the substance. Some active transport
mechanism move small molecular weight materials, such as ions, through the
membrane. Other mechanisms transport much larger molecules.
Active transport involves the process of moving substances against their con-
centration gradients which requires energy. For examples: Kidney cells pump glu-
cose and amino acids out of the urine and back into the blood. Intestinal cells
pump in nutrients from the gut. Root cells pump in nutrients from the soil. Gill
cells in fish pump out sodium ions. Active transport: Requires the use of chemical
energy to move substances across a membrane, against a concentration gradient.
Active transport proteins may be uniports, symports, or antiports. Uniports
transport one substance in one direction. Symports transport two different sub-
stances in the same direction. Lastly, antiports transport two different substances
in opposite directions.
Active Transport Pump
One of the most important pump in animal cells is the sodium-potassium
pump. The sodium-potassium pump moves K+ into the cell while moving NA+ out
at the same time, at a ratio of 3 sodium ions inside the cell and 2 potassium ions
outside the cell bind to the pump. This allows the release of energy from ATP and
causes the protein complex to change shape. The change in shape allow the Na+
and K+ ions to move across and be released
Bulk Transport
In addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells
also need to remove and take in larger molecules and particles. Some cells are
even capable of engulfing entire unicellular microorganisms. The uptake and re-
lease of large particles by the cell requires energy. A large particle, however cannot
pass through the membrane, even with energy supplied by the cell
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large
molecule, part of the cells and even whole cells, into the cell. The plasma mem-
brane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket around the target particle. The
pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a newly created

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 intracellular vesicles formed from the plasma membrane. It means the cell mem-
brane folds inward, traps and encloses a small amount of matter from the extra-
cellular fluid.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (the condition of “cell eating”) is the process by which large par-
ticles, such as cells or relatively large particles, are taken in by a cell. For exam-
ple, when microorganism invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called
neutrophil will remove the invaders through this process, surrounding and engulf-
ing the microorganisms, which is then destroyed by the neutrophil. It is the intake
of a large droplet of extracellular fluid. This occurs in specialized cells
Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis which literally means “cell drinking” and was named at that time
when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular
fluid. In reality , this is the process that takes in molecules, including water,
which the cell needs from the extracellular fluid. Pinocytosis results in a much
smaller vesicle than does phagocytosis, and the vesicles does not need to merge
with a lysosome. Always remember that pinocytosis is the intake of a small droplet
of extracellular fluid. This occurs in nearly all cell types.
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
A targeted variation of endocytosis employs receptor proteins in the plasma
membrane that have a specific binding affinity for certain substances. It is the in-
take of specific molecules that attach to special proteins in the cell membrane.
These proteins are uniquely shaped to fit the shape of a specific molecule.
Exocytosis
The reverse process of moving material into a cell is the process of exocyto-
sis. Exocytosis is the opposite of the processes of endocytosis because its purpose
is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. Waste material is en-
veloped in a membrane and fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane. This
fusion open the membranous envelope on the exterior of the cell, and the waste
material is expelled into the extracellular space. Other examples of cells releasing
molecules via exocytosis include the secretion of proteins of the extracellular ma-
trix and secretion by neurons of neurotransmitters contained in synaptic vesicles
into the synaptic cleft. To make things clear exocytosis is the reverse of endocyto-
sis: A vesicle from inside the cell moves to the cell membrane. The vesicle fuses to
the membrane and the contents are secreted .

D
Learning Task 1
Directions: Answer the following statement
1. Provide insights on how the structures and components of the cell membrane
is related to its function with regards to the Cellular Signaling/Recognition.
2. Give your Take Away on Cellular Transport Mechanisms‘ relation to the Plasma
Membrane emphasizing more on its function. Write it on a long bond paper.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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Learning Task 2
Directions: Answer the following question. Write your answer on separate
sheet of paper.
1. Why is the transport mechanism vital in a cell?
2. How are things transported through the membrane?
3. How will a person know if the transport mechanism in the cell throughout our
body is starting not to work not working?
4. What will you compare to the transport mechanism to what we have today?
5. If you are to choose what transport mechanism you prefer, what will it be and
why?
6. How does sodium-potassium pump contribute to the net negative charge of the
interior of the cell?
7. Where does the cell get energy for active transport?
8. Why is it important that there are different types of proteins in plasma mem-
brane for the transport of materials into and out of the cell?
9. Why do ions have difficult time getting through plasma membranes despite
their small size?
10. If a bacterium is in a concentrated solution of sugar, which substance will
leave the cell and which will move into the cell? What process are involved?

E
Learning Task 3
Directions: Choose one (1) Transport Mechanism in a cell and make a relata-
ble analogy based on your experience recently. Illustrate and explain your work on
a long bond paper .Write your sketch neatly on a long bond paper. And keep your
output in a safe place and submit it on the exact date of submission to be an-
nounced by your teacher.

A
Link to Learning
x For video illustrating the process of diffusion in solution, visit this site
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhszFBtBPoI)
x Visit this site (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBCVVszQQNs) to dee the
animation of fluidity and mosaic quality of membranes

In this modules I learned that ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
I realized that ___________________________________________________________
I can apply what I have learned in ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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WEEK
Biological Molecule: Enzyme
7-8 Lesson 7-8
I
When you were very young and played under the heat of the sun, were you
able to experience sweat dripping in your neck, head and then like some acid that
went in your eyes, it feels burning and stingy right? But don‘t you worry. Now, we
all know that the burning and stingy sensation in our eyes was due to dust and
oils that came in contact with the sweat and to an anti-microbial enzyme fighting
off germs called Lysozyme
For this week you are expected to describe the components of an enzyme; ex-
plain oxidation/reduction reactions and determine how factors such as pH, tem-
perature, and substrate affect enzyme activity
Enzymes are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in
the body, such as aiding in fighting germs, digestion, and metabolism.
Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces that are more
easily absorbed by the body. Other enzymes help bind two molecules together to
produce a new molecule. Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that
each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.
Peeling, bruising, or cutting fruits cause them to release enzymes like poly-
phenol oxidase (PPO, phenolase) that, with the presence of oxygen (oxidation) in
the surrounding air, goes into chemical reactions of plant compounds. These
chemical reactions produce brown pigments through the process of enzymatic
browning
Oxidation and reduction occur in tandem and it occurred when peeling or
cutting fruits resulting to an enzymatic browning. Because oxidation and reduc-
tion usually occur together, these pairs of reactions are called oxidation reduction
reactions, or redox reactions.
Think of people passing balls back and forth, and the balls are balls of nega-
tivity. So if I'm holding the ball, I'm reduced. If I pass you the ball, you get re-
duced, and I become oxidized. The passing of the ball was the reduction-oxidation
reaction.
An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that
involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reac-
tion is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom,
or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. or ion changes by gaining or los-
ing an electron. A classic example of a redox reaction is rusting. When rusting
happens, oxygen steals electrons from iron. Oxygen gets reduced while iron gets
oxidized.
Enzymes are protein macromolecules.
o They have a defined amino acid sequence, and are typically 100-500 amino ac-
ids long.
o They have a defined three-dimensional structure.
Enzymes are catalysts.
o They act as a catalyst to a chemical or biochemical reaction, with a defined
mechanism.
o They increase the speed of that reaction, typically by 106 -1014 times faster

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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than the rate of the uncatalyzed reaction.
o They are selective for a single substrate.
o They speed up rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy (Ea).
o They are stereospecific, meaning the reaction produces a single product.
Common mistakes and misconceptions
Enzymes are "specific." Each type of enzyme typically only reacts with one or
a couple, of substrates. Some enzymes are more specific than others and will only
accept one particular substrate. Other enzymes can act on a range of molecules,
as long as they contain the type of bond or chemical group that the enzyme tar-
gets.
Enzymes are reusable. Enzymes are not reactants and are not used up dur-
ing the reaction. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the reaction,
the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another reaction. This
means that for each reaction, there does not need to be a 1:1 ratio between en-
zyme and substrate molecules.
Nomenclature Typically add “-ase” to name of substrate e.g. lactase breaks
down lactose (disaccharide of glucose and galactose) Enzymes based upon the
class of organic chemical reaction catalyzed:
1. Oxidoreductase - catalyze redox reactions; dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxi-
dases, reductases.
2. Transferases - catalyze group transfer reactions; often require coenzymes.
3. Hydrolases - catalyze hydrolysis reactions.
4. Lyases - lysis of substrate; produce contains double bond.
5. Isomerases - catalyze structural changes; isomerization.
6. Ligases - ligation or joining of two substrates with input of energy, usually
from ATP hydrolysis; often called synthetases or synthases.
Enzyme Components
Apoenzyme :is an inactive enzyme, activation of the enzyme occurs upon
binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor.; are enzymes that lack their necessary
cofactor(s) for proper functioning and a Protein
Holoenzyme: are the active forms of apoenzymes. (Apoenzyme plus cofactor)
and DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase are examples.
Cofactor: are mostly metal ions or small organic molecules. They are inorgan-
ic and organic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of reactions.
and nonprotein component (e.g. magnesium, zinc).
Coenzyme: are non-protein organic molecules that are mostly derivatives of
vitamins soluble in water by phosphorylation and they are oOrganic cofactor (Eg:
NADH, FADH)
Many enzymes can catalyze a reaction only if coenzymes, or cofactors are
present

Oxidation-Reduction
An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that
involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reac-
tion is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom,
or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron.

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
41
 Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of life,
including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.
x oxidation-reduction reactions are also called REDOX reactions
x all redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
x spontaneous redox reactions are generally exothermic, and we can use their
released energy as a source of energy for other applications.
Redox reactions are comprised of two parts, a reduced half and an oxidized
half, that always occur together. The reduced half gains electrons and the oxida-
tion number decreases, while the oxidized half loses electrons and the oxidation
number increases. Simple ways to remember this include the mnemonic devices
OIL RIG, meaning "oxidation is loss" and "reduction is gain," and LEO says GER,
meaning "loss of e- = oxidation" and "gain of e- = reduced." There is no net change
in the number of electrons in a redox reaction. Those given off in the oxidation
half reaction are taken up by another species in the reduction half reaction.
A good example of a redox reaction is the thermite reaction, in which iron at-
oms in ferric oxide lose (or give up) O atoms to Al atoms, producing Al2O3.
Fe2O3(s)+2Al(s)→Al2O3(s)+2Fe(l)
x OXIDATION can be defined as addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a
substance or removal of hydrogen/ electropositive element from a substance.
x REDUCTION can be defined as removal of oxygen/electronegative element from
a substance or addition of hydrogen/ electropositive element to a substance.
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
-4 +1 0 +4 –2 +1 –2
Development of oxidation and reduction reaction concept. Reaction of reduction
oxidation based on releasing (losing) and gaining of oxygen (capturing).
Oxidation reaction is a reaction of gaining (capturing) of oxygen by a substance
Ex. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
P4(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)
b. Reduction reaction is a reaction of releasing (losing) of oxygen from an oxide
compound
Ex. CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
What is an oxidizing and reducing agent?
x Oxidizing agent: a reagent which increases the oxidation number of an element
of a given substance. These reagents are called oxidants. It contains the ele-
ment that is reduced.
x Reducing agent: a reagent that lowers the oxidation number of a given element.
These reagents are also called reductants. It contains the element that is oxi-
dized.
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 Na+Cl–(s)
(Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced Na is the reducing agent, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent)
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature,
pH, concentrations and inhibitors. Enzymes work best within specific temperature
and pH ranges, and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability
to bind to a substrate.

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 Temperature: Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lower-
ing temperature slows down a reaction. However, extreme high temperatures can
cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and stop working. Most enzymes
have an optimum temperature, near normal body temperature at which they cata-
lyze a reaction most rapidly .
pH (abbr. power of hydrogen or potential for hydrogen): Each enzyme has an
optimum pH range. Changing the pH outside of this range will slow enzyme activi-
ty. Extreme pH values can cause enzymes to denature. Even small pH changes
can alter the electrical charges on various chemical groups in enzyme molecules,
thereby altering the enzyme‘s ability to bind its substrate and catalyze a reaction.
Enzymes catalyze a reaction most rapidly at an optimum pH, near neutral.
Substrate concentration: Increasing substrate concentration also increases
the rate of reaction to a certain point. Once all of the enzymes have bound, any
substrate increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction, as the available en-
zymes will be saturated and working at their maximum rate. At the saturation
point, the reaction will not speed up, no matter how much additional substrate is
added. The graph of the reaction rate will plateau.
Enzyme concentration: Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the
reaction, as long as there is substrate available to bind to. Once all of the sub-
strate is bound, the reaction will no longer speed up, since there will be nothing
for additional enzymes to bind to. The higher the concentration of an enzyme the
greater should be the initial reaction rate. This will last as long as substrate pre-
sent
Enzyme Inhibitors (Inhibition)
Competitive inhibitor: A molecule similar in structure to a substrate can bind
to an enzyme‘s active site and compete with substrate
Noncompetitive inhibitors: attach to the enzyme at an allosteric site, which is
a site other than the active site distort the tertiary protein structure and alter the
shape of the active site
Feedback inhibition: regulates the rate of many metabolic pathways when an
end product of a pathway accumulates and binds to and inactivates the first en-
zyme in the metabolic pathway. Product (usually ultimate product) of a pathway
controls the rate of synthesis through inhibition of an early step (usually the first
step). Conserves material and energy by preventing accumulation of intermedi-
ates.

D
Learning Task 1
Directions: Identify the following words. Write your answer in separate sheet.
 Oxidation 6. Enzyme
 Reduction 7. Proteins
 Oxidants 8. pH level
 Reductants 9. temperature
 Reagent 10. substrate

PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
43
 Learning Task 2
Directions: Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.
______1. Substrate binds in the active site.
______2. An enzyme is usually lipid biological catalyst.
______3. The reactant molecule that an enzyme works on is the Substrate.
______4. A Catalyst retards the chemical reaction without being changed
______5. Coenzymes are non-protein organic molecules that are mostly deriva-
tives of vitamins
______6. Cofactors are small protein organic molecules that assist enzymes dur-
ing the catalysis of reactions.
______7. DNA and RNA polymerases are examples of Holoenzyme
______8. Apoenzyme activation occurs upon binding of an organic or inorganic
coenzyme.
______9. Enzymes are reactants and are used up during the reaction.
______10. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the reaction, the
enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another reaction.

E
Learning Task 3
A plant can represent an enzyme while your water, soil and sunlight can
represent the substrates. Guess what the inhibitors can represent? Maybe any-
thing that will negatively affect the plant like not watering it on schedule, not
getting enough sunlight and so much more. We know the byproducts of the
plants that are well taken care of, right? Food and oxygen, or something benefi-
cial to us.
1. Gather a recyclable container like cola bottles, loam soil, fertilizer, etc.
2. Use tools needed like a small shovel or trowel for transferring the soil inside
the container.
3. Decide on a plant you want to easily take care and be beneficial for your
household. Then, secure the seeds or graft of the plant you decided on. Plant
it.
4. Document everything for a month (photos included if possible), starting from
the first day of listing down the materials and recording the plant‘s growth in
centimeters. Keep a record notebook for the schedule of submission

A
Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are __________ in biochemical
reaction (like digestions) and usually complex or ___________ proteins. They may
help in breakdown, rearrangement , or synthesis reactions. Enzymes that break
down their substrate are called _________ enzymes. Those that build more com-
plex molecules from their substrate are called _________ enzyme, and enzymes
that affect the rate of reaction are called _________ enzymes. In all these reac-
tions, an enzyme will bind with the substrate in an area on the enzymes surface
called the _______________, forming a substrate enzyme complex.
PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
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 45
PIVOT 4A CALABARZON
Week 7-8 LT 2 Week 4 LT 2
1. T 1. E
2. F 2. A
3. T 3. F
4. F 4. G
5. T 5. H,I
6. F 6. D
7. T 7. C
8. F 8. B
9. F 9. J
10. T 10. K
Week 3 LT 3 Week 1 LT 3
A. blood 1. mitochondria
B. Cartilage 2. Cell wall
C. Bone 3. Chromosome
D. Stratified squamous 4. Nucleus
E. Simple squamous 5. Chlorophyll
F. Simple columnar 6. Endoplasmic reticulum
G. Cardiac 7. Cell membrane
H. Smooth 8. Ribosome
I. skeletal 9. Vacuoles
Answer Key
 References

Belardo, Gisselle Millete M, et.al (2017). General Biology 1 First Edition Student’s
Manual for Senior High School. Department of Education.
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Department of Education Central Office. Most Essential Learning Competencies
(MELCs). 2020.
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www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGeSDI03aaw
Chapter 5 Microbial Metabolism, Melinda Grant (2018) https://slideplayer.com/
slide/12502012/
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pediaa.com/difference-between-endocytosis-and-exocytosis/
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high -school-biology/hs-energy and-transport/hs-enzymes/a/hs-enzymes-
review
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https://www.livescience.com/45145-how-do-enzymes-work.html https://
www.britannica.com/science/enzyme
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drew Worthington, Ph.D. (2019) http://www.worthington biochem.com/
introbiochem/factors.html#:~:text=Several%20factors%20 affect%20the%
20rate,of%20any%20inhibitors%20or%20activators.
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school-biology/hs-energy and-transport/hs-enzymes/a/hs-enzymes-review
Factors-Affecting-Enzymatic-Activity-Notes-PDF by easybiologyclass.com
https://bit.ly/2W3SFU9

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Factors affecting enzyme activity by www.khanacademy.org https://bit.ly/3iL9XP
https://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme/Factors-affecting-
enzyme activity
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cP8iQu57dQo
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cP8iQu57dQo \
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