The reason behind te standards are important for protocols:

 Protocols means set of rules. Protocols is used to sending and

construing information in the same order and manner for communicate
comupters always

Host is Computer or a device connected to a network which provide

information, resources or services to users or other host in a network.

End Systems are termed as they are at the edge of internet which does not
interact with the users but provide various services.For example, web
servers and e-mail servers which does not interact with users directly but
provide resources.

End System are considered same as hosts but with no direct interaction with
the user and Web Server is an end system.

4. Processing delay: 
Now the packet will be taken for the processing which is called processing delay.
Time is taken to process the data packet by the processor that is the time required
by intermediate routers to decide where to forward the packet, update TTL,
perform header checksum calculations.
 It also doesn’t have any formula since it depends upon the speed of the processor
and the speed of the processor varies from computer to computer.  
Note: Both queueing delay and processing delay doesn’t have any formula
because they depend on the speed of the processor 
This delay depends upon the following factors:
 It depends on the speed of the processor.
Ttotal = Tt + Tp + Tq + Tpro

Ttotal = Tt+Tp
(when taking Tq and Tpro equals to 0)

2. Propagation delay: 
After the packet is transmitted to the transmission medium, it has to go through the
medium to reach the destination. Hence the time taken by the last bit of the packet
to reach the destination is called propagation delay. 
Propagation delay is the time that it takes for a bit to reach from one end of a link to the other.
The delay depends on the distance (DD) between the sender and the receiver, and the
propagation speed (SS) of the wave signal. It is calculated as:

\frac{D}{S}SD

Processing delay
Processing delay is the time taken by a switch to process the packet header.
The delay depends on the processing speed of the switch
Advantages of a circuit-switched network have over a packet-
switched network:

 Circuit switched network is used for voice/video calls, but packet-

switched network is not possible do this.
 Circuit switched network's bandwidth is limited, but packet-switched
network's bandwidth is not limited. So, packets transfer is time taken
in packet-switched network.

Advantages of TDM have over FDM in a circuit-switched network:

 TDM means Time Division Multiplexing. FDM means Frequency Division

Multiplexing.
 In TDM, same frequencey operate all connections, but In FDM,
different frequencies opearate all connections.