Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression: Greg Phillippi

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression September 2008
Basic Thermodynamics
of Reciprocating
Compression
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
Phone: 740-397-0311
gphillippi@arielcorp.com
www.arielcorp.com
This short course will cover the fundamental principles of reciprocating

compressors and engines. For the compressor, this will include
discussions of PV diagrams, capacity, volumetric efficiency, and
horsepower. In addition, it will cover the effects of changing conditions,
gas analysis, temperature, and pulsation on compressors. For the
engine, discussions of the sequence of events for two stroke and four
stroke engines that include pressure and vibration patterns with
respect to volume and time will be presented. Finally, it will briefly
cover engine combustion characteristics for a few common cases.
Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 1

Pd
N
Pressure
EX
SIO
ON
PA
SI
EX
ES
ES
NS
PA
MR
MR
IO
NS
CO
CO
N
IO
Ps
N
ODC IDC ODC
Crank Angle
Suction
Head Crank
End End
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Discharge
This is the last slide in the animation of a cylinder with a pressure

versus crank-angle (time) diagram.

Pressure-Volume Diagram
PD
Pressure
PS
Volume
VMIN VMAX
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The P-V diagram (pressure-volume diagram) is a plot of the

pressure inside the compression chamber (inside the bore)
versus the volume of gas inside the chamber.
A complete circuit around the diagram represents one

revolution of the crankshaft.
This is an “ideal” diagram in that it does not show any valve

pressure drop and therefore no valve loss horsepower (which
will be explained later in the course).
PD is discharge pressure (typically said to be the pressure that

exists at the cylinder flange).
PS is suction pressure - at the cylinder flange.

Compression
Discharge
PD valve opens
C
om
pr
Pressure
es
si
on
PS
Volume
Suction valve
is closed
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This depicts the compression event.
It starts at the point where the suction valve closes. When the
suction valve closes, gas is trapped inside the compression
chamber at suction pressure and suction temperature.
As the piston moves towards the other end of the compression

chamber, the volume is decreasing, the pressure increasing
and the temperature increasing.
Compression stops when the discharge valve opens.
The shape of the curve of the compression event is determined

by the adiabatic exponent (k-value or n-value). This is a
thermodynamic property of the gas and will be discussed later
in the course.

Discharge
Discharge
PD valve opens
Discharge
Discharge
Pressure
valve closes
PS
Volume
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When the discharge valve opens, compression stops, and gas

at discharge pressure and discharge temperature is pushed out
of the compression chamber through the discharge valve, into
the discharge gas passage and out into the discharge piping.
The discharge event continues until the piston reaches the end
of the stroke, where the discharge valve closes and the next
event, expansion, begins.
The compression and discharge events together represent one-

half of one revolution of the crankshaft and one stroke length.

Expansion
PD
Expa
Pressure
nsion
PS
Volume
Suction valve
opens
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When the discharge valve closes at the end of the discharge

event, there is still some gas left in the compression chamber.
This volume of gas is referred to as the “fixed clearance
volume” and is usually expressed as a percentage:
in3 fixed clearance

% Fixed Clearance = × 100%
in3 piston displaceme nt
As the piston moves away from the head, the volume inside the
compression chamber increases with all of the valves (suction
and discharge) closed. The gas in the fixed clearance volume
expands, decreasing in pressure and temperature, until the
pressure inside the compression chamber reaches suction
pressure, where the suction valve opens and the expansion
event ceases.

Suction
PD
Pressure
Suction
PS
Volume
Suction valve Suction valve
opens closes
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At the end of the expansion event, the suction valve opens

opening the compression chamber to the suction gas passage
and suction piping system. As the piston moves, the volume in
the compression chamber is increasing and the compression
chamber fills with gas at suction pressure and suction
temperature.
The suction event ceases when the piston reaches the other
end of the stroke, the suction valves closes and the piston turns
around and goes the other direction.
The end of the suction event marks the end of one complete
cycle. One complete cycle requires one complete revolution of
the crankshaft and two stroke lengths.

Four Events
Discharge
valve closes
Discharge
PD valve opens
Discharge
C
om
Expa
Pressure
pr
es
nsion
si
on
Suction
PS
Volume
Suction valve Suction valve
opens closes
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All four events representing the compression cycle are shown

on this chart - Compression, Discharge, Expansion, and
Suction.

Volumetric Efficiency
PD
Pressure
Inlet volume
PS
Volume
Displacement
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The inlet volume is the amount of gas brought into the

compression chamber during the suction event. The amount of
gas brought into the compression chamber out of the suction
piping system IS the capacity!
The displacement represents the volume displaced during one

complete stroke length of the piston. The piston displacement
of the head end and crank end of a double-acting cylinder are
different due to the existence of the piston rod in the crank end.

Inlet volume
VE =
Displaceme nt
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Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of inlet volume to

displacement, usually expressed as a percent.
It should be noted that VE has nothing to do with when the

suction valve opens. It has everything to do with how much of
the compression chamber fills with gas at suction pressure and
suction temperature.

• Volumetric efficiency (V.E.) is the percentage of

stroke that can (or will) fill with suction gas and
is the cylinder end’s capacity.
• V.E. is NOT suction valve open time.
• A higher number for V.E. does not mean it is
“better”.
• The influence of V.E. on compression (energy)
efficiency is through the relationship of V.E. to
average piston velocity (avg velocity of gas thru
valves)
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⎡ 1
⎤
⎢ ⎛ ZS ⎞⎛ PD ⎞K
VE S = 100 − %CL ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎝ Z D ⎠⎝ PS ⎠ ⎥
Where:
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
VES = Volumetric efficiency, %
%CL = Fixed clearance, %
ZS = Compressibility factor @ PS & TS
ZD = Compressibility factor @ PD & TD
PD = Discharge pressure, psia
PS = Suction pressure, psia
K = Adiabatic exponent, k-value
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This is the equation for volumetric efficiency.
Note the influence of the thermodynamic gas properties K and

Z. The higher the K-value the higher the volumetric efficiency,
everything else equal. The influence of Z is not so straight
forward because it is actually a ratio of Z and the ratio for most
typical applications is around 1.0 (meaning ZS = ZD).
Also, note the influence of clearance. The higher the %CL

(percent fixed clearance) the lower the volumetric efficiency.

Fixed Clearance
in3 Clearance
% Fixed Clearance = 3 × 100%
in Displaceme nt
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Fixed Clearance
Cylinder Body Valve
Piston
Head End Head
Rod
RED is the fixed clearance volume
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⎡⎛ Z ⎞ 1 ⎤
VE S = 100 − R C − %CL ⎢⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟(R C )K − 1⎥
⎣⎝ Z D ⎠ ⎦
Where:
VES = Volumetric efficiency, %
%CL = Fixed clearance, %
ZS = Compressibility factor @ PS & TS
ZD = Compressibility factor @ PD & TD
RC = Compression ratio, Pd/Ps
K = Adiabatic exponent, k-value
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This equation shows a common “fudge factor”, - RC

(compression ratio), added to the equation to account for piston
ring leakage and any other internal leakage.
Compressor OEM’s have many ways to account for the

difference between “real world” volumetric efficiency and
volumetric efficiency by pure theory.

Low Volumetric Efficiency
Pd
Pressure
Ps
Volume
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This a pressure-volume diagram showing low volumetric

efficiency.
The concern with low volumetric efficiency is the time required

for the discharge valve to open and close properly. With low
VE the discharge valve will close late causing the seal element
to slam against the seat with excessive closing impact velocity.
The seal element will then fail.

Change in Capacity for

Added 10% Clearance
90
80 20%
Change in Capacity, %
40%
70
60%
60 80%
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Compression Ratio
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This chart shows the effect of fixed clearance on volumetric

efficiency.
Specifically, the chart shows the effect of adding 10%

clearance to four different base fixed clearances over a range
of compression ratio.
The chart also shows the effect of compression ratio on

volumetric efficiency.

ACFM
ACFM = (PD ) × (VE S )

Where:
ACFM = Actual cubic feet per minute
PD = Piston displacement, cubic feet per minute
VES = Volumetric efficiency, decimal
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This is the equation used to calculate ACFM or actual cubic

feet per minute of volume flow, knowing volumetric efficiency.

What is ACF & SCF?
• When capacity is provided in volume terms the

density must be specified or known.
• ACF = “actual” cubic feet
• Density is PS and TS
• SCF - “standard” cubic feet
• Density is PSTD and TSTD
• Typically PSTD = 14.7 psia & TSTD = 60 ºF
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This shows how much volume one pound (mass) of gas occupies at
two different pressures (14.7 psia and 500 psia) at the same
temperature (60 deg F)
SCF (standard cubic foot) is volume measured at a pressure and

temperature of 14.6 psia and 60 deg F (typically).
ACF (actual cubic foot) is volume measured at the actual pressure

and temperature conditions.

MMSCFD
MMSCFD =
(0.0509 )(ACFM)(PS )(Z STD )
(TS )(Z S )
Where:
MMSCFD = Million standard cubic feet per day
ACFM = Actual cubic feet per minute
ZSTD = Compressibility factor @ standard conditions
TS = Suction temperature, ºR
ZS = Compressibility factor @ suction conditions
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This equation converts ACFM (actual cubic feet per minute) to

MMSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day).
The standard pressure and temperature in the United States is

usually 14.7 psia and 60 degrees F. The MMS (Minerals
Management Service in the Department of the Interior) in the
past has used 15.025 psia as the standard pressure for natural
gas measurement. Believe the rules have been changed to
14.696 psia. 15.025 psia works out to 10 ounces per square
inch above the average barometric pressure of 14.4 psia.

MMSCFD to LB per HR
LB 14.7LB 144IN2 1.0MMSCF 1,000,000S CF (.6 × 29)LB DAY LBMOL − O R 1

= × × × × × × ×
HR IN2 FT 2 DAY MMSCF LBMOL 24HR 1545.33FT - LB 520 O R
LB
= 1909.8
HR
This equation shows the conversion from MMSCFD to LB per HOUR.
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This equation converts million standard cubic feet per day

capacity (MMSCFD) into pounds-mass per hour (LBm/HR).

Real Gas Law
ZmRT PV
PV = ZmRT, V = ,m =
P ZRT
Where:
P = Pressure, psia
V = Volume, cubic feet
Z = Compressibility factor @ P & T
m = Mass, pounds mass
R = Universal gas constant, 1545.3 (FT-LB)/(LBmol-ºR)
T = Temperature, ºR (ºF + 459.6)
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This is the real gas law. It relates pressure, mass and volume.
Good to remember this relationship.

Horsepower Breakdown
Friction
Valve
Loss
Adiabatic
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This pie chart shows how total horsepower might breakdown

for an “average” (say moderate to high compression ratio)
application. In this type of application adiabatic horsepower is
the majority of the horsepower.

Adiabatic Horsepower
W = ∫ PdV
Pd
Pressure
Adiabatic
Horsepower
Ps
Volume
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This a real life pressure-volume diagram with the adiabatic

horsepower region highlighted.
Remember from college thermodynamics:
Work = ∫ PdV
This means that the area enclosed by the P-V diagram is

directly related to work or horsepower.

Adiabatic Horsepower
⎡ (K −1) ⎤
AHP =
(144 )(K )(PS )(PD )(VE S )(Z S + Z D ) ⎢⎛ PD
⎜
⎞
⎟⎟
K
− 1⎥
(33000 )(K − 1)(2 × Z S ) ⎢⎜⎝ PS ⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Where:
AHP = Adiabatic horsepower
K = Adiabatic exponent (k-value)
PD = Piston displacement, cfm
VES = Volumetric efficiency, suction, decimal
ZS = Compressibility factor, suction
ZD = Compressibility factor, discharge
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This is an equation for adiabatic horsepower.
Note the influence of the gas thermodynamic data, K and Z’s.
Remember that the product of piston displacement and

volumetric efficiency (PDxVE) is capacity.

Adiabatic HP per MMSCFD
⎡ (K −1) ⎤
AHP (0.04283 )(K )(Z S + Z D )(TS ) ⎢⎛ PD ⎞ K ⎥
MM
=
(K − 1) ⎢⎜⎜ P ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎝ S ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Where:
AHP/MM = Adiabatic horsepower per MMSCFD
K = Adiabatic exponent (k-value)
TS = Suction temperature, ºR
Z = Compressibility factor
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This is an equation for adiabatic horsepower per million

standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD or MM).
Note the data required: pressures, suction temperature and gas

thermodynamic data (K and Z’s).

Valve Loss Horsepower
Discharge valve
Pd loss horsepower
Pressure
Ps
Suction valve loss Volume

horsepower
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This P-V diagram highlights suction and discharge valve loss

horsepower (VLHP).
VLHP is created by the pressure drop encountered as gas

flows through the valve(s).

VLHP ≈ ΔP (A BORE )(VE )(S × RPM )
Where:
VLHP = Valve loss horsepower
ΔP = Pressure drop
ABORE = Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area
S = Stroke
VE = Volumetric efficiency, suction, fraction
RPM = Speed, revolutions per minute
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This is a relationship between pressure drop, piston (or bore)

area, stroke, volumetric efficiency and speed.

Valve Pressure Drop
ΔP ≈ ρV 2
Where:
ΔP = Pressure drop
ρ = Density
V = Velocity
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This is the general relationship for any calculation of pressure

drop. Pressure drop is related to density times velocity
squared.

Gas Density
P (SG )
ρ≈
Z (T )
Where:
ρ = Density
P = Pressure
SG = Gas specific gravity
T = Temperature
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This is an equation for density.
This is derived by rearranging the ideal gas law:
PV = ZMRT
M P
=
V ZRT
1545.35
R=
(SG)(28.96)
M
ρ=
V
P(SG)
ρ≈
ZT

Gas Velocity
V≈
(A BORE )(S × RPM ) (D BORE ) (S × RPM )
≈
2
(N × A VLV PKT ) (N × D VLV PKT )2

Where:
V = Average gas velocity through the valve pocket
ABORE = Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area
S = Stroke
N = Number of S or D valve pockets feeding end
AVLV PKT = Valve pocket area
DBORE = Cylinder main bore diameter
DVLV PKT = Valve pocket diameter
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This is an equation for the relationship of the velocity of the gas

through the valve pocket area.
Note the ratio of the area of the piston to the area of the valve
(this is not valve flow area, this is the area of the full valve
diameter).

Typical Valve Pocket
Valve
Cap
Valve
Cage
Valve
Body
Front Liner
Head
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This is a drawing of a typical valve pocket in a compressor cylinder.
The section is taken parallel to the piston rod.

Valve Pocket Diameter
Valve
Pocket
Diameter
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This slide defines “valve pocket diameter” for a typical valve pocket.

Valve Pressure Drop
P (SG )(R P )(A BORE ) (S × RPM )

2 2
ΔP ≈
(
Z (T ) N × A VLV PKT )2
Where:
ΔP = Pressure drop
P = Pressure
RPM = Speed, rev per minute
S = Stroke
ABORE = Cylinder main bore area
T = Temperature
RP = Valve resistance factor
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Combining the density and velocity relationships into the

pressure drop equation yields this relationship.
Note the following:
1. Pressure drop is directly related to the ratio of the diameter

of the piston to the fourth power, and inversely related to the
diameter of the valve to the fourth power.
2. Pressure drop is directly related to stroke squared and speed

squared, or piston speed squared.
As an aside, the equation for piston speed is:
2 × stroke × speed stroke × speed

Piston speed = =
12 6
Where:
Piston speed = average piston velocity, feet per minute

Stroke = inches
Speed = rpm

Valve Resistance Factor -

Definition
Ratio of measured pressure drop across the suction or discharge side
of a cylinder to the pressure drop that would be predicted in flowing
the same quantity of the same gas at identical upstream pressure and
temperature conditions through a round hole having a discharge
coefficient equal to one and an area equal to the valve pocket
opening.
Typical resistance factors range from 50 (poppet valve) to 200 (low lift
plate valve).
Ref: Hartwick, “Efficiency Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors”, December 1968, ASME technical paper 68-
WA/DGP-3.
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Valve Resistance Factor
Compressor Valve ΔP
RP =
Orifice ΔP
Where:
ΔP = Pressure drop, psi
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This is the definition of resistance factor in equation form.

Valve Equivalent Area - Definition
Orifice area required to generate the same pressure drop as that

through a compressor valve when flowing the same quantity of the
same gas at the same conditions.
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Valve Equivalent Area
A PKT
VEA =
RP
Where:
VEA = Valve equivalent area
APKT = Valve pocket area
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This equation shows the relationship between valve equivalent

area and resistance factor.
So, knowing one allows the other to be calculated.

P (SG )(R P )(A BORE ) (S × RPM ) (VE )

3 3
VLHP ≈
(
Z (T ) N × A VLV PKT )2
Where:
VLHP = Valve loss horsepower
P = Pressure
ABORE = Cylinder main bore area
S = Stroke
VE = Volumetric efficiency, decimal
T = Temperature
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This is the equation for VLHP with substitutions for pressure

drop.
Note the following:
1. The relationship of the piston diameter and valve diameter to

VLHP.
2. The relationship of stroke and speed to VLHP. Another way

to look at this relationship is to say that stroke times speed is
piston speed and that VLHP is directly related to piston speed
cubed.

Valve Pocket Area as

% of Bore Area
% Valve Pkt Area od Bore Area
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
Cylinder Diameter
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This is a plot of valve pocket area as a percentage of cylinder bore

area.
Note that as the cylinder gets larger the amount of valve pocket area
decreases significantly. Large cylinders are never as efficient as
small ones.

Deactivated End Horsepower
DHP =
(9.59 )P (SG )(R Pin + R Pout ) (A BORE ) (S × RPM )
3 3 3
10 15 (Z )(T )(N × A VLV PKT )

2
Where:
DHP = Deactivated end horsepower
P = Pressure, psia
RPin = Valve resistance factor, in-stroke
RPout = Valve resistance factor, out-stroke
ABORE = Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area, sq. in.
S = Stroke, in.
T = Temperature
N = Number of valve pockets feeding deactivated end
AVLV PKT = Valve pocket area, sq. in.
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This is the equation for deactivated end horsepower (parasitic

horsepower).
Note the following:
1. DHP is directly related to pressure and specific gravity.
2. Pressure is most typically suction pressure.
3. DHP has the effect of creating heat and raising the

temperature.

Deactivated End
P-V Diagram
PS
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This is a sample P-V diagram of a deactivated end.

Deactivated End Temperature
3 2 1
Photo courtesy of Energy Imaging 580-388-4385
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This is an infrared photo of three compressor cylinders on one side of

a six throw compressor. Each cylinder is unloaded differently.
Cylinder #1 is not unloaded.
Cylinder #2 has a head end fixed clearance pocket open.
Cylinder #3 has the head end deactivated using finger type suction
valve unloaders.

Indicated Horsepower
Adiabatic HP
+ Suction Valve Loss HP
+ Discharge Valve Loss HP
Indicated HP
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This is the “definition” of indicated horsepower.
It is the sum of the horsepower developed directly from the

pressure-volume diagram.

Brake Horsepower
Indicated HP
+ Friction HP
Brake HP
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This is the “definition” of brake horsepower.
Brake horsepower is the horsepower required at the face of the

crosshead, in the case of an integral-engine compressor, or at
the driver coupling connection, in the case of a separable
compressor (provided the “friction HP” component includes
allowance for the friction losses inside the crankcase).

Brake Horsepower
IHP
BHP =
M.E.
Where:
BHP = Brake horsepower
IHP = Indicated horsepower
M.E. = Mechanical efficiency
Typically 92% to 97%
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This is another way to express brake horsepower, or BHP.
The numbers used for mechanical efficiency vary with the

OEM.

Brake Horsepower
IHP
BHP = + FFHP
M.E.
Where:
IHP = Indicated horsepower
M.E. = Mechanical efficiency, associated with the
cylinders only, typically 0.95
FFHP = Frame friction HP, constant number to account
for friction in the frame
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This is yet another way to express brake horsepower (BHP).
The friction component has been divided into cylinder and

frame (or crankcase) components.
The mechanical efficiency factor is intended to cover the friction

in the cylinders.
The frame friction factor is typically a constant number used to

account for the friction in the frame or crankcase. OEM’s may
vary FFHP with speed or speed squared.
This is an approach most typically associated with separable

compressors.

Compression Efficiency
AHP AHP × M.E.

EFF = =
BHP (AHP + SVLHP + DVLHP)
Where:
EFF = Compression efficiency
AHP = Adiabatic horsepower
M.E. = Mechanical efficiency
SVLHP = Suction valve loss horsepower
DVLHP = Discharge valve loss horsepower
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This is an expression for compression efficiency.

High RC
Lo RC
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This compares compression efficiency between high and low

compression ratio P-V diagrams.
Which is more efficient? Why?

Compression Efficiency, %
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Compression ratio
Standard design 12.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
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This is a very typical plot of compression efficiency versus

compression ratio.
Note how compression efficiency drops off with decreasing

compression ratio.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Compression ratio
Low ratio design 12.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
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compression ratio for a cylinder designed for low compression ratio
applications.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Compression ratio
Standard design 26.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
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compression ratio for a large (26.5 inches) bore cylinder.

100
90
80
70
60
50 Large
Std
40
Low Rc
30
20
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Compression ratio
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This chart plots all three of the previous slides on one chart.
Note the differences.

100
90
80
70
60
50 Std H2
40 Std Nat Gas
30
20
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Compression ratio
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This is a plot of compression efficiency versus compression ratio for a

cylinder compressing natural gas and another hydrogen. Shows the
effect of gas composition on efficiency.
If the gas is very “light” (very low mole weight - like hydrogen) - forget
about efficiency!

Increased Discharge Pressure
Increased PD
with PS constant
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This shows the effect on the P-V diagram of increasing

discharge pressure with everything else remaining constant.
Note that volumetric efficiency decreases and discharge VLHP

decreases.

Decreased Discharge Pressure
Decreased PD
with PS constant
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This shows the effect of decreasing the discharge pressure.
Note that volumetric efficiency increases.

Increased Suction Pressure
Increased PS
with PD constant
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This shows the effect of increasing suction pressure with

discharge pressure remaining constant.

Increased Suction Pressure
Increased PS
with PD constant
CAPACITY INCREASE
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This shows the effect of increasing suction pressure with

discharge pressure remaining constant.
Capacity increases! Always!

HP vs. Suction Pressure
Pd is constant
Power
Suction Pressure
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This plot shows how compressor horsepower varies as suction

pressure varies with a constant discharge pressure.

Capacity vs.
Suction Pressure
PD is fixed.
Pd is constant
Capacity
Suction Pressure
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This plot shows how compressor horsepower varies as suction

pressure varies with a constant discharge pressure.

HP per MMSCFD vs.

Suction Pressure
Pd is constant
Power per Capacity
Suction Pressure
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This plot shows how compressor horsepower per MMSCFD

varies as suction pressure varies with a constant discharge
pressure.

Effect of Speed
Pressure drop
70% Speed
varies with RPM2
49% ΔP
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This depicts the effect of a speed change on the P-V diagram.
Note that the width of the diagram does not change - in other
words the basic shape of the diagram does not change.
The only change is in the valve pressure drop or the valve loss
horsepower. Remember that the pressure drop changes with
the square of the speed.

Effect of K-value
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This is a temperature-entropy diagram for carbon dioxide.
Entropy is a thermodynamic term used to measure the

unavailability of energy. Entropy increases as a system loses
heat but remains constant when there is no gain or loss of heat.
The compression and expansion segments of the P-V diagram

are modeled assuming that they are adiabatic (or isentropic or
entropy is a constant).

Temperature-Entropy
Diagram
K -1
TD ⎛ PD ⎞ K
=⎜ ⎟
TS ⎜⎝ PS ⎟⎠
Isentropic or
adiabatic
Temperature
TD
compression
PD
PS TS
Entropy
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K-value is the adiabatic exponent and defines an adiabatic (or

constant entropy) path from one state point to another. For a
recip compressor this is from suction pressure and temperature
to discharge pressure.
Note that k-value is a path function and not a point function - in

other words k-value cannot be determined at a point or at a
specific pressure and temperature. K-value defines a path.
The equations calculates adiabatic discharge temperature and

essentially defines k-value.
Adiabatic or isentropic (constant entropy) means that no heat is

exchanged (goes into or out of the process) during the process
- here the process being the compression of a gas from P1 and
T1 to P2.

K-value
K -1
TD ⎛ PD ⎞ K
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
TS ⎝ PS ⎠
or
1
K=
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
⎜ log⎜ TD ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜T ⎟⎟
1− ⎜ ⎝ S⎠
⎟
⎜ log⎛⎜ PD ⎞⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜P ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ S ⎠⎠
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K-value is determined from the adiabatic temperature pressure

relationship as shown. Knowing the pressures and temperatures
allow the calculation of K.

K-value for an Ideal Gas
CP MW × C P
K= , or
CV MW × C P − 1.986
Where:
K = K-value
MW = Mole weight
CP = Specific heat at constant pressure
CP = Specific heat at constant volume
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Effect of K-value
K = 1.4
Air, nitrogen
or hydrogen
K = 1.12
Propane
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These two different P-V diagrams depict the effect of k-value.

The greater the k-value, the “fatter” the P-V diagram.

Compressibility (Z)
PV = MRT for ideal gas

PV = ZMRT for real gas
Where:
P = Pressure
V = Volume
M = Mass
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature
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PV = MRT is the perfect gas law.
PV = ZMRT uses “Z”, or compressibility factor, to correct the

perfect gas law for real gases. This defines compressibility
factor.

Effect of ZS
ZS = 0.8
ZS = 1.0
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Shows how suction compressibility factor affects the P-V

diagram.

Effect of ZD
ZD = 1.0
ZD = 0.8
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Shows how discharge compressibility factor affects the P-V

diagram.

Adiabatic Discharge Temperature

K −1
⎛P ⎞ K
TD- Adiabatic = TS ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
⎝ PS ⎠
Where:
TD-Adiabatic = Adiabatic discharge temperature, deg R
TS = Suction temperature, deg R
K = K-value, adiabatic exponent
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The equation for adiabatic discharge temperature.

Actual Discharge Temperature
TD-Actual =
(TD-Adiabatic− TS )
+T
Efficiency s
Where:
TD-Actual = Actual discharge temperature
TS = Suction temperature
Efficiency = Compression efficiency
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This shows that the inefficiency of the compression process

adds to the discharge temperature - in other words all of the
energy that goes into the compression process goes into the
compressed gas stream. Of course, there is heat removed by
the cooling water jackets and heat is rejected to the
surrounding environment, so the actual discharge temperature
will most likely be somewhere between adiabatic and the actual
given by the above.

Suction Temperature Pre-heat
• Mixing effect during the suction event

• Heat transfer in the suction gas passage
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There can be an effect during the compression process where

the suction gas temperature in pre-heated. In other words the
temperature of the gas at the instant that the compression leg
of the P-V diagram begins is greater than that measured in the
suction pulsation bottle or even than that measured in the
suction gas passage. It is the temperature (and pressure) of
the gas when compression starts that determines the capacity
and has an effect on horsepower.

Multi-stage:
What?
• Cylinders piped in series to reduce the
compression ratio across each cylinder
Stage 1 Stage 2
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Multi-stage:
What?
• An intercooler is installed between stages
to cool the gas prior to compressing it in
the next stage:
Stage 1 Stage 2
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Multi-stage:
Why?
• Assume PS = 50 psia, PD = 500 psia, TS =
60 °F, one stage of compression
• Compression ratio = 10
• Adiabatic TD = 425 °F, too high!!
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Multi-stage:
Why?
• Assume PS = 50 psia, PD = 500 psia, TS =
60 °F, two stages of compression
• Compression ratio per stage = 3.16
• Adiabatic TD = 218 °F
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Rod Load
• Reciprocating compressor frames are

limited in operating range by rod load
• Rod load is a force that generates a stress in
many parts of the compressor frame
assembly
• Results from differential pressure across
the compressor piston
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Tension Rod Load
PD
PS
PD
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Tension Rod Load
TRL = (PD − PS ) × AHE − (PD ) × AROD

Where:
TRL = Tension rod load, lbf
PD = Discharge pressure, psig
PS = Suction pressure, psig
AHE = Area, head end, in2
AROD = Area, rod, in2
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Compression Rod Load
PS
PD
PS
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Compression Rod Load
CRL = (PD − PS ) × AHE + (PS ) × AROD

Where:
CRL = Compression rod load, lbf
PD = Discharge pressure, psig
PS = Suction pressure, psig
AHE = Area, head end, in2
AROD = Area, rod, in2
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Gas + Inertia Rod Load
Gas
Rod Load
Inertia
Rod Load Gas + Inertia
Rod Load
Image courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.
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This is a plot of three different rod loads of a typical double-acting

compressor cylinder.
The three are:
1. Gas rod load – the load generated from just the gas pressure
acting on the piston.
2. Inertia rod load – the load generated by inertia (F = ma). Note that
inertia is maximum at the ends of the stroke (180 and 360) where
acceleration is maximum.
3. Gas + inertia rod load – a summation of gas rod load and inertia
rod load.

Crosshead Guide Assembly
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Crosshead Assembly
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Non-reversing Rod Load
No Reversal!
Image courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.
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Inertia Rod Load
• Inertia rod load is a force developed from the

acceleration and deceleration of a mass,
typically the crosshead + crosshead nut +
piston/rod assembly
Force = Mass × Acceleration
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Pulsation
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Pulsation is a multi-day short course all unto itself!
Here we will just touch on how pulsation might affect the P-V
diagram and therefore the compression process.
The slide shows a P-V diagram distorted by pulsation.

Pulsation
Average RC for
flange capacity
pressure
during
valve
open time
Suction
pressure
for
capacity
RC for
HP/MM
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Pulsation is a multi-day short course all unto itself!
Here we will just touch on how pulsation might affect the P-V
diagram and therefore the compression process.
The slide shows a P-V diagram distorted by pulsation.

Pulsation
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Here, “X” represents how much the volumetric efficiency is

distorted by pulsation.

Effect of ΔP on V.E.
25
30% V.E.
20
Change in V.E., %
15
50% V.E.
ΔP
10 3%
70% V.E.
ΔP
2%
5
1% ΔP
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Compression Ratio
K = 1.3
ZS = ZD = 1.0
Clearance = 40%
www.arielcorp.com
This graph shows how much pulsation can affect volumetric

efficiency.
Pulsation is represented by percentages of pressure drop.

Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression: Greg Phillippi

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Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression: Greg Phillippi

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Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression September 2008

This short course will cover the fundamental principles of reciprocating

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 1

This is the last slide in the animation of a cylinder with a pressure

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 2

The P-V diagram (pressure-volume diagram) is a plot of the

A complete circuit around the diagram represents one

This is an “ideal” diagram in that it does not show any valve

PD is discharge pressure (typically said to be the pressure that

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 3

This depicts the compression event.

As the piston moves towards the other end of the compression

Compression stops when the discharge valve opens.

The shape of the curve of the compression event is determined

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 4

When the discharge valve opens, compression stops, and gas

The compression and discharge events together represent one-

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 5

When the discharge valve closes at the end of the discharge

in3 fixed clearance

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 6

At the end of the expansion event, the suction valve opens

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 7

All four events representing the compression cycle are shown

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 8

The inlet volume is the amount of gas brought into the

The displacement represents the volume displaced during one

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 9

Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of inlet volume to

It should be noted that VE has nothing to do with when the

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 10

• Volumetric efficiency (V.E.) is the percentage of

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 11

This is the equation for volumetric efficiency.

Note the influence of the thermodynamic gas properties K and

Also, note the influence of clearance. The higher the %CL

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 12

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 13

Cylinder Body Valve

Head End Head

RED is the fixed clearance volume

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 14

This equation shows a common “fudge factor”, - RC

Compressor OEM’s have many ways to account for the

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 15

Low Volumetric Efficiency

This a pressure-volume diagram showing low volumetric

The concern with low volumetric efficiency is the time required

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 16

Change in Capacity for

This chart shows the effect of fixed clearance on volumetric

Specifically, the chart shows the effect of adding 10%

The chart also shows the effect of compression ratio on

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 17

ACFM = (PD ) × (VE S )

This is the equation used to calculate ACFM or actual cubic

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 18

What is ACF & SCF?

• When capacity is provided in volume terms the

SCF (standard cubic foot) is volume measured at a pressure and

ACF (actual cubic foot) is volume measured at the actual pressure

Greg Phillippi Ariel Corporation 19