Mobile Computing

1
UNIT
Introduction
Part-1 (5J- 27J)
Introduction
Issues in Mobile Computing
Overview of Wireless Telephony : Cellular Concept
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 5J
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions . 5J
Part-2 eeeeee (27J- 53J)
GSM : Air Interface

Channel Structure
Location Management
HLR-VLR
Hierarchical
Handoffs
Channels Allocation in Cellular System
CDMA
GPRS

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions 27J
4 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing 5 (IT-8)J
PART-1
Introduction, Issues in Mobile Computing, Overview of
Wireless telephony : Cellular concept.
CONCEPT OUTLINE:PART-1
Mobile computing can be defined as a computing environment
over physical mobility.
Issues in mobile computing are:
Software issue
b. Technical issue
C Network issue
d User interface issue
e Security issue
The wireless telephony is a telephone service based on signaling
over radio frequencies without using wires.
Acellular system is a high capacity land mobile system in which
available frequency spectrum is partitioned into discrete channels
which are assigned in groups to geographic cells.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Explain the word Mobile Computing" and also give
suitable live example with merits of mobile computing.
UPTU2012-13, 2014-15; Marks 05
Answer
1.
Mobile computing can be defined as a computing environment over
physical mobility.
2 The computing environment is mobile and moves along with the user.
3. The user of mobile computing environment will be able to access data
or information from any device in any network while on move.
4. The mobile computing allows a user toperform a task from anywhere
and anytime by computing device.
5. Mobile computing is the fastest growing sector of computing.
6. Some of the mobile devices are: mobile phones, laptops, PDA etc.
6(IT-8) J Introduction
7. Now, organizations are able to connect their portable PC's to reliable

high speed networks and access to corporate database from remote
locations.
8. The mobile computing is used in diferent context with different names.
Some common names of mobile computing are:
a. Nomadic computing: The computing environment is nomadic
and moves along with the mobile users.
b. Anywhere, anytime information: In the mobile environment,
information is available anywhere, and all the time.
C. Virtual Home Environment (VHE):It is an environment that
a user can experience in a foreign network as they have in their
home network.
d. Pervasive computing : A computing environment which is
pervasive in nature and can be made available in any environment.
e Ubiquitouscomputing: In this, a user willbe able to use both
local and remote services.
f. Global service portability : Making a service portable and
available in every environment.
Live examples of mobile computing include:
1. Mobile e-mail: Mobile e-mail is perhaps the example of mobile cloud
computing that most people can connect with. Mobile e-mail allows
users to view, manage, and respond to e-mail without ever accessing
an office network.
2. Apps :Several companies in the real estate business, for example,
are now utilizing mobile apps that allow prospective homebuyers to
locate homes for sale using satellite GPS. Every time a user initiates
a new search, the computation is performed on a remote server and
the mobile device displays information sent to it from the cloud.
Merits of mobile computing:
1 Increase in productivity : Mobile devices can be used out in the
field of various companies, therefore reducing the time and cost for
clients and themselves.
2 Entertainment : Mobile devices can be used for entertainment purposes,
for personal and even for presentations to people and clients.
Portability : This would be one of the main advantages of mobile
computing, you are not restricted to one location in order for you to
get jobs done or even access e-mail on the go.
4 Cloud computing: This service is available for saving documents
on an online server and being able to access them anytime and anywhere
when you have a connection to the internet and can access these files
on several mobile devices or even PCs at home.
7 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Que 1.2. What are the various characteristics of mobile
computing environment ? Discuss challenges being faced to support

UPTU2013-14, Marks 05
mobile computing.
Answer
Characteristics of mobile computing :
1. User mobility : User should be able to move from one
physical
location to another location and use the same service.
2. Network mobility : User should be able to move from one network
to another network and use same services.
3. Bearer mobility :
between
a Bearer services are responsible for transmission of data
mobility, user should be
twouser network interfaces. In bearer services.
same
able to move from one bearer to another and use the
b
transport
For different types of network there are different types of protocols.
bearers. For dial up connection these can be TCPIP, http voice.
For GSM it could be SMS, WAP and for mobile it willbe
one device to
4. Device mobility : User should be able to move from
another and use the same service.
service to
5 Service mobility :User should be able to move from one
another.
or server. In
6. Host mobility : The user device can either be a client
taken care off.
case of host mobility the mobility of IP needs to be
Challenges faced by mobile computing :
faces
There are a number of technicalchallenges that mobile computing
are :
and it has to overcome them. Some of them
1. Mobility :
are certain
This is the important aspect of mobile computing, but there
challenges that, it has to face, these are:
a. Autoconfiguration of the system, as the system keeps changing
the new
its environment. Hence, it has to configure itself to
environment each time.
b. Location management, again due to mobility location management

be done
becomes a challenge. As the following tasks are to
frequently:
Lookups (Track users call)
and/or data)
ü. Updates (Updates user's position
C. Heterogeneity, as the system keeps in a variety of environments,
heterogeneity is also a challenge.
8 (IT-8) J Introduction
d Security authentication
e.
Spectrum range
2 Wireless medium:
Asin mobile computing the transmission medium is wireless, therefore
the following points are considered:
a. Cost of networks
b. Quantity and reliability of bandwidth
Environment obstacles
3. Portability :
Since the devices are als0 mobile therefore the following mobile
restrictions are to be considered :
a. Low resources
b. Battery constraints
C. Lack of security
Que 1.3. Discuss some limitations of mobile computing.

Answer
1. Insufficient bandwidth: Wireless communication is characterized
by insufficient bandwidth. That is, the channel capacity
in wireless systems is much lower than what is available typically available
in wired
networks due to the limited spectrum available, power restrictions
and noise levels.
2. Transmission interferences : Weather, terrain and the
the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception.range from
in tunnels, some buildings and rural area is often poor. Reception
Power consumption : Portable devices have limited computing power,
low quality displays, small disks due to limited battery
CPUpower consumption is CV£, where capacity. The
C: internal capacity, reduced by integration
b. V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
C. f: clock frequency, can be reduced
4. Loss of data : These
temporally
devices suffer from loss of data. Thus, higher
probability has to be included in advance into the design (example,
defects, theft).
5. Limited user interfaces : These type of
devices have
interface due to compromise between size of fingers andlimited user
portability
and integration character/voice recognition, abstract symbols.
of
6. Limited memory : Due to small size these devices have
value of mass memories with moving parts, limited
used as an alternative. thus flash memory is
Mobile Computing 9 (IT-8) J
Que 1.4. What do youunderstand by mobile computing ? Discuss

issues and challenges facing mobile computing today.
OR
Write down the issues of mobile computing.
Answer
Mobile computing : Refer Q. 1.1, Page 5J, Unit-1.
Challenges faced by mobile computing: Refer Q. 1.2, Page 7J,
Unit-1.
Issues in mobile computing: Mobility, wireless medium limitations of
battery technology and widely varying bandwidth conditions are the main
new factors which will drive applications and system software for mobile
computers.
The various issues in mobile computing are as follows :
1, Software issues:
a. Mobile systems are resource poor relative to static elements.
b Mobile systems are location dependent. The location of mobile
elements is their point of attachment to the fixed network change
as they move.
C Due to mobility the tracking of user call and updation of user's
position to be done frequently.
2. Technical issues :
a. Mobile computing technologies needs clear direction and guidance.
Without this, certain resources will be wasted.
b. Mobile computing devices needs suitable and compatible solutions
to support any application. For example : download e-mail, connect
to internet, create and access critical documents.
C. The device's operating system must be compatible with the
workstation operating system (Window and Macintosh).
d Mobile elements rely on battery. Concerns for power consumption
must span various levels in hardware and software design.
3. Net work issues :
a.
For connectivity between mnobile device and wireless local area
network (WLAN) to access institutionally supported e-mail, internet
services; mobile devices needs the Network Interface Card (NIC)
which may be build in or inserted into mobile device.
b. Before purchasing a LAN card, it is critical to verify that the PC
(Personal Computer) card driver required for supporting the specific
mobile device on the required Macintosh or Window platform is
10(IT-8)J Introduction
available and enabled with the wireless network standard

implemented.
4. User interface issues:
a. It is important to develop the protocols and interface that allows
mobile terminal to connect to a wired network.
b. By using these protocols and interfaces, mobile user should be
able to use their portable devices for purposes such as file transfer,
read e-mail and internet access safely.
C. The small size of screen memory disk capacity and wide variety
of input devices used on mobile computers is also an issue.
5. Security issues :
Security is focused on network security, system security, information
security and physical security of the mobile device.
b It is made up of a suite of multiple technologies that solve numerous
authentication, information integrity and identification problems.
C. Security issues applied on following technologies : firewalls,
authentication servers, biometric, cryptography and VPNs.
Que 1.5. Describe the wireless telephony.
Answer
1. Telephony is the technology associated with the electronic transmission
of voice, fax or other information between distant parties using systems
like telephone or mobile phone, contain both aspeaker or transmitter
and a receiver.
2. The wireless telephony is a telephone service based on signaling over
radio frequencies without using wires.
3. It includes mobile phones, Wireless Local Loop (WLL), microwave,
satellite and radio based telephony.
4. Wireless communication systems provide anytime, anywhere
communication.
5. When you talk on a wireless phone, it transmit low energyradio
waves to a local antenna site, which connects you with the landline or
wireless location, you are calling.
6. The same antenna also sends signals back toyour wireless phone.
Que 1.8. Compare the three generations of wireless telephone

system on the basis of features, technology used and applieations.
UPTU 2012-13, Marks 05
OR
11(IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Comparedifferent generations of the wireless communication.
Answer
Generation of wireless technology : Like the computers the evolution
of wireless technology has been defined in generations :
1. 1G (The First Generation):
uses the analog
The first generation of wireless technology
technology which support voice traffic.
b It uses FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
technology
for modulation.
C. For example: AMPS (Advance Mobile Phone
Service) in US.
2. 2G (The Second Generation) :
2G uses digital multiple access technology.
b. It was a combination of TDMA and FDMA technologies.
C. 2G support voice, paging, data and fax services.
For example:GSM.
e. In 2G technology voice is digitized over a circuit.
circuits. This
f. In 1G and 2G networks data is transacted over
technology is called Circuited Switched Data (CSD).
3. 2.5G (Second Generation Plus):
developed
As upgrade to2G technologies, 2.5 technologies wererates.
to provide more bandwidth for higher data transfer
b 2.5G uses Higher Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)
technology,
technology that can offer
which is basically an extension of GSM
the throughput of upto 384 kbps.
C. Although 2.5G offers more bandwidth than 2G, it is less than
that offered by 3G.
require
d However, since 2.5G uses existing 2G spectra and does not
implemented
an entirely new network infrastructure, it can be
faster and use expensively than 3G.
e 2.5G examples include : IDEN (Integrated Digital Enhanced
Network).
4. 3G (Third Generation):
a 3G refers generically to a category of next generation mobile
networks which operate at a higher frequency bandwidth and
have a larger channel bandwidth.
b. This enables 3G networks to support very high data rates upto
2 Mbps.
12 (IT-8) J
Introduction
C. 3G refers tothe radio network and RF technology, and
affect the switching core. does not
d. The switching infrastructure for 3G is still based on MSCs and
the TDM model.
e. For example: UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone Service) based
on the W-CDMA (Wide Band-CDMA), R-99 and
CDMA-2000 and
TD-CDMA (Time Division-CDMA).
5. 3G+ (Third Generation Plus):
a. 3G+ refers to an advanced level of 3G that introduces the
of an all-IP switching core. concept
b An all-IP switching core means that IP replaces the TDM-based
MSC infrastructure with IP-based transport andIP-based
signaling.
C. IP-based signaling is implemented with new protocol like Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP) and Media Gateway Control Protocol
(MGCP).
d An example of 4G is Wi-Max.
Que 1.7. Draw a diagram showing the positioning of wireless
network via wired networks. Why is a wired network usually part
of the wireless infrastructure ? UPTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Wired network is a part of wireless infrastructure:
1 Today's wireless communication systems are based on composite wireless
and wired system.
2. For example, in mobile telephones, each cell is a radio communication
center where a mobile subscriber establishes a connection with a land
telephone through the Mobile telephone Exchange (MTX) and Public
Switching Telephone Network (PSTN) which mostly use wired system.
3 Therefore wired network is usually considered as a part of wireless
infrastructure.
Wired Wireless
Installation moderately difficulty easier, but interference
Cost less more
Reliability high reasonably high

Performance very good good
Security reasonably good reasonably good
Mobility limited outstanding
Wireless
network 1 Wired ethernet
network
Access
point 1
Wireless
network 2
Internet
(ee Computer with

software access Existing internet
Connection
point 1
Fig. 1.7.1. Wired network with wireless network.
Que 1.8. Give some overview of wireless transmission.

OR
Describe various multiplexing techniques. Explain why a given
bandwidth is used most efficiently in CDMA.
Answer
Overview of wireless transmission :
1 Aselectromagnetic waves are the basis for wireless communication,
antennas are needed for the transmission and reception of waves.
2 While base stations of mobile phonesoften use directed antenna, as
omni-directed antennas are the choice for mobile devices.
3 There are several schemes that can happen to electromagnetic waves
during wireless transmission, such as fading, modulation and
multiplexing on the way from sender to receiver.
Some terms used in wireless transmission are as follows :
1 Signals :
Signals are the physical representations of data.
b It is an electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place
to another.
C. Signals are the functions of time and amplitude.
14 (IT-8)J Introduction
d. The common types of signals for radio transmission are periodic
signals or sine wave signal.
e. The general functions of asine wave is:
glt) =Asin (2rft +)
Here signal parameters are amplitude A, frequency f, and phase
shift .
A
Fig. 1.8.1. Time domain representation of a signal.

2. Modulation :
a. Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a
high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with
respect toa modulating signal.
b. It is the process of conveying a message signal, inside another
signal that can be physically transmitted.
C.
For example : a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal.
d. There are three kinds of modulation schemes : Amnplitude
modulation, Frequency modulation and Phase modulation.
Antennas :
a Antennas are devices that transmit and receive electromagnetic
signals.
b. As in wireless communication the signals are transmitting through
space without needing any medium for the transport of
electromagnetic waves.
C. Antennas couple electromagnetic energy to and from space and
to and from a wire or coaxial cable.
d. Some types of antennas are omni-directional antenna, directional
antenna and sectorized antennas.
4 Fading :
In wireless communication, fading is a deviation of the attenuation,
that a carrier modulated telecommunication signals experiences
over certain propagation media.
b. Fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency.
C A fading channel is a communication channel that experience
fading.
Fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred as

multipath fading or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting
the wave propagation, referred as shadow fading.
5. Multiplexing : Multiplexing is a mechanism in communication systems
that describes how several users can sharea medium with minimum
or no interference. There are four types of multiplexing :
a. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) :
i In SDM each set of sender and receiver is given a space that
is used by only that sender or receiver.
The spaces separate the channels and prevent interference
ranges from overlapping.
ii. The space between the interference ranges is called guard
space.
iv. For example, here six communication channels, K, to K¢
are available.
V The channels K, to K, are mapped onto three spaces S, to
S, which early separate the channels and prevent the
interference ranges from overlapping.
vi. For the remaining channels (K, to K) three additional spaces
would be needed.
Channels K; K, Ky Kg K, K; Ks
c+
S S
Fig. 1.8.2. Space division multiplexing (SDM).

b. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) :
i. In FDM the frequency dimension is subdivided into a number
of non-overlapping frequency bands.
ii As shown in Fig. 1.8.3, entire frequency band is divided into
a number of frequency bands and the channels Kto Kg are
each allotted a separate frequency band.
ii. Senders usinga certain frequency band case use this band
continuously.
iv. This scheme is used for radio station within the same region,
where each radiostation has its own frequency.
Channels K; K K KK K
Fig 1.8.3. Frequency division multiplexing.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) :
i In time division multiplexing scheme, a channel gets the
whole spectrum for a certain amount oftime, i.e., all senders
use the same frequency but at different points in time.
Again a guard space is needed which represents time gaps.
iüi. As shown in Fig. 1.8.4, time is divided into slots and a channel
K gets the entire spectrum for a time slot periodically.
Channels K; K K K, K; Kg
C
Fig, 1.8.4. Time division multiplexing (TDM).

d. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) :
i In code division multiplexing, multiple users are allotted different
code to access the same channel.
CDM is first used in military applications due to its internet
security features.
Channels K Ki K, K, K, |K; Ks
Fig. 1.8.5. Code division multiplexing (CDM).

Bandwidth is used most efficiently in CDMA :
1.
Considerable efforts should be made so the maximum use of available
bandwidth is used in the most efficient vim to accommodate more and
more users and to be able to provide as many services as promised by
4G.
2. There is a need to use larger bandwidth and a higher side of the
spectrum to accommodate new services more users, high-speed
communications, and multimedia service. Avariety of problems will
high-frequency
be encountered in high-frequency range. For example, indue
bands the signal becomes distorted or attenuated to rain and
other atmospheric conditions.
3. Powerful signal processing techniques are required to overcome these
problems.
Que 1.9. What is cellular system ? Write the advantages and

drawbacks of keeping small cells.
Answer
Cellular system :
1. Cellular system for mobile communication
implements SDM (Space
Division Multiplexing)where each transmitter, typically calleda base
station, covers a certain area, called a cell.
system
2. In other words, "A cellular system is high capacity land mobilediscrete
into
in which available frequency spectrum is partitioned covering a
channels which are assigned in groups to geographic cells
The discrete channels are
cellular geographic service area (GSA),
service area."
capable of being reused in different cells, within the
3. Thus the principle of cellular system is to divide a large geographical
50 km, each of
service area into cells with diameter from 2 km to
channels.
which is allocated a number of Radio Frequency (RE)
18(IT-8) J Introduction
4 The transmitters in each adjacent cell are located in such a way that
a radio channel is allowed to be used simultaneously by multiple
transmitters as long as they are sufficiently separated.
5. To avoid interference, these transmitters in each adjacent cell operate
on different frequencies (i.e., use FDM), which is called a "frequency
reuse".
6 Since however transmit power and antenna height in each cell is
relatively low, cells that are sufficiently far apart can reuse the same
set of frequencies without causing co-channel interference.
7. The co-channel interference occurs when the group of frequencies
can be reused in other cells bearing in mind that it is not reused in
adjacent cells as that willcause co-channel interference.
8. A reuse distance, D is calculated as
D= RV3N
where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per cluster
(group of cells called cluster). N is also called size of the cluster.
9 Base stations are interconnected to each other and the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) is connected via Mobile Switching Centers
(MSC).
10. A cellular system should provide the capability to handoff calls in
progress as the mobile terminal/user moves between cells.
HLR
HLR
VLR
to other
MSC MSCs
To PSTN
Fig. 1.9.1. Cellular system.
Advantages of small cell : There are several advantages of keeping
smallcells in the cellular systems. Some of them are :
1 Higher capacity : Implementing SDM allows frequency reuse. If
one transmitter is far away from another, i.e., outside the interference
range, it can reuse the same frequencies.
Less transmission power:The power aspects are not a big problem
for base stations, they are indeed problematic for mobile stations. A
19 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
receiver far away from a base station would need much more transmit
power than the current few watts. But energy is a serious problem
for mobile handheld devices.
3. Local interference only : With smallcells, mobile stations, and
base stations only have to deal with local' interference.
4. Robustness : Cellular systems are decentralized and s0, more robust
against the failure of single component. If one antenna fails, this only
influences communication within a small area.
Drawbacks of small cell :
1. Infrastructure needed: Cellular systems need a complex infrastructure
antennas, switches
to connect all base stations. This includes many
a mobile station etc.,
for call forwarding, location registers to find
which makes the whole system quite expensive.
2. Handover needed :The mobile station has toperform a handover size
when changing from one cell to another. Depending on the cell
and the speed of movement, this can happen quite often.
transmitters
3. Frequency planning : To avoid interference between
distributed carefully.
using the same frequencies, frequencies have to be the other, only
On the one hand, interference should be avoided, on
a limited number of frequencies is available.
cells in cellular
Que 1.10. Why did we choose hexagonal shape for
phone system ? What is frequency reuse ?
OR
Discuss cellular system architecture.
OR
Explain various concepts related to cellular system.
Answer
Cellular system architecture :
mobile cellular use is
1. The amount of frequency spectrum available for needed for
limited, so the efficient use of required frequencies was
mobile cellular coverage.
are divided
2. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions
into areas according to specificprovisioning guidelines.
cell
3. Deployment parameters, such as amount of cell splitting and
sizes, are determined by engineers experienced in cellular system
architecture.
Cells :
1. Acell is the basic geographical unit of a cellular system.
20 (IT-8) J
Introduction
2. Cells are base station transmitting over small geographic
are represented as hexagons. areas that
3 Each cell size varies depending on the landscape.
imposed by nature and man-made structures, the Because of constraints
true shape of cell is
not a perfect hexagon.
4 The hexagons are preferred over circular and other shapes, because,
the hexagon covers the entire geographic region without
and with equal area. overlapping
5. Ifwe use a circular pattern some gaps exist in
between adjacent cell.
To avoid this gap, it is required to overlap but in that case
the set of
channels also get overlapped.
Area remain
uncovered
Cells Overlapping
Fig. 1.10.1.Cells shape using circle.
Clusters :
1. A cluster is a group of cells.
2. Allcells within a cluster use disjoint sets of frequencies.
3. No channels are reused within a cluster.
4. Each cell in cluster is covered by a base station.
5. Aset of Cdifferent frequencies f, fa ...f) are used for each
cluster of C adjacent cells.
6. Cluster pattern and the corresponding frequencies are reused in a
regular pattern over the entire service area.
7 There are two possible models to create minimal interference:one is
three cell cluster and the other one is seven cell cluster.
Three cellcluster : In three cell cluster, three cells combine to
form a cluster, here three frequencies are reused and C=3, with
hexagonal cells. All cells within a cluster use disjoint sets of
fre ;uencies.
Fig, 1.10.2. 3-cell cluster.

21(IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
b. Seven cell cluster: Similarly in seven cell cluster,seven cells
combine to form a cluster, here C = 7, with hexagonal cells. In
to
Fig. 1.10.3, \\,,fa ....,f,) disjoint set offrequencies are used
form a cluster.
Fig. 1.10.3. 7-cell cluster.

Concepts used in cellular system are :
Frequency reuse :
1. The concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning a group of radio
channels to each cellused within a small geographic area.
different
2. Cells are assigned a group of channels that is completely
from neighbouring cells.
Cz
Footprint
C7
C1
C4
Co
C2 C
Ca
C1 C
CA
Fig. 1.10.4. Frequency reuse.

3. The coverage area of cells is called footprint. This footprint is limited
by a boundary so that the same group of channels can be used in
different cells that are far enough away from each other so that their
frequencies do not interfere.
4. Frequency reuse is used due to small number of radio channel frequencies
available for mobile systems, 80 engineers had to find a way to reuse
radio channels to carry more than one conversation at a time.
5 The freguency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency
can be used in the network. It is Un where n is the number of cells
which cannot use a frequency for transmission.
Cell splitting :
1. The economic consideration made the concept of creating full systems
with many small areas impractical.
2. To overcome this difficulty, system operators developed the idea of
cell splitting.
3
As a service area become full of users, this approach is used to split a
single area into smaller ones.
4 In this way, cities centers can be split into as many areas as necessary
to provide appropriate service levels in heavy -traffic regions, while
larger, less expensive cells can be used to cover remote rural regions.
Large cells for

rural areas
Small cells for

urban areas
Fig. 1.10.5.
Handover/Handoff:
1 The last problem in the development of the cellular network is raised
when a mobile subscriber travelled from one cell to another during a
call.
2 As adjacent area do not use the same radio channels, a call must
either be dropped or transferred one radio channel to another when
a user crosses the line between adjacent cells.
3 Because dropping the call is unacceptable, the process ofhandoff was
created.
4. During a call, when two parties on a voice channel, if any mobile unit
moves out the coverage area of given cell site, the signals become
weaker,at this point, the system switches the call tostronger frequency
channel in a new site without interrupting the call or alerting the
user.
5. The call continues as long as the user is talking, and user does not
notice the handoff at all.
23 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
A
Station 2
A
Station l
Station 3
Cellular
switch
Fig. 1.10.6. Handoff between adjacent cells.

Sectorization :
to reduce the co
1. In FDMA and TDMA systems, sectoring is done
channel interference.
distributed between multiple
2 In GSM there are in total 1000 channels
operators, sectorsand cells.
decreases due to sectoring.
3. The trunking efficiency of these systems
This in turn reduces the capacity.
increases the capacity of CDMA
4 On the other hand, sectorization
systems.
(similar) radio equipment
5 Sectoring is done by simply introducing three
(sectorized antenna) in three sectors.
this arrangement translates
6. The reduction in mutual interference due to
into a three-fold increase in capacity.
h.
Sectorization
three cell clusters
Fig. 1.10.7. Cellular system with
and three sector per cell.
Describe the various components of cellular system.

Que 1.11.
Answer
are the part of a typical
cellular
The following network elements
telecommunication system:
24 (IT-8) J
Introduction
1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN):
a. The PSTN is made up oflocal networks, the
and other networks that exchange area networks,
interconnect
communication devices on a worldwide basis.telephone and other
b. The PSTN has several
thousand miles of
infrastructure, including fixed landlines, microwavestransmission
and satellite
links.
2 Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
a.
MSCis usually located at mobile telephone switching office
b. The MTSO (MTSO).
houses the mobile switching center, field monitoring,
and rely stations for switching calls from cell sites to wireline
central offices (PSTN).
C. In analog cellular networks, MSC
controls the system operations
like call controlling, tracks billing information, locates
subscriber and manage connections to base stations, othercellular
MSCs
and PSTNISDN.
3. Base Station (BS):
a The base station is the component of
wireless
infrastructure that terminates the air interface network access
over which the
subscriber traffic is transmitted to and from a mobile station
(MS).
b The function provides by a base station
includes radio resource
control, frequency hopping and power control, handoff management
and digital signal processing, ie., channel encoding and
decoding.
4. Mobile Station (MS) or Mobile Subscriber Unit (MSU):
a. The mobile subscriber unit consists ofa control unit and a
that transmits and receives radio transmissions to and transceiver
cell site.
from a
b The MS comprises all user equipment and software needed for
communication.
C. The power levels of MS currently range from 0.8 watt to 80
watts.
5. Home Location Register (HLR):
a. HLR is a database that contains information about
a mobile network that is maintained by a subscribers to
particular service provider.
b. The HLR stores "permanent" subscriber information
including
the service profile, location information, activity status
mobile users and IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber of the
number on a permanent basis. Identity)
6. Visitor Location Register (VLR):
a The VLR represents a temporary data store, and
is one VLR per MSC.
generally there
25 (IT-8) T
Mobile Computing
mobile subscribers
b. This register contains information about the
covered by MSC of VLR.
who are currently in the service area
activated features
C. VLR also contains information about locally
such as call forwarding.
features currently activated,
The temporary data in VLR includes: current location.
temporary mobile station identity (TMSI),
7. Authentication center :
contains authentication
It is generally associated with the HLR, it registration, subsequent
parameters that are used on initial location
the MS.
location updates and on each callsetup request from
& Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
equipment
The EIRmaintains information toauthenticate terminal
terminals can
approved
so that fraudulent, stolen, or non-type
be identified and denied service.
lists that may
b. The information is in the form of white, grey, black
be consulted by the network provider.
cellular system.
Que 1.12. Give some details about working of
Answer
The working of a cellular system involves :
1. Transmitting a call :
the
A caller enters a 10-digit code (phone number) and presses
call button.
The MS scans the band to select a free channel
and sends a
b.
strong signal to send the number entered.
C. The BS relays the number to the MSC.
d The MSC in turn dispatches the request to all the base station in
the cellular system.
e. The mobile identification number (MIN) is then broadcast over
all the forward control channels throughout the cellular system,
it is known as "paging."
f. The MS responds by identifying itself over the reverse control
channel.
The BS relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and
informs the MSC about the handshake.
h. The MSC assign an unused voice channel to the cell and call is
established.
2. Receiving a call :
a. All the idle mobile stations continuously listen to the paging signal
todetect messages directed at them.
b. When a call is placed to a mobile station, a packet is sent to the

callee's home MSC to find out where it is.
C. Apacket is sent to the base stations in its current cell, which then
sends a broadcast on the paging channel.
d The callee MS responds on the control channel.
e. In response, a voice channel is assigned and ringing starts at the
MS.
3. Handoff:
Handoff is the transfer of a call from one cell site to another as
the cellular phone (MS) moves through the service coverage
area.
b The cell site warns the MTSO (MSC) that the mobile's signal
strength is falling below a predetermined level.
C. The MTSO then alerts all cell sites neighbours of the first one.
d They measure the mobile signals strength and report back to the
MTSO.
e The MTSO which is programmed to select the site receiving the
strongest signal, then switches the call from the weak cell to
strongest cell without interrupting the call.
f. The whole process takes a fraction of a second and the caller is
usually of it.
4 Roaming:
a. Roaming is the service offered by most cellular service providers
that allows subscribers to use cellular service while travelling
outside their home service area.
b. When a MS outside their home-area and come within the range
of another cellular system, the ROAM indicator on the cellular
phone will light to show that they are in range.
C On roaming, the cellular phone will seek service from the same
type of cellular system as the one they subscribe to at home.
But if that type is not available where they are roaming, the
phone will try to obtain service from the non-home type system.
e.
Ablinking light indicates a non-home type system. There is an
extra charge for calls placed while roaming.
Que 1.13. Explain the concept of "Frequency Reuse" as applied
to cellular communications. What are the advantages of this
approach ? How does it increase the capacity of the system ?
Answer
Frequency reuse: Refer GQ. 1.10, Page 19J, Unit-1.
Advantages of frequency reuse :
a. Increased capacity
b. Limited spectrum is required
C. Same spectrum may be allocated to other network
Increased in the capacity of the system :
1 The increased capacity in a cellular network,compared with a network
with single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio
frequency can be revised in a different area for a completely different
transmission.
be
2. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one transmission can
used on any given frequency.
3.
Unfortunately, there is some level of interference from the signal
and from the other cells which use the same frequency.
4. So, in a standard FDMA system, there must be atleast one cell gap
between cells which reuse the same frequency.
PART-2
GSM: Air Interface, Channel Structure, Location Management
HLR-VLR, Hierarchical, Handoffs, Channels Allocation in
Cellular System, CDMA, GPRS.
CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2

GSM is the most successful digital mobile telecommunication
and is renamed as, Global System for Mobile Communications.
GSM define three different categories of services :
a. Bearer services
b. Tele services
C. Supplementary services
" GSM system consists of three sub-systems:
a. Radio sub-system (RSS)
b. Network and switching sub-system (NSS)
C. Operations sub-systems
Questions-Answers
Que 1.14. Explain GSM communications along with its history

and objectives.
Answer
1. It is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication.
2 GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212 countries
and territories.
3. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile
phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phone in many
parts of the world.
4. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech
channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G)
mobile phone system.
5. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into
the system.
6 The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both
consumers (who benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers
without switching phones) and also to network operators (who can
choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM).
7. GSM also pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to
voice calls, the short message service (SMS, also called text messaging"),
which is now supported on other mobile standards as well.
8 Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide
Emergency telephone number, 112.
9 This makes it easier for international travelers to connect to emergency
services without knowing the local emergency number.
History of GSM :
Year Milestone
1982 GSM formed
1986 Field test
1987 TDMA cho sen as access method
1988 Memorandum of understanding signed
1989 Validation of GSM system
1990 Preoperational system
1991 Commercial system start-up
1992 Coverage of larger cities/airports
1993 Coverage of main roads
1995 Coverage of rural areas
Objectives of GSM :
The proposed GSM system had to meet certain business objectives. These
are :
1. Support for international roaming.

2 Good speech quality.
3. Ability to support handheld systems.
4. Low terminal and service cost.
5. Spectral efficiency.
6 Support for a range of new services and facilities.
7. ISDN compatibility.
Que 1.15. Describe the GSM services in brief.
Answer
GSM permits the integration of different voice and data services and the
interworking with existing networks. Services make a network interesting
for customers.
Bearer services
MS
Transit Source/
TEMTUH CSM-PLMN network
(PSTN, ISDN)
destination
network
TE
(U,S,R)
Tele services
Fig. 1.15.1. Bearer and tele services reference model.
1 In this reference model, a mobile station MS is
connected to the GSM
public land mobile network (PLMN)via the U interface.
2 GSM-PLMN is the infrastructure needed for the GSM network.
3 This network is connected to transit networks, for
example :
services digital network (ISDN) or traditional public switchedintegrated
network (PSTN). telephone
4. Bearer services comprise all services that enable the
transparent
transmission of data between the interfaces to the network.
5 Tele services are application specific and may thus need all
layers of the ISO/OSI reference model. seven
6 These services are specific end-to-end from one terminal TE to another.
GSM define three different categories of
1, Bearer services :
services:
a Bearer services permit transparent and
non-transparent,
synchronous asynchronous data transmission.
or
b. Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical

layer to transmit data. Transparent bearer services do not try to
recover lost data.
C. Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and
three to implement error correction and flow control.
d GSM also specifies several bearer services for interworking with
PSTN,ISDN and packet switched public data networks (PSPDN).
e. Data transmission can be full-duplex, synchronous with data rates
of 1.2, 2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 kbit/sec, asynchronous from 300 to
9600 bit/sec.
2. Tele services :
a. GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services.
b. It provides high quality digital voice transmission of 3.1 kHz of
analog phone systems.
C. Another service offered by GSM is the emergency number.
This service is mandatory for all providers and free of charge.
e. Another useful service of GSM is short message service (SMS).
f. This service offers transmission of message ofupto 160 characters.
SMS messages do not use the standard data channels of GSM but
exploit unused capacity in the signaling channels.
3. Supplementary services :
a Supplementary services offer various enhancements for the standard
telephony services.
b. It may vary from provider to provider.
C. Typical services are user identification,call redirection or forwarding
of ongoing calls.
Que 1.16. Explain the GSM architecture.
OR
Explain the working of GSM (global system for mobile).
OR
Draw a diagram showing the positioning of wireless network via
wired networks. Why is a wired network usually part of the wireless
infrastructure ? UPTU2014-15,Marks 05
Answer
GSM architecture:
a GSM network are structured as a hierarchical, complex system
architecture comprising many entities, interfaces,and acronyms.
31(IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
sub-systems; the radiosub-systems
b. AGSM system consists of three and the operation
(RSS), the network and switching sub-systems (NSS),
sub-systems (0SS).
radio specific entities,
1. Radio sub-systems (RSS):The RSS contains all sub-sýstem (BSS).
i.e., the mobile station (MS)) and the base station
interface and OSS by '0'
The RSS is connected to NSS by the 'A'
interface. RSS basically contains three entities:
a. Base Station Sub-system (BSS) :
controlled by a
i. AGSM network comprises many BSSs,each
base station controller (BSC).
i. The BSS performs all functions necessary to
maintain radio
connections to an MS (coding/decoding of voice).
BTSs.
ii. Besides a BSC, BSS contains several
b. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) :
antennas, signal
ABTS comprises all radio equipments, i.e.,transmission.
processing amplifiers necessary for radio
ABTS can form a radio cell, or several cells (using sectorized
antennas) and is connected to U interface and to the BSC
via the Aie interface.
C. Base Station Controller (BSC):
i.
The main function of BSC is to look over a certain number
of BTS to ensure proper operation.
ii It takes care of handoff from one BTS to another and maintains
appropriate power levels of the signal.
iü. The BSC also multiplexes the radio channels ontothe fixed
network connections at the A interface.
d. Mobile Station (MS) : Mobile station is based on the combination
of two main essential components known as Mobile Equipment
(ME) and an electronic 'Smart Card' called as Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM). Any MS can be identified by IMEI (International
Mobile Equipment Identify) number. Any MS can be personalized
by using SIM. The SIM card contains many identifiers and tables
as listed below :
i. A Personal Identity Number (PIN) : The PIN is used to
unlock the MS.
ii. A PIN Unblocking Key (PUK): Using the wrong PIN three
times will lock the SIM, in such cases the PUK is needed to
unlock the SIM.
iii. IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity): The
mobile subscriber is identified by this number. During
initialization this number is transmitted over air.
Introduction
32 (IT-8)J
Subscriber Identity): This
iv. TMSI (Temporary Mobile intruder or unauthorized
number is used to prevent any
number is changed
user to monitor the radio interface. This
periodically.
identifying the
V. LAI (Local Area Identity) : It is used for
authentications ofa subscriber card.
Radio cell BTS

(MS) (M)
Radio cell
U.
BTS
MS
RSS
BTS
At
BSC BSC
MSd Msc
NSS
LSinaling
VL ISDN, PSTN
GMSC
IWFPDN
OSS EIR AUC OMd

Fig. 1.16.1. Functional architecture of a GSM system.
vi. MSISDN (Mobile Stations International Standard Data
Network): This is anumber which is assigned to the subscriber
with country code as wellas national code.
2. Network and Switching Sub-systems (NSS):
a. This is the heart of GSM system.
b. It is responsible for connecting the wireless network with the
standard public networks, performs handovers between different
BSSs and some other functions like roaming, localization etc.
C. The NSS contains following switches and databases:
i. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) :
1. The MSC performs the telephony switching functions
of the system.
2. MSC is equivalent of an exchange in a fixed network.
3. They set up connections to other MSCs and to the BSCs
via the A' interface.
33 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
MSC manages several BSC's in a geographical region.
4. An
of BSS; its major job is
An MSC is the main source authentication, routing
location, registration, handovers,from one MS to another.
and handovers of calls to move
gateway MSC (GMSC) is used to connect other fixed
6 A and ISDN.
networks such as PSTN
(HLR):
ii. Home Location Register
storage and management
1. The HLR is a database used for
of subscriptions.
information such as MSISDN
2 This comprises static example:call forwarding,
number, subseribed services (for the IMSI number).
roaming restrictions, GPRS and
such as location area (LA) of
3. The dynamic information Roaming Number), the
MS, MSRN (Mobile Subscriber inside its database.
stored
current VLR and MSC are also
subscribers, including
HLR stores permanent data about
location information and activity
4.
a subscriber profile,
status.
iii. Visitor Location Register (VLR):

temporary information
VLR is a database that contains
1
needed by the MSC in order to
about subscribers that is subscribers.
provide service to visiting
database which is associated to
2 The VLR is a dynamic
each MSC.
into a new MSC area, the
3 When a mobile station roams request data about the
VLR connected to the MSCwillLater, if the mobile station
mobile station from the HLR. information
have the
(MS)makes a call, the VLR will disturbing the HLR
needed for the call setup without
each time.
3. Operations Sub-systems (0SS):

functions for network operations
a. The OSS contains the necessary
and maintenance.
which the network operator monitors
b. It is the functional entity from
and controls the system. overview
important function of OSS is toprovide a network
An operations.
maintenance activities of different
C.
and support
d. OSScontains following entities :
(AUC):
i. Authentication Center
1. AUC provides
authentication and encryption parameters
ensure the confidentiality
that verify the user's identity and
of each call.
34 (IT-8) J
Introduction
2 An AUC protects the network
types of fraud found in today's operators from different
cellular world.
3 It is situated in a special
protected part of HLR.
ii. Equipment IdentityRegister (EIR):
1 The EIR is a database that contains all
IMEIs, i.e., it
contains information about the identity of mobile
equipment that prevents them from stolen and
unauthorized access.
2 As mobile phones can be easily stolen with a valid SIM,
anyone could use the stolen MS. EIR has blacklist of
stolen (or locked) devices.
iii. Operations and Maintenance Center (0MC):
1. The OMC is
connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC.
2. It monitors and controls all other network
entities via
'0' interface.
3. OMC functions are traffic monitoring status report of
network entities, subscriber, and security management
and billing.
Que 1.17. Explain the air interfaces or radio interfaces
along
with logical channel structure used in GSM.
Answer
Air interfaces or radio interfaces :
1. U :U, interface connects MS to BTS. It contains all mechanism
necessary for wireless transmission.
2. A:e : This interface connects a BTS to a BSC. The A;. interface
carries traffic and maintenance data. It is specified by GSM and to be
standardized for all manufacturers.
3. A :The interface between BSC and MSC is called the A interface,
which is standard within GSM. The A interface uses an SSP (standard
signaling protocol) which support communication between MSC and
BSC. The A interface allows a service provider to use base station and
switching equipment made by different manufacturers.
4. O:0' interface connects OMS to BSC to MSC. It connects NSS to
OSS. By using O interface OMC monitors and controls all network
entities.
Logical channels and frame structure :
1 The GSM standard distinguishes between physical channels and logical
channels.
2. Logical channels carry user speech or data.
35 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
3. Data or signaling messages can travel over different physical channels.
4. Logical channels can be
a. Traffic channels carrying user speech or data
i. The full rate channel(TCHFS) has a net rate of 13 kbit/s.
The half rate channel (TCHHS) has been under discussion
for a long time.
ii. TCHF9.6, 4.8 and 2.4 provides data and fax communication
at 9.6,4.8 and 2.4 kbit/s respectively. The data occupies a full
channel, but the strength or error protection differs.
iv. TCHH4.8 and 2.4 carry dataover a half rate channel.
b Control channels carrying network messages. Broadcast channels
apply only to communication from base station to mobile.
i Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
ii. Synchronization Channel (SCH)
Common Control Channels (CCCH) support the set-up of a link
between mobile terminal and base station.
The Random Access Channel (RACH) allows random access
by the terminals to initiate a call set-up.
The base station can initiate a call using the Paging Channel
(PCH).
ii. The base station informs mobiles about which channel to
use through the Access Grant Channel (AGCH).
d Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) carry control messages
between network and mobile.
The Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) is mainly
for transfer of signalling between mobile and base station.
The Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) is mainly
used for message to maintain a link.
iii. The Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) is similar to
the SDCCH but has more data capacity. This is particularly
needed whenever the mobile makes a handover from one
cell to another.
5. The base station can accommodate these logical channels onto radio
carriers in many different ways.
Que 1.18. Discuss the architecture of GSM. Also explain the security
issues to implement GSM. UPTU2011-12, Marks 05
36 (IT-8) J
Introduction
Answer
GSM architecture: Refer Q. 1.16, Page 30J, Unit-1.
Security issues to implement GSM: GSM security is addressed in two
aspects : authentication and encryption. Authentication avoids fraudulent
access by a cloned MS. Encryption avoids unauthorised listening.
1. Asecret key, K,, is used to
achieve authentication.
2. K is stored in the AuC as well as in the SIM.
3 The K, value is unknown to the subscriber.
4. To initiate the authentication process, the home system of the MS
generates a 128-bit random number called RAND.
5 This number is sent to the MS.
6 By exercising an algorithm, A3, both the network (AuC) and the MS
(SIM) use K and RAND to produce a signed result (SRES), as shown
in Fig. 1.18.1.
MS Home system
RAND
K K,
A8 A3 A3 A8
reject
no
SRES equal>SRES
yes |K|
accept
Authentication
Encryption
Visited system
|K Frame number
data
A5 |A5
data
Ciphering Deciphering
Ciphered
information
data* Deciphering Ciphering data*|
Fig. 1.18.1. Authentication and encryption.

37 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
7. The SRES generated by the MS is sent to the home system and is
compared with the SRES generated by the AuC.
If they are not identical, the access request is rejected.
9 Note that if the SRES and RAND generated by the AuC are sent from
the HLR to the visited VLR in advance, the SRES comparison can be
done at the visited VLR.
10. Algorithm A3 is dependent on the GSM service provider.
11. Since the visitor system may not know the A3 algorithm of a roaming
MS, authentication result SRES is generated at the home system of
the MS.
12. In IS-41, the authentication process may be done locally in the visited
system.
13. If the MS is accepted for access, an encryption key K, is produced by
an algorithm, A8, with K, and RAND as inputs.
14. Like A3,A8 is specific to the home system.
15. After the homne system has generated K,, this encryption key is sent
to the visited system.
16. K, and the TDMA frame number encoded in the data bits are used by
an algorithm,A5, to cipher and decipher the data stream between the
MS and the visited system.
17. The same A5 algorithm may be used in allsystems participating in
GSM service.
Que 1.19. In context to cellular networks, explain the location

management with HLR-VLR.
OR
How location management is done in GSM ?
Answer
Location management : Location management in GSM is performed
with the help of two database :Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor
Location Register (VLR).
1. Home location register (HLR):
a The HLR represents a centralized database that has the semi
permanent mobile subscriber information about the mobile
subscribers.
b It is referenced using the SS7 signaling capabilities for every
incoming call to the GSM network for determining the current
location of the subscriber.
C The HLR is kept updated with the current locations of all its
mobile subscribers, including those who may have roamed to
another network operator within or outside the country.
38 (IT-8) J
Introduction
d The routing information is obtained from the
call-by-call basis, so that for each incoming callserving VLR on a
the HLR queries
the serving VLR for an MSRN.
e. Usually one HLR is deployed for each GSM network for
administration of subscriber configuration and service.
f. The HLR maintains the following subscriber data on a
basis : permanent
International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
i. Service subscription information
ii. Service restrictions
iv. Supplementary services
V.
Billing/Accounting information
vi. Mobile terminal characteristics
2. Visitor location register :
a The VLR represents a temporary database store, and generally
there is one VLR per MSC.
b This register contains information about the mobile subscribers
who are currently in the service area covered by the MSC of
VLR, but whose home location registers (HLR) is elsewhere.
C When a mobile subscriber roams away from his home locations
and into a remote location, SS7 message are used to obtain
information about the subscriber from the HLR, and to createa
temporary record for the subscriber in the VLR.
d. VLRalso contains information like call forwarding on busy.
e. The temporary subscriber information resident in a VLR includes:
Features currently activated
ii. Temporary mobile station identity (TMSI)
iii. Current location information about the MS (for
example,
location area and call identities).
Que 1.30. What do you mean by handover ? Explain the reasons

why the handover occurs and also describe the procedure of
handover. UPTU2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Handoff or handover in GSM:
1 In the cellular systems, the term handoff refers to the
process of
transferring an ongoing call or data from one channel to another
channel while both channels are the part of core network.
39 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
2. Cellular system requires handover procedure, asa single celldoes not
cover the whole service area.
3 The range of the antenna in a cell varies upto 35 km on the rural
areas and some meters in cities.
4 Ahandover also prevents call drop.
station
5 The smalier the cell size and faster the movement of a mobile
through cells required more handover of ongoing calls.
6. The maximum handover duration in GSM is 60 ms.
Reasons for handover:
When the mobile station moves out of range from the area covered by
cell, the call is
one cell and entering the area covered by another
transferred to the second cell, in order to avoid calltermination, when
the phone gets outside the range of the first cell.
received
When the mobile station moves far away from BTS the the minimal
falls below
signal level decreases continuously until it
requirements for communication.
that the traffic in
iii. The wired infrastructure (BSC, MSC) may decide
one cell is too high and shift some MS to other cells with a lower load.
Here handover occurs due to load balancing.
becomes
iv. When the channel used by the mobile station (mobile phones)
interfered by another phone using the same channel in a different
or to
cell, the call is transferred to a different channel is the same cell
avoid interference.
a different channel in another cell in order to
Types of handover:There are four possible handover scenarios in GSM:
1. Intra-cell handover :
In this when a phone call in progress is redirected from its
current
a.
handover
frequency to a new carrier frequency, the intra-cell
occurs within the same cell.
is
b Here the source and target are one, only the used channel
changed during the handoff.
C The purpose of intra-cell handoff is to change one channel, which
may be interfered. This change is decided by the BSC.
2. Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover:
a In Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover, the mobile station moves from
BSC.
one cell to another, but stays within the control of some
b. The BSC then performs a handover that assigns a new radio
channel in the new cell and releases the old one.
3. Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover :
a GSM bas to perform handovers between cells controller by different
BSCs, but these BSCs have a common MSC that controls the
handover.
4. Inter-MSC handover:
a. Ahandover occurs between two cells belonging to different MSCs.
b. Here both MSCs perform the handover.
(i) (iii)
(iv)
MS) MS) (MS MS
BTS BTS BTS BTS
BSC BSC |BSC
MSC MSC
Fig. 1.20.1. Types of handover in GSM.

Besides all these four types of handoff they can also be divided
into hard and soft handoffs.
Hard handoff :
1 A hard handoff is one in which the channel in the source cell is
released and only then channel in the target cell is engaged.
2. Thus the connection to the source is broken before the connection to
the target is made.
3. That is, the link to the prior base station is terminated before or as the
user is transferred to the new cell's base station, i.e., mobile is linked
to no more than one base station at a given time.
4 It is the air link connection between the mobile and its initial base
station.
5 Mobiles are momentarily served before reconnecting with a new base
station.
6 This is a method traditionally used in existing cellular systems, because
it requires the least processing by the network providing service.
BS2
BS1
Mobile
Fig.1.20.2.
41 (IT-8)J
Mobile Computing
7 In Fig. 1.20.2, handoff may begin when the signal strength at the
mobile received from base station 2 (BS2)is greater than that of base
station 1 (BS1).
8 The signal strength measures are signal level averaged over a chosen
amount of time.
9 This average is based on the environment in which the cellular network
resides.
i.e., the
10. Now a major problem with this approach is handoff decision,
received signals of both base station often fluctuate.
cause
11. When a mobile exist between the base stations, the effect is to
the mobile to widely switch links with any of the base station.
back and forth.
12. The base station bounces the link with the mobile
This phenomenon is called "Ping-Ponging".
Soft handoff :
is retained
1 A soft handoff is one in which the channel in the source cell
and used for awhile in parallel with the channel in the target cell.
established before the
2 In this case the connection to the target is
connection to the source is broken.
3
Soft handoff refers to the overlapping of repeater coverage zones, so
least
that every cell phone set is always well within the range of at
one base station.
receive signals
4. In some cases, mobile sets transmit signals to, and
from, more than one base station at a time.
WCDMA
5 Soft handover refers to a feature used by the CDMA and
connected two or
standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously
more cells during a call.
Process of intra-MSC handoff :
BTS from
1 Each MSsends its periodic measurement reports to the
which it is connected at the moment, denoted by BTS,d:
reports
2. BTS.,, forwards these reports along with its own measurement
to the current BSC denoted by BSCold:
3. After analyzing reports and current traffic scenario, the old takes
BSCta
the decision for a handover.
required.
4. BSCala sends a request to the MSC that a handover is
denoted by
5. MSC forwards a handover request to the target BSC,
BSCnew required like the frequency
6. The BSC,'new checks for the resources
available then it activates a new
channel and time slot etc. and ifit is
channel in the new BTS for a MS.
acknowledgement
7. When the channel gets activated, the BTSey Sends an
to the new BSC.
The BSC forwards a handover (HO)request acknowledgement to the

MSC.
MS
BTS,ad
Measurement
BSCld MSC BSCnew BTS.new
report
Measurement
report
HO decision
HO required
HO required
Resource allocation
ch. activation
ch. activation ack

HO command HO request ack
HOcommand
HO command HO access
Link Establishment
Clear command Clear command HO complete HO complete

Clear complete Clear complete
Fig. 1.20.3. Intra-MSC handover.
9 On receiving HO acknowledgement the MSC issues an HO command

to the old BSC, the old BSC forwards this to the old BTS and the old
BTS forwards it to the MS.
10. Lastly,a link is established and handover is done.
11. After receiving a HOcomplete message from the new BTS, a clear
command is issued to the old BSC and BTS for relieving all the resource
held by the MS.
12. Finally, a clear complete message is sent to the MSC to notify about
the release of the resource.
Que 1.21. Discuss CDMA channel access method.

OR
Describe the following multiple access protocols :
i. TDMA ii. FDMA
OR
43 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Discuss code division multiple access (CDMA).
Answer
control layer
Various multiple access protocols worked on media access
are as follows:
1. SDMA:
a
a. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating
separated space to users in wireless networks.
b Atypical application involves assigning an optimal base
station to
a mobile phone user.
with different
C. The mobile phone may receive several base stations
quality.
d. AMAC (Media Access Control) algorithm could now
decide which
base station is best, taking into account which frequencies (FDM),
available.
time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still
combination
e. Typically, SDMA is never used in isolation but always in
with one or more other schemes.
f. The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized
antennas which constitute the infrastructure implementing space
division multiplexing (SDM).
2. FDMA :
a Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) comprises all algorithms

the
allocating frequencies to transmission channels according to
frequency division multiplexing (FDM) scheme.
b Allocation can either be fixed or dynamic.
C.
Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all times, i.e.,
pure FDM or change frequencies according to certain pattern.
d.
In FDMA, sender and receiver have to agree on hopping pattern,
otherwise receiver could not tune toright frequency.
e. FDM is used for simultaneous access to the medium by mobile
station.
f. Here duplex channel is used totransmit data from mobile station

to base station and vice versa.
This scheme is known as 'frequency division duplex (FDD).
h. From mobile station to base station, frequencies are known as
"uplink" and from base station to mobile station, frequencies
known as "downlink".
44 (IT-8) J
Introduction
124
960 MHz
395.2 MHz 1
200 KHz
915 MHz 124 1 20 MHz
1
890.2 MHz
Fig. 1.21.1. Frequency division multiplexing for

multiple access and duplex.
3 TDMA :
flexible
a. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)offers a much more
certain
scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate
time slots for communication, i.e., controlling TDM.
b.
Now tuning into a certain frequency is not necessary, i.e., the
receiver can stay at the same frequency the whole time.
C. Listening to many channels separated in time at the same frequency
same
is quite simple but listening todifferent frequencies at the
time is quite difficult.
to be
d. Now synchronization between sender and receiver has
achieved in the time domain.
e. Again thiscan be done by using a fixed pattern similar to FDMA
techniques, i.e.,allocating a certain time slot for a channel or by
using a dynamic allocation scheme.
f The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for
channels in a fixed pattern.
This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for
wireless phone systems.
h. Fixed patterns guarantee a fixed delay, one can transmit.
i Assigning different slots for uplink and downlink usage the same
frequency is called time division duplex (TDD)".
417 us
I2311212B112
Downlink Uplink
Fig.1.21.2. Time division multiplexing for

multiple access and duplex.
45 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
4 CDMA :
transmission
a. Codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the
toenable the use of "code division multiplexing (CDM)".
b
exactly these
Code division multiple access (CDMA) systems useand to enable
codes to separate different users in code space
access to a shared medium without interference.
separate
C. The main problem is how to find "good" codes and how to the
the signal from noise generated by other signals and
environment.
The code directly controls the chipping sequence. A code for a
d. and should be
certain user should have a good auto-correlation
orthogonal to other codes.
We can demonstrate the orthogonal by taking an example of a
e
0) then
system of coordinates and vectors starting at origin (0, 0,is 0 as is
two vectors are called orthogonal if their inner product
(0, 0,
the case for the two vectors (2, 5, 0) and (0, 0, 17) :(2, 5, 0)*
17) = 0 +0+0= 0
Now for auto-correlation, for example: the Barker code (+1, -1,
i.e.,
+l, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1) has a good auto-correlation,
This code is
the inner product with itself is large, the result is 11.
used for ISDN and IEEE 802.11.
CDMA
Que 1.22. Compare the SDMA, TDMA, FDMA and
mechanism.
OR
transmission
Compare SDMA, TDMA, FDMA and CDMA in terms of
technique, signal separation, advantages, disadvantages and
applications. UPTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Comparison of SDMA, TDMA, FDMA and CDMA:
SDMA :
i. Idea : Segment space intocells/sectors.
ii. Terminals : Only one terminal can be active in one cellone sector.
iii. Signal Separation : Cell structure directed antennas.
iv. Advantages: Very simple, increase capacity per km2.
V. Disadvantages : Inflexible, antennas typically fixed.
vi. Comment:Only in combination with TDMA, FDMA or CDMA useful.
TDMA :
Idea: Segment sending time into disjoint time-slots, demand driven
or fixed patterns.
ii. Terminals : All terminals are active for short periods of time on the
same frequency.
iii. Signal Separation : Synchronization in the time domain.
iv. Advantages : Established, fully digital, very flexible.
v. Disadvantages : Guard space needed, synchronization difficult.
vi. Comment : Standard in fixed networks, together with FDMA/SDMA
used in many mobile networks.
FDMA:
i. Idea : Segment the frequency band into disjoint sub-bands.
i. Terminals : Every terminal has its own frequency, un-interrupted.
iii. Signal Separation : Filtering in the frequency domain.
iv. Advantages : Simple,established, robust.
V. Disadvantages : Inflexible, frequencies are a scarce resource.
vi Comment : Typically combined with TDMA and SDMA.
CDMA :
i. Idea: Spread the spectrum using orthogonal codes.

ii. Terminals : All terminals can be active at the same place at the same
moment, un-interrupted.
iii. Signal Separation :Code plus special receivers.
iv. Advantages : Flexible, less planning needed, soft handover.
V. Disadvantages : Complex receivers, needs more complicated power
control for senders.
vi. Comment : Used in many 3G systems, higher complexity, lowered
expectations, integrated with TDMAFDMA.
Que 1.23. Discuss GPRS. UPTU2011-12, Marks 2.5
OR
What is General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) ? Describe its
architecture in detail. UPTU2012-13, Marks 05
OR
In context to cellular networks, explain the following terms :
i GPRS
ii. Location management with HLR-VLR
Answer
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) :
1. GPRS is a packet based communication service for mobile device that
allows data to be sent and received across a mobile telephone network.
2 GPRS became the first-stepping-stone on the path between the second

generation GSMcellular technology and the 3G-W-CDMAUMTS system.
3 GPRSis mobile data service available tousers of GSM and IS-136
mobile phones.
4. GPRS data transfer is typically charged per megabyte of transferred
data, while data communication via traditional circuit switching is
billed per minute of connection time, independent of whether the
user has actually transferred data.
5 GPRS can be utilized for services such as WAP access, SMS, MMS, but
also for internet communication services such as e-mail and web
access.
6. GPRS has the ability to offer data speeds of 14.4 kbps to 171.2 kbps
which allow for comfortable internet access.
7. It allows for short "bursty" traffic, such as e-mail and web browsing as
well as large volume of data.
8. For GPRS, no dial-up modem connection is necessary.
9. It offers fast set-up mechanism to offer a perception of being "always
on".
GPRS architecture :
i. GPRS uses the GSM architecture for voice.
In order tooffer packet data service through GPRS, a new class of
network nodes need to be introduced as an upgrade to existing GSM
network.
ii. These network nodes are called GPRS support nodes (GSN).
iv. GPRS support nodes are responsible for the delivery and routing of
data packets between the mobile stations and the external packet
data network (PDN).
There are two types of support nodes : SGSN (Service GSN) and
GGSN (Gateway GSN):
Telephony
HPcu) BSC MSC
Network
Base (HLR
Station
and
Tower
SGSN GGSN Www
GTP
|Corporate
LAN
Fig. 1.23.1. GPRS architecture.

1. SGSN:
a The serving GPRS support node, or SGSN, takes care of some
important tasks, including routing, handover and IP address
assignment.
b. The SGSN has a logical connection to the GRPS device.
C As an example,
If youwere in acar travelling up the M1 on along journey and
where browsing the internet on a GPRS device, you will pass
through many different cells.
One job of the SGSN is to make sure the connection is not
interrupted as you make your journey passing from cell to cell.
d. The SGSN works out which BSC to "route" your connection
through.
e. Ifthe user moves into a segment ofthe network that is managed by
a different SGSN it will perform a handoffof to the new SGSN, this
is done extremely quickly and generally the user will not notice this
has happened.
f. Any packets that are lost during this process are retransmitted.
g. The SGSN converts mobile data into IP and is connected to the
GGSN via a tunnelling protocol.
2. GGSN:
a. The gateway GPRS support node is the last port of call" in the
GPRS network before a connection between an ISP and corporate
network's router occurs.
b The GGSN is basically a gateway, router and firewall rolled into
one.
C It also confirms user details with radius servers for security, which
are usually situated in the IP network and outside of the GPRS
network.
3. Connectivity between the SGSN and GGSN:

a The connection between the two GPRS support nodes is made with
a protocol called GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP).
b. GTP sits on top of TCP/IP and is also responsible for the collection of
mediation and billing information.
C.
GPRS is billed on per megabyte basis unlike GSM.
d. In practice the two GSN devices may be a single unit.
49 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
HLR:
that contains
a. The HLR or Home Location Register is a database network
subscriber information, when a device connects to the status
account
their MSISDN number is associated with services,
information, preferences and sometimes IP addresses.
you to :
5. How does the SGSN known which GGSN to direct
Access Point
A mobile device is programmed with one or more
Nanes which are commonly referred to as the APN's.
b. An APN consists of a fully qualified DNS
name for example,
quantumpage.co.in.
network,
C. When a GPRSdevice wants to talk to quantumpage.co.in's
to the correct
the SGSN does a DNS lookup and resolves the name
GGSN.
d. You could have multiple APN's programmed into your phone so

youare not limited to a single service or GGSN.
Location management : Refer Q. 1.19, Page 37J, Unit-1.
Que 1.24. Discuss about the following :

a. Application of GPRS
b. Advantages of GPRS
C. Limitation of GPRS
Answer
a.
Applications of GPRS: There are many applications suitable for
GPRS. Many of them are of generic type, some of them are specific
to GPRS:
1. Generic applications :Generic application are applications like
information services, internet access, e-mail, web-browsing, which
are very useful.
2. Chat : Chat is a very popular service in internet and GSM.
3. Multimedia service : Multimedia objects like photographs, pictures,
post cards, greeting cards and presentations; static web pages can be
sent and received over the mobile network.
4. Virtual private network: GPRS network can be used to offer

VPN services. Many bank ATM machines use VSAT (Very Small
Aperture Terminal) to connect the ATM system with the bank server.
50 (IT-8) J
Introduction
5. Personal information management : Personal diary, address
book, appointments etc. are very useful for a mobile individual.
6. Unified messaging: Unified messaging uses a single mailbox for
all messages, including voice mail, fax, e-mail, sms, mms and pager
messages with the various mail boxes in one place, unified messaging
system allow for a variety of access methods to recover messages of
different types.
b. Advantages of GPRS :
1. Speed:
GPRS is packet switched.
b Higher connection speeds are attainable at around
56-118 kbps, a vast improvement on circuit switched networks
of 9.6 kbps.
2 Always on connectivity :
GPRS is an always on service.
b. There is no need to dial up like you have to on a home PC
for instance.
3. New and Better applications :
a. Due to its high speed connection and always on connectivity
GPRS enables full internet applications and services such
as video conferencing straight to your desktop or mobile
device.
4 GSM operator costs :
a. GSM network providers do not have to start from scratch
to deploy GPRS.
b. GPRS is an upgrade to the existing network that sits along
side the GSM network.
Limitations of GPRS:There are some limitations with GPRS, which
can be summarized as:
1. Limited cell capacity for all users:

a. There are only limited radio resources that can be deployed for
different uses.
b. Both voice and GPRS calls use the same network
resources.
C. Use for one data precludes simultaneous use for voice.
d. If the tariff and billing is not done properly, this may have
on revenue.
impact
51 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
2. Speed lower in reality :
a Achieving the theoretical maximum GPRS data transmission
speed of 172.2 kbps would require a single user taking over all
eight time slotswithout any error protection.
b It is unlikely that a network operator will allow all time slots to
be used by a single GPRS user.
3. Support of GPRS mobile terminate connection for a mobile
server not supported:
a. GPRS terminal can only act as a client device.
b There are many services for which the server needs to be mobile.
C. An example could be a mobile healthcare centre for rural population.
Que 1.25. Explain High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD).
Answer
1. Astraight forward improvement of GSMsdata transmission capabilities

is high speed circuit switched data (HSCSD), which is available with
Some providers.
2. In this system, higher data rates are achieved by bundling several
TCHs.
3. An MS requests one or more TCHsfrom the GSM network, i.e., it
allocates several TDMA slots within a TDMAframe.
4. This allocation can be asymmetrical, i.e., more slots can be allocated
on the downlink than on the uplink, which fits the typical user
behaviour of downloading more data compared to uploading.
5. Basically, HSCSD only requires software upgrades in an MS and
MSC (both have to be able to split a traffic stream into several streams,
using a separate TCH each, and to combine these streams again).
6. In theory, an MS could use all eight slots within a TDMA frame to
achieve an air interface user rate (AIUR) of, example, 8 TCH/F14.4
channels or l15.2 kbit/s.
7. One problem of this configuration is that the MS is required tosend

and receive at the same time.
8 Standard GSM does not require this capability-uplink and downlink
slots are always shifted for three slots.
Drawbacks of HSCSD: HSCSD have some limitations :
1. It still uses the connection-oriented mechanisms of GSM, which are

not at all efficient for computer data traffic, which is typically bursty
and asymmetrical.
While downloading a larger file may require all channels reserved,
typical web browsing would leave the channels idle most of the time.
For nchannels, HSCSD requires ntimes signaling during handover,
connection setup and release. Each channel is treated separately.
The probability of blocking or service degradation increases during
handover, as in this case a BSC has to check resource for n channels,
not just one.
4 All in all, HSCSD may be an attractive solution for higher bandwidth
and rather constant traffic (for example : file download). It is not
good for bursty internet traffic.
Que 1.26. Distinguish between HSCSDand GPRS.

OR
Distinguish between High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

and General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) of GSM standard.
Answer
1 HSCSD is connection-oriented whereas GPRS is fully packet oriented
in which data transfer for applications that exhibit trafficpatterns
such as frequent transmission of small volumes or infrequent
transmissions of small or medium volumes according to the requirement
specification.
2. As compared to HSCSD, GPRS should use the existing network
resources more efficiently for packet node applications and should
provide a selection of QoS parameters for the service requesters.
3 Network providers typically support GPRS by charging on volume
and not on connection time as in HSCSD.
4. Unlike HSCSD, GPRS does not only represent a software update to
allow for the bundling of channels, it also
represents a big step
toward UMTs as the main internal infrastructure needed for UMTS
is exactly what GPRS uses.
53 (IT-8)J
Mobile Computing
Que 1.27. Suppose that A, Band Care simultaneously transmitting

0, 1 bits using CDMA system with following sequence
A=(-1-1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1),
B=(-1-1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, -1),
C=(-1 +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1),
2014-15, Marks 05
What is the resulting chip sequence ? UPTU
Answer
sequence will
When 0 bit is transmitted using CDMA system, then the
be :
=(+1, + 1, + 1, -1, -1, + 1,-1,- 1)
B =(+1, +1, - 1, + 1, -1, - 1, -1, + 1)
=(+1, - 1, + 1, -1, -1, + 1, + 1, + 1)
On adding A, B, C, we get resulting chip sequence,
= (+3, + 1, -1, -3,+ 1, - 1, + 1)
system, then the resulting chip
When 1 bit is transmitted using CDMA
sequence will be:
=(-3, -1,- 1, + 1, +3, - 1, + 1, -1)
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

These questions
Following questions are very important. as well as
asked in your SESSIONALS
may be UNIVERSITY EXXAMINATION.
Also give its characteristics.

Q.1. What is mobile computing ?
Ans: Refer Q. 1.1 and Q. 1.2.
and challenges faced in mobile
Q.2. Discuss the various issues
computing.
AnE: Refer Q. 1.4.
2UNIT
Wireless Networking
(56J - 84J)
Part-1
Wireless Networking
Wireless LAN Overview:
MACIssues
IEEE 802.11
Bluetooth
Wireless Multiple Access Protocols
56J
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 Questions 56J
B. Long and Medium Answer Type
(84J- 103J)
Part-2 ....
TCP over Wireless
Wireless Applications
Data Broadcasting
Mobile IP
WAP:Architecture
Protocol Stack
Application Environment
Application
.84J
A. Concept Outline: Part-2....Questions 84J
B.Long and Medium Answer Type
55 (IT-8) J
56 (IT-8)J
Wireless Networking
PART- 1
Wireless Networking, Wireless LAN Overview : MAC Issues,
IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth, Wireless Multiple Access Protocols.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that
is wireless and is commonly associated with a telecommunication
network.
" A wireless LAN is linking of two or more computer or devices
using spread spectrum or OFDM modulation.
" Bluetooth is open wireless technology standard for exchanging
data over short distances from fixed or mobile device creating
PAN with high levels of security.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Describe briefly about wireless networking. Describe

the various types of wireless networking.
OR
What are the basicdifferences between wireless WAN and wireless
LAN ?Discuss the common features of these.
Answer
Wireless network:
1 Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is wireless
and is commonly associated with a telecommunication network whose
interconnection between nodes are implemented without the use of
wires.
2. Wireless telecommunication networks are generally implemented with
some type of remote information transmission system that uses
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves for the carrier and this
implementation usually takes place at physical layer of network.
Types of wireless network :
1. Wireless PAN:
a A Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) interconnect devices
within a relatively small area.
b. For example, Bluetooth, infrared provides WPAN for

interconnecting a headset to laptop.
2 Wireless LAN:
a. Awireless LAN (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless
distributed method (For example :spread-spectrum or OFDM radio)
and usually providing a connection through an access point to the
wider internet.
b. This provides user the mobility to move around within a local
coverage area and still be connected to network.
C. For example :
i. Wi-Fi:Wi-Fi networks broadcast radio waves that can be
picked up by Wi-Fi receivers attached to different computers
or mobile phones.
ii. Fixed wireless data : It is a type of wireless data network
that can be used to connect two or more buildings together to
extend or share network bandwidth.
3 Wireless MAN:
a. Wireless Metropolitan Area Network are a type of wireless network
that connects several wireless LANs.
b For example, Wi-Max is a type of WMAN.
4 Wireless WAN:
a. Wireless Wide Area Network (wWAN) are wireless networks that
typically cover large outdoor areas.
b. These network can be used to connect branch offices of business or
as a public internet access system.
C They are usually deployed on 2.4 GHz band.
d Atypical system contains base station gateways, access points and
wireless bridging relays.
Que 2.2. Explain the uses, pros and cons of wireless network.
OR
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a wireless
transmission as compared to a fiber or wire transmission ?
Answer
Uses of wireless networking:
1 With the help of wireless networks, information could be sent overseas
with efficiency and more reliability.
2 Eficient services such as the police department utilize wireless network
tocommunicate important information quickly.
3 Another important use for wireless networks is an expensive and rapid
way to be connected to the internet in countries and regions where the
telecom infrastructure is poor.
58 (IT-8) J Wireless Networking
Pros :
1. Easy to set up:
Wireless networks are as easy to set up as wired networks, as is
adding more computers to the network.
b. There is obviously no need to fix wires and users can move around
within the signal range at their discret:on.
C Mobile devices such as phones and iPods can also be easily set up to
connect to the network.
2. Coverage :
Though coverage is limited, wireless technology has improved over
the past decade and good coverage is available within a specified
range.
b Beyond that, extender and range boosters can be used if wider
coverage is required.
3. Unlimited users:
a Wired routers will typically come with three or four connection
port and require a switch for additional expansion.
b With a wireless network you can add more users without the need
to change hardware, though bandwidth and speed may become an
issue if there are too many users.
4. Convenience, flexibility and efficiency :
Awireless network can be invaluable for companies that hot desk
or have other office-sharing practices.
b. If you need mobility around the workplace,a wireless network
help you move around without worrying about access points or
wires.
5. Cost :
a. Wireless routers have become very affordable in the past few years
so the costs associated with setting up a wireless network will not
necessarily be prohibitive.
b It may even cheaper to install a wireless network in some situations.
Cons :
1. Security:
Wireless networks are more difficult to secure than wired local
networks.
b. As a result, they are more vulnerable to attack by unauthorized
users.
C.
Ifimproperly secured, an individual could access the network from
a location near the practice using scanning software to identify
available network.
59 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
2. Installation difficulties :
Because wireless network are so commonly used, you may find
that other wireless networks setup in your medical building interfere
with your wireless signal.
b There are a limited number of channels and if the incorrect channel
is used, you may end up with inconsistent network connection or
no network connectivity at all.
Signal stability :
Users can experience black spots within the coverage range where
the wireless signal has difficulty passing through certain building
materials or if the area has significant radio interference.
b. Users may need to do some experimenting to obtain optimal signal
stability.
4. Speed:
a. While wireless networks are faster than dial-up connection, the
average speed tends to be slower than an ethernet connection as
an issue to be considered if you or your organization will be relying
solely on a wireless network.
Que 2.3. Give the brief discussion on wireless LAN. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of WLAN ?
Answer
Wireless LAN:
1 Awireless LAN is linking of two or more computer or devices using
spread spectrum or OFDM modulation.
2 WLAN are typically restricted in their diameter to buildings, college
campus, single rooms ete. and are operated by individuals, not a large
scale network providers.
3. The global goal of WLAN's is to replace office cabling, to enable access to
the internet and, to introduce a higher flexibility for adhoc communication
in public places and grOup meetings.
4 The wireless LAN technology is based on IEEE 802.11 standard.
5. It is a member of IEEE 802 family, which is a series of specification for
LAN technologies.
6 The primary component of a WLAN is the wireless interface card that
has an antenna.
7. This interface card can be connected to the mobile unit as well as to fixed
network.
There are many products which used unlicensed ISM bands along with
WLAN,for example microwave over cordless phone etc.
9. There are three bands within the ISM bands.
10. There are 900 MHz ISM band,which ranges from 902 to 928 MHZ, 2.4
GHz ISM bands which ranges from 2.4 to 2.4853 GHZ and 5.4 GHz band
which ranges from 5.275 to 5.85 GHz.
11. WLAN uses 2.4 GHz and 5.4 GHz band.
12. WLAN works both in infrastructure and adhoc mode.
Advantages of WLAN:
1. Flexibility :
Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction.
b. As radio waves can penetrate walls, so senders and receivers can
be placed anywhere.
2. Planning :
a. Wireless adhoc networks allow for communication without previous
planning, any wired network needs wiring plan.
b As long as devices follow the same standard, they can communicate.
3. Design :
a. Wireless networks allow for the design of small, independent devices
which can be put into a pocket.
b For example : small PDAs,notepads, mobile phones etc.
4. Robustness :
a Wireless networks can survive disasters. For example, earthquakes,
floods or users pulling a plug.
b If the wireless devices survive, people can still communicate.
C Networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually breakdown
completely.
5. Cost:
After providing wireless access tothe infrastructure via an access
point for the first user, adding additional users to a wireless network
will not increase the cost.
Disadvantages of WLAN:
1. Quality of Service :
WLANs typically offer lower quality than their wired counterparts.
b. The main reasons for this are the lower bandwidth due to
limitations in radio transmission, (for example, 1-10 Mbps user data
rate instead of 100-1000 Mbps), higher error rates due to interference
and higher delay due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
2, Restrictions :
a All wireless products have to comply with national regulations.
Several government and non-government institutions worldwide
regulate the operations and restrict frequencies to minimize

interference.
b The WLANs are limited to low power senders and certain license
free frequency bands, which are not same worldwide.
3. Safety and security :
a. Using radio waves for data transmission might interfere with other
high-tech equipments, for example, in hospitals.
b. Special precautions have to be taken to prevent safety hazards.
C. The open radio interface makes eavesdropping much easier in
WLAN's, this leads to the hacking of wireless network easily.
4 Proprietary solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many
companies have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardized
functionality with many enhanced features.
Que 2.4. Discuss the basic design goals of WLAN's.

Answer
Design goals of WLAN'sare:
1 Global, seamless operation : It should work globally for all the
terminals and the operation should be faultless that is seamless.
2. Low power for battery use: Since mobility comes with the limitation
of power thus, it should consume low power.
3. No special permissions: It should not require any special permission
or license to use the LAN. Al the users in the range of a particular
WLAN Should be able to access the LAN easily.
4. Robust transmission technology : The transmission technology
used should be robust that is easy to use and implement.
5 Security: WLAN should ensure security that is a user must be ensured
that no one should be able to read his/her data.
6 Privacy: WLAN should also ensure privacy i.e., no one should be able
to collect user profiles.
7. Safety: WLAN should be safe i.e., it should have low radiation.
8. Simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings.
9. Easy to use for everyone, simple management.
10. Protection of investment in wired networks.
11. Transparency concerning applications and higher layer protocols, but
also location awareness if necessary.
Que 2.5. Describe the basic transmission that can be used to set
up WLAN.
62 (IT-8)J Wireless Networking
Answer
There are two basic transmission technologies that can be used to set up
WLAN:
1. Infrared technology :
a. This technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture or
directed light if a line-of-sight (LOS)) exists between sender and
receiver.
b. Senders can be simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) whereas
photodiodes can act as receivers.
Advantages of infrared technology :
1. It is simple and extremely cheap.
2. Most of the devices have an infrared data association (IrDA)
interface.
3. No licenses are needed for infrared technology and shielding
is very simple.
4. Electrical devices do not interfere with infrared transmission.
Disadvantages of infrared technology :
1 Low bandwidth compared to other LAN technologies.
2 Infrared data association devices are internally connected to a
serial port limiting transfer rates to 115 kbit/s. This is not a
high data rate.
3. One of the main drawbacks of infrared is that it can be easily
shielded.
4. Infrared transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles.
2. Radio transmission :It includes long-term experiences made with
radio transmission for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
Advantages of radio transmission :
1 It can cover larger areas.
2 It can penetrate walls, furniture, plants etc.
3 It does not need line-of-sight (LOS) if the frequencies are not too
high.
4 Radio based products have higher transmission rates. For example,
54 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s.
Disadvantages of radio transmission :
1. Radio transmission can interfere with other senders.
2 Electrical devices can destroy data transmission via radio.
3. Radio transmission is only permitted in certain frequency bands.
4 Very limited ranges of license-free bands are available worldwide.
Que 2.6. What the various types of WLAN ? List the various
applications of wireless LAN.
Answer
Types of WLAN:Thereare different types of WLAN's.Some of the most
popular ones are :
1. IEEE 802.11:
In June 1997, IEEE finalized the initial specification for WLAN's:
IEEE 802.11.
b. This standard specifies a 2.4 GHz frequency band with data rate of
1Mbps and 2 Mbps.
Today, these standards offer a local area network of bandwidth
going upto a maximum of 54 Mbps.
2, Hyper LAN:
Hyper LAN begins in Europe in 1996 by EISI broadband radio
access network group.
b. Hyper LAN/1 the current version works at the 5 GHz band and
offer upto 24 Mbps bandwidth.
C Next version Hyper LAN/2 will support a bandwidth of 54 Mbps
with QoS support.
d This willbe able to carry Ethernet frames, ATM cells, IP packets
and support data,video, voice and images.
3. Bluetooth :
Bluetooth was named after Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark
during 952 to 995 AD, who had a vision of a world with cooperation
and interoperability.
b It is now promoted by many big industry leaders like lBM, Ericsson,
Intel, Microsoft, Nokia etc.
C. Bluetooth is a wireless personal area network (PAN) operating at
2.4 GHz band and offers 1 Mbps data rate.
d. It uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) modulation
and offers 1Mbps and 2 Mbps at 2.4 GHz frequency band.
4. MANET : Manet is a working group within the IETF to investigate and
develop the standard for mobile adhoc networks.
Various applications of wireless LAN are:
1. Office/campus environment
2 Home
3 Public places
4 War/Defense sites
Que 2.7. Give the brief discussion on MAC layer. Why the
specialized MAC is needed for wireless LAN ?
Answer
Medium Access Control (MAC) layer:
1 Medium access control layer controls medium access through the user.
2 It also supports roaming, authentication and power conservation.
3. The basic services provided by the MAC layer are the mandatory
asynchronous data service and an optional time bounded service.
4. The asynchronous service supports broadcast and multicast packet and
packet exchange is based on a "best effort" model.
Need for specialized MAC:
1. The MAC algorithms used in wired network often fail in wireless
network due tO some reasons.
2. One of the commonly used algorithm for wired networks is CSMA/CD
which worksas follows :Ifa sender wants to send something, it sends as
soon as the medium is free, it listen into the medium if a collision occurs
it stops sending and sends a jamming signal.
3. Now, in case of wireless network this scheme fails, as in wireless network
the signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance.
4. Now when the sender would apply CS (Carrier Sense) and CD (Collision
Detection) if a collision occurs at the receiver it might be the case that a
sender cannot "hear" the collision due to weakening of the signal, i.e.,
CD does not further move, CS might not work. For example, a terminal
is hidden".
5. Collision detection in wireless is a difficult task as the magnitude of the
signal varies with distance.
Que 2.8. "CSMA/CD is not suitable protocol for wireless LAN".

Give reasons in favour of or against the statement ?
|UPTU2012-13, 2015-16; Marks 10
Answer
1 Whenever multiple users have
unregulated access to a
is a danger of signals overlapping and destroying eachsingle line, there
2. Such overlaps
other.
which turn the signals into unusable noise are called
collisions.
3. Atraffic increases on a
multiple-access link, so do collisions.
4. LAN, therefore, needs a mechanism to coordinate traffic, minimize the
number of collisions that occurs, and maximize the number of frames
that are delivered successfully.
5. The access mechanism used in an ethernet is called carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
6 For wireless LAN, CSMA/CD is not suitable because if a sender wants to
send something it sends as soon as the medium is free it listen intothe
medium if, acollision occurs it stops sending and sends ajamming signal.
7 In case of wireless network, this scheme fails as in wireless network the
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance.
8 Now when the sender would apply CS (Carrier Sense) and CD (Collision
Detection) ifa collision occurs at the receiver it might be the case that a
sender cannot "hear" the collision due to weakening of the signals, i.e.,
CD does not further move, CS might not work if, for example, a terminal
is "hidden". Collision detection in wireless is a difficult task as the
magnitude of the signal varies with distance.
Que 2.9. In context to cellular network, discuss the following:
i. Cell splitting
ii. Near and far problem
iii. Hidden terminal problem UPTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Cellsplitting : Refer Q. 1.10, Page 19J, Unit-1.
Near and far problem :
This situation often occurs in wireless networks. Consider the scenario
1.
in Fig. 2.9.1.
A B C
Fig. 2.9.1. Near and far terminals.

2.
Terminals AandB send with the same transmission power but as the
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance, the
signal of terminal B,therefore, drowns out A's signal.
3 Thus, C cannot receive A. IfC, for example, was an arbiter for sending
rights (Cacts as a coordinator for media access), terminal B would
drown out terminal A already on the physical layer.
Hidden terminal problem :
1. In ig.2.9.2 there are three devices A, Band C. The ellipses represent
the transmission ranges.
2. We can see that the transmission range of A reaches B but not C,
transmission range of Creaches Bbut not Aand transmission range of
B reaches both A and C.
3. Suppose that both Aand Cwant to transmit to Bthen the following
problemn occurs :
a. A sends to B, Ccannot receive A as it is not in the transmission
range of A.
b. Now, Cwants to send to B,C senses a "free" medium (CS fails), as
it cannot detect A.
C. Thus, collision occurs at B, Acannot receive the collision (CD fails).
d. A is hidden for C.
A B
Fig. 2.9.2. Hidden node problem.
4 Such terminals like Aand C are called hidden terminals. These types of
terminals cause collision.
5 Another effects is there known as exposed terminals which cause
unnecessary delay.
6 The situation is as follows:
a Suppose B sends something to A and C wants to send data to some
another terminal (not A or B) which is outside the interference
range of A and B.
b. Csenses the channel but finds it busy (due to B's transmission), so
Chas to wait.
C
But A is outside the radio range of C, therefore, waiting is not
necessary.
d This is known as C is exposed" toB.
Que 2.10. Explain the MACA (Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance). How are hidden node and exposed node problems
addressed in MACA ?
Answer
MACA (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) : MACA is proposed as an
alternative to traditional CSMA. It presents a simple scheme that solves the
hidden terminal problem.
In MACA:
1. CSMA senses the state of the channel only at the transmitter.
a. Lead to hidden node problem.
2 Does not use carrier sensing.
b. Nodes start transmitting after a random backoff.
3 MACAuses RTS and CTS to overcome hidden node problems and exposed
node problems.
a. Node which only hears CTS (but no RTS), stop from transmitting
(hidden node).
b. Node which only hears RTS (but no CTS), is transmit (exposed
node).
C.
RTS and CTS carry the expected duration of data transmission.
4. When there is a collision, it uses binary exponential backoff (BEB)
before retrying.
where RTS stands for request to send
CTS stands for clear to send.
is
Packet transmission in MACA: The packet transmission in MACA
shown in Fig. 2.10.1
Neighbour Sender Receiver Neighbour
RTS RTS
CTS CTS
DATA
DATA
Fig.2.10.1. Packet transmission in MACA.

Avoidance of hidden terminal using MACA : MACA avoids the problem
of hidden terminals as follows:
1. Suppose A and C want to send to B.
2. has already started the transmission, but is hidden for C, C also starts
A
with its transmission, thereby, causing a collision at B.
3.
With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a RTS
first.
Breceives the RTS that contains the name of sender and receiver, as
4.
well as the length of the future transmission.
68 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
5. This RTS is not heard by C, but triggers an
called CTS. acknowledgement from B,
6. The CTS again contains the names of
user data, and the length of the futuresender and receiver (B) of the
(A)
7. C heard this CTS and C is not
transmission.
indicated in the CTS toward B.
allowed to send anything for the duration
8. A collision cannot occur at B during data
transmission and the hidden
terminal problem is solved.
RTS
CTS
CTS
A B
Fig. 2.10.2.
Avoidance of exposed terminal problem using MACA: MACA avoid
the problem of exposed terminal as follows:
1 With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first containing the name of
the
receiver (A) and the sender (B).
2. C does not react to this message as it is not the
receiver, but A
acknowledges using a CTS which identifies Bas the sender andA as the
receiver of the following data transmission.
3. C does not receive this CTS and concludes thatA is outside the
detection
range. Ccan start its transmission assuming it will not causea collision
at (A).
4. The problem with exposed terminals is solved without fixed access
patterns or a base station.
RTS
CTS
CTS B
Fig. 2.10.3. MACA can avoid exposed terminals.

Que 2.11. Define various IEEE 802.11 standards.
Answer
IEEE 802.11 standards: The WLAN technology is defined by the IEEE
802.11 standards. There are currently four specifications in a family :
1. IEEE &02.11:
a. Applied to wireless ILAN's and provides l or 2Mbps transmission.
b. It uses the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It includes infrared communication
also.
C. It uses either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
2. IEEE 802.1la:
a. It is an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LAN's and provide
upto 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band.
b. 802.1la uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
encoding scheme.
C. The protocol also supports data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48
Mbps.
d. The 802.11a specifications is applied to wireless ATM systems and is
used to access hubs.
3. IEEE 802.11b:
a It is also referred to as 802.11 high rate or Wi-Fi.
b This standard uses DSS and uses 2.4 GHz ISM band and provides
maximum data rate of 11 Mbps and with fall back to 5.5 Mbps.
4. IEEE 802.11g:
a. It offers wireless transmission over relatively short distances at
20.54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band.
b. The 802.1lg also uses the OFDM encoding scheme.
C It uses the data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48 Mbps.
d. It provides compatibility with 802.11b equipment.
Que 2.12. With neat sketch, explain architecture of 802.11 LAN
and explain its MAC logic. UPTU2012-13, Marks 05
OR
Draw and define 802.11 protocol stack regarding the following
points :
i. Physical layer
ii. Mac sub layer protocol
iii. Frame structure UPTU2013-14, 2014-15; Marks 05
70 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
Answer
Protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11:
1 IEEE 802.11 fits seamlessly into the other 802.x standards for
wired
LANs as shown in Fig. 2.12.1.
2 This is most common scenario where an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN
connected to a switched IEEE 802.3 ethernet via a bridge.
3 The higher layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless
nodes as for wired nodes.
4 The upper part of the data link control layer, the logical link control
(LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control layers needed
for the different media.
5. In many of today's networks, no explicit LLC layer is visible.
Mobile terminal Access point Infrastructure Fixed
network terminal
Application Application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC
LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MACI 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY
Fig. 2.12.1. IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture and bridging.

6. The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and
medium access layer MAC like the other 802.x LANs do.
7. The physical layer is subdivided intothe "physical layer
convergence
Station
Management|
protocol (PLCP)" and the "physical medium dependent sub-layer
DLC
(PMD)".
LLC
MAC MAC managemnt

PHY
PLCP
PHY managemer.t
PMD
Fig, 2.12.2. Detailed IEEE 802.11

protocol architecture and management.
8. Fig. 2.12.2 shows the
IEEE 802.11 layers along and the protocol sub
layer and MAC, PHY and station
management.
71 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
MAC management:
This supports the association and re-association of a station to
an access point.
It also controls synchronization, roaming of a station with
respect to an access point and power management to save
battery power.
management
ii. MAC management also maintains the MAC
information base (MIB).
selection and
b PHY management : This is responsible for channel
PHY-MIB maintenance.
of all
Station management: This is responsible for coordination
management functions and additional higher layer functions.
Various layers used in 802.11 are as follows :
1. Physical layer:
between the
a. The 802.11 physical layer (PHY) acts as an interface
are transmitted
frames
MAC and the wireless media where the
and received.
b. The PHY provides three functions:
frames with
1. The PHY layer provides an interface to exchange
reception of data.
the upper MAC layer for transmission and
modulation
The PHY uses carrier signal and spread spectrum
totransmit data frames over the
media.
indication back to the MAC
ii. The PHY provides a carrier sense
to verify activity on the media.
Three versions of PHY layer defined as follows:
Spectrum (FHSS):
1. Frequency Hopping Sp. ad
networks in the same
a. FHSS allows the c0-exístence of multiple different hopping
area by separating different networks using
sequences.
controlled by FHSS PMD sub
b. Data transmission over the media is
layer.
Spectrum (FHSS) PHY uses
C. The 802.11 Frequency Hopping Spread 1or 2 Mbps data
the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band, operating with
rate.
namely the PLCP part
d. The frame consists of two basie parts (PSDU).
(preamble and header) and the payload part
PSDUcan transmit 1l or
e. PLCP part is transmitted at 1 Mbit/sec and
2 Mbit/sec.
2.12.3
f. The frame of IEEE 802.11 FHSS is shown in Fig.
72 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
80 16 12 4 16 Variable bits
Synchronization SFD PLW PSF HEC Payload
PLCP preamble PLCP header

Fig. 2.12.3. Format of IEEE 802.11 PHY frame
using FHSS
Functions of frame:
PLCP preamble:
a.
Synchronization :The PLCP preamble starts with 80 bit
synchronization, which consists of alternateO's and l's (010101......)
bit pattern. This pattern is used for
synchronization of potential
receivers and signal detection by the CCA.
b. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate the
start of the frame and provide frame
16 bit binary pattern
synchronization. The SFD is
0000110010111101 and it provides frame timing.
PLCP Header:
a.
PLCP_PDU Length Word (PLW):The field
of the PSDL in octets and is used by the MAC tospecifies the length
frame.
detect the end of a
b. PLCP Signaling Field (PSF):This 4 bit field indicates the
rate of payload. Al bits sets to zero (0000) indicate the lowest data
data
rate of 1 Mbit/s.
C. Header Error Check (HEC):This field contains the results of a
calculated frame check sequence from the sending station.
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) :
The spectrum is separated by code but not by
frequency.
b. IEEE 802.11 DSSS PHY uses 2.4 GHz ISM band and
offers both 1
and 2 Mbit/s data rates.
C. The data transmission is control by the DSSS PMD
sub-layer.
d The DSSS PMD takes the binary bits of
information from the PLCP
protocol data unit (PPDU) and transforms them intoRF signals by
using carrier modulation.
e. The PDUframe consists of a PLCP
MAC protocol data unit (MPDU). preamble, PLCP header, and
f. The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are
IMbps, and MPDUcan be sent at 1 Mbps or always
2 Mbps.
transmitted at
Frame of IEEE802.11 DSS:It is shown in Fig.
2.12.4.
73 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
16 16 Variable bits
80 16 8
Synchronization SFD Signal Service Length HEC Payload
Fig. 2.12.4. Format of IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using DSSS.

1. Synchronization :
a. The first 128 bits are used for synchronization, for gain setting, for
energy detection (for the CCA) and frequency offset compensation.
b. The synchronization field consists of strings of l's which are
scrambled.
is used for
2. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): This 16 bit field
synchronization at the beginning of a frame and consists of the pattern
1111001110100000.
3 Signal :
data rate
a. Two values have been defined for the field to indicate the
of the payload. The binary value in this field is equal to the data
rate multiplied by 100 kbit/s.
4 Service: This field is reserved for future use.
5. Length: 16 bits are used for length indication of the payload in
microseconds. The MAC layer uses this field to determine the end of the
frame.
6. Header Error Check (HEC):
Signal, service and length fields are protected by this checksum
using the ITU-T CRC-16 standard polynomial.
b. The CRC-16 algorithm is represented by the following polynomial :
Gx) = xl6 4 x12 + x + x.
3. Infrared:
The PHY layer based on infrared uses visible light at 850-950 nm.
b. It does not require LOS between the sender and receiver, but
should also work with diffuse light.
C. This allows for point-to-multipoint communication.
d The infrared PHY operation is restricted to indoor environments
within the range of 10 m.
Frame of IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using infrared: It is shown in
Fig. 2.12.5.
5773 slats 4 slots 3 slots 32 slots 16 slots 18 bit
Synchronization SFD Data rate D, level Length CRC PSDU

Fig. 2.12.5. Format of IEEE 802.11 PHY rame using:infrared.
2 MAC layer:
a. Mediumn access control layer fulfills several functions such as :
i Control medium access.
ü. Supports roaming authentication and power conservation.
ii. Exchange of data packets without delay.
iv. Provides asynchronous data service.
V. Support broadcast and multicast.
vi. Timne bounded service.
b. There are three basic access mechanisms that have been defined
for 802.11. These are based on a version of CSMA/CA.
C. The first two methods are summarized as distributed coordination
function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF).
d. The MAC mechanisms are also called distributed foundation wireless
medium access control (DFWMAC).
e
For all access methods, several parameters for controlling the
waiting time before medium access are important.
f. Fig. 2.12.6 shows the three different parameters whose values
depend on the PHY and are defined in relation to a slot time.
These parameters also define the priorities of medium access.
DIFS
PIFS
DIFS
Medium SIFS
busy |Contention Next frame
Direct access if medium is free > DIFS
Fig. 2.12.6. Medium access and inter-frame spacing.
h. Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS) : The shortest waiting time
for medium access (so the highest priority) is defined for short
control messages, such as acknowledgements of data packets.
PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS) :A waiting time between DIFS
and SIFS (and thus a medium priority) is used for a time-bounded
service. PIFS is defined as SIFS plus one slot time.
DCF inter-frame spacing(DIFS):This parameter denotes the
longest waiting time and has the lowest priority for medium access.
This waiting time is used for asynchronous data service within a

contention period. DIFS is defined as SIFS plus two slot times.
MACprotocols : There are two basic 802.11 MAC protocols described as
follows:
1. DCF:
a. The basic 802.11 MACprotocol is the DCF based on CSMA.
b. In DCF, stations deliver MAC service data units (MSDUs) of
arbitrary length upto 2304 bytes, after detecting that there is no
other transmission in progress on the channel.
C.
However, if two stations detect the channel free at the same time,
a colision occurs.
d The 802.11 defines a collision avoidance (CA) mechanism to reduce
the probability of such collisions.
2 PCF:
a.
In PCF, apoint coordinator (PC), which requires an access point
control, the medium access based on polling scheme in such a way
so that the point c0ordinator polls individual stations togrant access
to the medium based on their requirements.
b. In PCF, stations do not contend for the medium and the medium
access is controlled centrally, the access mechanism is sometimes
referred to as contention-free channel access.
various
Que 2.13. Write short note on bluetooth. Also discuss the
applications of bluetooth.
Answer
Bluetooth :
data
1 Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging
transmission) from
over short distances (using short wavelength radio with
fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs)
high levels of security.
2 It was formed by 5 companies in 1998.
3 They are Ericsson, Intel, IBM, NOKIA and Toshiba.
bluetooth
4 The bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the
Special Interest Group (SIG).
5 Bluetooth SIG worked together to develop an integrated voice/data
images.
10th
6 Bluetooth is named after King Harold Gormsen who was born in
century in United Denmark and Norway.
Features of bluetooth :
1 Robustness
2 Low complexity
76 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
3 Low power
4 Low cost
Characteristics of bluetooth:
1. Bluetooth operates in unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz (2400-2483.5
MHz).
2 The range of bluetooth device is power class dependent : 1 meter,
10 meter, 100 meter.
3 Devices connected using bluetooth frequency link forms a piconet.
Classes of bluetooth:
Class Maximum permitted Range (Approximate)
power m W
(dBm)
Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) -100 meter
Class 2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) -10meter
Class 3 1 mW (0 dBm) -1 meter
Applications of bluetooth :
1 Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a
hands-free headset.
2 Wireless communication between PC's input and output devices. For
example mouse, keyboard and printer.
3 Transfer of files between devices with OBEX.
4 Replacement of traditional wired serial communication in the test
equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, barcode scanner and
trafficcontrol devices.
5 Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDA's using a data
capable mobile phone as a modem.
6 Wireless bridge between two industrial ethernet networks.
7 Allowinga DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby
cellphone.
8 For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not
required and cable-free connection desired.
Que 2.14. Discuss the advantages and limitations of bluetooth.
Answer
Advantages of bluetooth :
1. Bluetooth does not require a clear line of
sight between the synced
devices.
2. This means that the devices need not be facing each other, and it is also
possible tocarry out transfers when both the devices are in separate
rooms.
3. The fact that this technology requires no cables and wires is something
that has made it so popular.
4 The maximum range that it offers is 100 meters, but this range is not
the same for all similar connections.
5. It depends on the nature of the devices and the version that they operate
upon.
6. The processing power and battery power that it requires in order to
operate is very low.
7. This makes it an ideal tool for so many electronic devices, as the technology
can be implemented pretty much anywhere.
8 One major advantage is its simplicity of use. Anyone can figure out how
toset up aconnection and synctwo devices with ease.
9 Moreover, the technology is completely free to use and requires no
charges to be paid to any service provider.
Disadvantages of bluetooth :
1. Though the transfer speeds are impressive at around 1Mbps, certain
other technologies like infrared can offer speeds upto 4 Mbps.
2 Even though the security is good, it is even better on infrared.
3 This is because of the comparatively larger range of bluetooth and also
the lack of a line of sight.
4. Someone who knows how to hack such networks can do so eventually.
5 The battery usage duríng a single transfer is negligible, but there are
some people who leave the device switched on in their devices.
Que 2.15. Explain bluetooth architecture.

OR
Explain the architecture of bluetooth system. What will be the impact
on piconet if bluetooth devices are connected to mobile units ?
Explain.
Answer
Bluetooth architecture :
The architecture of a bluetooth device is described by the two terminology :
piconet and scatternet.
1. Piconet :
a A piconet is a collection of bluetooth devices connected in an adhoc
fashion.
b One device in the piconet act as master (M) and all other devices
connected to the master act as slaves (S).
78(IT-8) J Wireless Networking
C.
Each piconet has exactly one master and upto seven simultaneous
slaves, i.e., a master bluetooth device can communicate with upto
seven devices.
d The master determines the hopping pattern in the piconet and the
slaves has to synchronize to this pattern.
M= Master
S = Slave
P =Parked
P SB = Standby
M
Fig. 2.15.1. Simple bluetooth piconet.

e. Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern.
f At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and
one other device, however, the device can switch roles and the
slave can become the master at any time.
g. The master switches rapidly from one device to another in a round
robin fashion.
2 Scatternet:
a. Group of piconets form a scatternet.
b. Scatternet consists of two piconets in which one device participates
in twodifferent piconets.
C. Both piconets use a different hopping sequence and it is always
determined by the master of the piconet.
Piconets (each with a capacity of <1Mbit/s)
M= Master
S = Slave
P= Parked
SB Standby
SE
Fig.2.16.2. Bluetooth scatternet.

d. Collisicn occurs if two or more piconets use the same carrier
frequency at the same time.
e. Ifa device wants to participate in more than one piconet, it has to
synchronize to the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to take
part in.
f. If a device acts as a slave in one piconet, it simply starts to

synchronize with the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to
join.
g. After synchronization, it acts as a slave in the new piconet and no
longer participates in the former piconet.
h. Before leaving one piconet, aslave informs the current master that
it will be unavailable for a certain amount of time.
Que 2.16. What is bluetooth ? Define technical specifications of

bluetooth. Describe the bluetooth stack operation.
OR
What is bluetooth ? What are the functions of diferent layers of
bluetooth protocol stack? Also, discuss the concept of bluetooth
architecture. UPTU2014-15, Marks 05
OR
What are the functions of different layers of bluetooth protocol
stack ?
Answer
Bluetooth: Refer Q. 2.13, Page 75J, Unit-2.
Architecture of bluetooth:Refer Q. 2.15, Page 77J, Unit-2.
Bluetooth protocol stack:
1 Bluetooth is defined as a layered protocol architecture consisting of core
protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony controlprotocols and
adapted protocols.
2 Asimple bluetooth protocols stack is shown in Fig. 2.16.1.
Audio apps. |NW apps.vCallvCard Telephony apps. |Management apps.
|TCP/UDP OBEX
IP AT modem
commands TCS BIN SDP Control
BNEP PPP
RFCOMM (serial line interface)

Audio
Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP)
Host controller
Link manager
interface
Baseband
Radio
Fig. 2.16,1. Bluetooth protocol stack.

3 Here,
AT:Attention Sequence
OBEX : Object Exchange
TOS BIN:Telephony Control Protocol Specification-Binary
BNEP: Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol
SDP: Service Diseovery Protocol
RFCOMM: Radio Frequency Communication
4. The bluetooth protocol stack can be divided into a core specification,
which describes the protocols from physical layer to the data link control
together with management functions, and profile specifications.
Core specifications of bluetooth comprise of the following layers :
1. Radio layer (Physical layer): This layer includes specification of air
interface,i.e., frequencies, modulation and transmit power.
Design issues :
The radio layer operates in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz.
b Power consumption is very low due to battery operated devices.
C Frequency band (2400-2483.5 MHz), 83.5 MHz bandwidth.
d. Bluetooth uses frequency hopping/TDD scheme at a rate of 1600
hops/sec toavoid narrow band interference.
e. Within a piconet, all devices use the same hopping sequence.
f. Transmitting power is upto 100 mW and minimum is 1mW.
g. Range is between 10 m - 100 m.
2. Baseband layer (MAC layer):
a. It includes description of basic connection establishment, packet
formats, timing and basic QoS parameters.
b. The functions of baseband layer are quite complex as it not only
performs frequency hopping for interference mitigation and medium
access, but also defines physical links and many packet formats.
C. It enables the physical radio frequency link between the bluetooth
devices to form a piconet.
d. Bluetooth also defines 1 slot, 3 slot and 5 slot packets for higher
data rates.
68(72) 54 0-2745 bits
access code packet header payload
4 64 (4) 3 4 1 i--18bits
preamble| Sync. (trailer) AM address| typelow ARQN SEQN HEC
Fig. 2.16.2.
e. Abluetooth packet (1slot) baseband layer consists three fields :
access code, packet header, payload.
Mobile Computing 81(IT-8) J
f Baseband layer offers two different types of links, a synchronous
connection-oriented link and an asynchronous connectionless link.
3. The link manager protocol (LMP) : It provides link set-up and
management between devices including security functions and
parameters negotiation. LMP performs the following functions:
a. Authentication, Pairing and Encryption :
i. LMP has to control the exchange of random numbers and
signed responses.
For pairing, it provides link key which may be changed,
accepted or rejected.
For encryption, LMP sets the encryption mode (no encryption,
point-to-point, or broadcast), key size and random speed.
b. Synchronization :
i. Synchronization is of major importance within a bluetooth
network.
ii The clock offset is updated each time a packet is received from
the master.
C. Capability negotiation : Not only the version of the LMP can be
exchanged but also information about the supported features such
as multi-slot packets, encryption, SCO links, voice encoding etc.
d Power control:
Abluetooth device can measure the received signal strength.
Depending on this signal level the device can direct the sender
of the measured signal to increase or decrease its transmit
power.
e Link supervision :LMP has to control the activity of alink, it may
set up new SCO links, or it may declare the failure of a link.
f. State and transmission mode change : Devices might switch
the master/slave role, detach themselves from a connection, or
change the operating mode.
4. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) :
SDP is used to allow devices to discover what services each other support,
and what parameters to use services and the characteristics of the
services can be queried and after that, a connection between two or
more bluetooth devices may be established.
For example: When we connect a mobile phone to a bluetooth headset.
SDP will be used to determine which bluetooth profiles are supported by
the headset (the headset profile, handfree profile) and the protocol
multiplexer settings are needed to connect to each of them. Besides all
these, someother terms are also described in protocol stack :
a. RFCOMM: Radio frequency communications is the cable
replacement protocol used to ereate virtual serial port used to make
replacement of cable technologies transparent through minimal
modification of existing devices.
b. AVCTP (AudioVisual Control Transport Protocol) :AVCTP
is used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands
over an L2CAP channel.
C. BNEP (Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol) :
BNEP is used to transfer another protocol stack's data via an
L2CAP channel.
Its main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the
personal area networking profile.
d Telephony control protocol :Telephony control protocol-binary
(TCP-BIN) is the bit oriented protocol that defines the call control
signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between
bluetooth devices.
e. Object Exchange Protocol (0OBEX):Session layer protocol for
the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation
representation.
5. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol Layer (L2CAP) :
The bluetooth L2CAP layer provides connectionless and
connection-oriented data services to upper layer protocol.
b It also supports reassembly of packets, and Quality of Service
(QoS) communication.
C.
This layer does not provide any reliability and uses the baseband to
ensure reliability.
d L2CAP transmits and receives L2CAP data packets upto 64 kbit in
length.
e. L2CAP provides three different types of local channels :
i. Connectionless :These unidirectional channels are typically
used for broadcast from master to its slaves.
ii. Connection-oriented : Each channel of this type is
bidirectional and supports QoS flow specifications for each
direction.
iii. Signaling : This type of logical channel is used for exchanging
signaling messages between L2CAP entities.
Que 2.17. What is bluetooth ? What are the functions of different
layer bluetooth protocol stack?Also, discuss the concept of bluetooth
profile. UPTU2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Bluetooth: Refer Q. 2.13, Page 75J, Unit-2.
Functions of different layer of protocol stack : Refer Q. 2.16,
Page 79J, Unit-2.
Bluetooth profiles :
1. Application designers and vendors can implement similar services in
many different ways using different components and protocols from the
bluetooth core standard.
2 To provide compatibility among the devices offering the same services,
bluetooth specified many profiles in addition to the core protocols.
3 Without the profiles too many parameters in bluetooth would make
interoperation between devices from different manufacturers almost
impossible.
4. Profiles represent default solutions for a certain usage model.
5 They use a selection of protocols and parameter set toform a basis for
interoperability.
6. Protocols can be seen as horizontal layers while profiles are vertical
slices.
7. The basicprofiles have been specified :generic access, service discovery,
cordless telephony, intercom, serial port, headset, dial-up networking,
fax, LAN access,generic object exchange, object push, file transfer and
synchronization.
8 Additional profiles are : advanced audio distribution, PAN, audio video
remote control, basic printing, basic imaging, extended service discovery,
hands-free and hardcopy cable replacement.
9. Each profile selects a set of protocols.
10. For example, the serial port profile needs RFCOMM, SDP, LMP, and
L2CAP. Baseband and radio are always required.
Protocols
| Applications
Profiles
Fig. 2.17.1. A digital controller.
protocol
Que 2.18. Write short note on wireless multiple access
(WMAP).
Answer
Multiple access protocol :
1 If many users share a channel and two
or more userstransmit packets
simultaneously, collision may occur.
2. To avoid the collision, we need access protocol.
3. There are various multiple access protocols used in wireless
communications.
4. On the basis of characteristics, multiple access protocol are categorized
as follows :
Multiple access protocol
Scheduled access Random access
Static Demand Repeat random Reservation

assignment assignment access random access
Aloha r-Aloha
-SDMA Polling
-FDMA Slotted aloha
-TDMA CSMA
-CDMA Token passing ISMA -PRMA
Seheduled access protocol: By adjusting each user's transmitting
time and frequency, it avoids simultaneously data transmission
between two or more users.
b. Random access protocol :Although collision occurs because two
or more users access a channel simultaneously, collision can be
reduced.
PART-2
TCP over Wireless, Wireless Applications, Data Broadcasting,

Mobile IP, WAP:Architecture, Protocol Stack,
Application Environment, Application.
CONDEPT OUTLINE: PART-2

" TCP is designed to provide reliable data transfer between hosts
connected by a series of routers.
Mobile IP protocol allows location independent routing of IP
datagram's on the internet.
Broadcast systems are classified as unidirectional distribution
systems.
" Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) provides internet services
for mobile and wireless devices.
Questions-Answers
85 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Que 2.19. What are the

characteristics required for TCP over
wireless ?
OR
How TCP over wireless works ?
Answer
TCP over wireless :
internet.
1 TCP is the primary transport protocol in the
transfer between hosts connected
2 It is designed to provide reliable data
by a series of wired routers.
transmission protocol.
3 TCP is a connection-oriented and reliable
overflows on both sender and receiver
4 It uses flow control to avoid data
side.
TCP working : the packets, it may
1 When the application requires reliable transport of
use TCP.
wireless link.
2 TCP requires several packets over the
the connection.
3 First TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish
transmission of the request
4 At least one additional packet is needed for connection.
and requires three more packets to close the
5. It is explained with the help of Fig. 2.19.1.
Server
Client
TCP SYN
TCP SYN/ACK
Connection setup
TCP ACK
HTTP request Data transmission
HTTP response
15 no data
GPRS: B00 m8
Connection
release
Fig. 2.19.1. Example TCP connection setup overhead.

6. over
Fig. 2.19.1 shows an example for the overhead introduced by using TCP
GPRS iB a web scenario,
7. Web services are based on HTTP which requires a reliable transport
Bystem.
8. In the internet, TCP is used for this purpose.
9. Before a HTTP request can be transmitted the TOCP connection has to be
established.
10. This requires three messages.
11. IfGPRS is used as wide area transport system, one-way delays of 500
ms and more take place.
12. The setup of a TCP connection already takes far more than a second.
Characteristics of TCP over wireless :
1. Data rates :
a. The data rates of 2.5G systems are 10-20 kbit/s uplink and 20-50
kbit/s downlinks, 3G and future 2.5G systems offer datarates around
64 kbit/s uplink and 115-384 kbit/s downlink.
b. Data rates are asymmetric as it is expected that users will download
more data compared to uploading.
C.
In cellular networks, asymmetry does not exceed 3-6 times and in
satellite systems asymmetry may reach a factor of 1000.
d. To support multiple users within a cell, a scheduler may have to
repeatedly allocate and de-allocate resources for each user.
2. Latency :
Wireless systems provide algorithms for error correction and
protection, such as forward error correction (FEC), check summing
and interleaving etc.
b. FEC and interleaving let the round trip time (RTT) grow to several
hundred milliseconds upto some seconds.
C.
The GPRS standard specifies an average delay of less than two
seconds for the transport class with the highest quality.
3. Jitter:
a. Wireless systems suffer large delay variation or delay spikes.
b. Reasons for sudden increase in latency are link outages due to
temporal loss of radio coverage, blocking due to high-priority traffic,
or handovers.
4. Packet loss :
a. Packets might be lost during handovers or due to corruption.
b. The loss rates of 2.5G/3G systems due to corruption are relatively
low.
Que 2.20.What are the factors affecting the performance of TCP ?
Answer
Anumber of inherent characteristics of wireless media affect TCP
performance including :
87(IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
1. Channel losses :
a. Signals carried by wireless media are subject to significant
interference from other signals, and subsequently, losses due to
modification of bits while frames are being transmitted.
b TCP performance is affected by the frequent losses
occurring at
occur due
the link layer, because TCP inherently assumes all losses
algorithms upon
to congestion and invokes the congestion control
detecting any loss.
2. Low bandwidth :
sometimes
a. Bandwidth of wireless links may be low, which can
station.
result in excessive buffering at the base
b. This could lead to packets being dropped at the base station, or
transmitted back toback on the wirelesslink, which in turn results
in high observed round trip times.
occurs when a wireless host is mobile.
3. Signal fading: Fading typically
4
Movement across cells :
connection handoff.
a. Mobility of a wireless host involves addressing
that has to be handed off, the base
b In addition to the link layer state
about the transport layer
station may maintain connection state
which might need to be handed off.
5. Channel asymmetry :
asymmetric.
a. Resolving channel contention is usually
sending entity gets more transmission time than the receiving
b The
entity.
acknowledgements being queued for
C. This could lead to TCP receiving entity and sent back
transmission at the link layer of the
permitted.
to back when channel access is TCP
can lead to larger round trip times measured by the
d. This subsequently reduces the
sender and to bursty traffic, which
throughput of the TCP connection.
when such
may exhibit high latencies andobserved
Link latency: Wireless links by
6
significant fraction of the total round trip times
delays are a of TCP are set to high values,
which
TCP, the retransmission time outs
subsequently affects TCP performance.
2.21. Write a short note on TCP congestion control.
Que
Answer
off in the slow start phase.
1. ATCP connection starts (cwnd).
start algorithm usesa variable called congestion window
2. The slow receiver
only send the minimum of cwnd and the
3. The sender can rwnd (for receiver flow
control).
advertised window which we call
88 (TT-8) J Wireless Networking
4. Slow start tries to reach equilibrium by opening up the window very
quickly.
5. The sender initially sets cwnd to 1, and sending one segment. (MSS is
the maximum segment size.)
6. For each ACK that it receives, the cwnd is increased by one segment.
7. Increasing by one for every ACK results in exponential increase of
cwnd over round trips.
8. TCP uses another variable ssthresh, the slow start threshold.
9. Conceptually, ssthresh indicates the right window size depending on
current network load.
10. The slow start phase continues as long as cwnd is less than ssthresh.
11. As soon as it crosses ssthresh, TCP goes into congestion avoidance.
12. In congestion avoidance, for each ACK received, cwnd is increased by
Icwnd segments.
13. This is approximately equivalent to increasing the cwnd by one segment
in one round trip (an additive increase), ifevery segment is acknowledged.
14. The TCP sender assumes congestion in the network when it times out
waiting for an ACK ssthresh is set to max (2, min(cwnd1. 2, rwnd)
segments, cwnd is set to one, and the system goes to slow start.
15. Ifa TCP receiver receives an out of order segment, it immediately sends
back a duplicate ACK (dupack) to the sender.
16. The fast retransmit algorithm uses these dupacks to make
retransmission decisions.
17. Ifthe sender receives dupacks, it assumes loss and retransmits the lost
segment without waiting for the retransmit timer to go off.
18. It also updates ssthresh.
19. Fast recovery keeps track of the number of dupacks received and tries
to estimate the amount of outstanding data in the network.
20. It inflates cwnd (by one segment) for each dupack received, thus
maintaining the flow of traffic.
21. The sender comes out of fast recovery when the
segment whose loss
resulted in the duplicate ACKs is acknowledged.
22. TCP then deflates the window by returning it to
ssthresh, and enters
the congestion avoidance phase.
Que 2.22. Why does traditional TCP not perform well in
wireless
network? Discuss different approaches for TCP
improvement.
Answer
Performance of TCP over wireless network : Refer Q. 2.20,
Page 86.J, Unit-2.
Different approaches for TCP improvement : The various models
proposed to improve TCP's performance over wireless networks are as follows :
1. Indirect TCP:
a. With I-TCP a transport layer connection between amobile host and
fixed host is established as two separate connections :
i. One over the wireless link and
The other over the wired link with a "mobile support router"
serving as the center point.
b Packets from the sender are buffered at the mobile support router
untiltransmitted across the wireless connection.
C. Ahandoff mechanism is proposed to handle the situation when the
wireless host moves across different cells.
d. Aconsequence of using I-TCP is that the TOCP ACKs are not end-to
end thereby violating the end-to-end semantics of TCP.
e. Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection with no changes to
the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the wired internet, millions
of computers use (variants of) this protocol.
f. It uses an optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts.
Hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of
the wireless part.
Access point (foreign agent)
Wired
internet
Wireless TCP
Standard TCP
Mobile host
Fig. 2.22.1. I-TCP.
2. Snooping TCP:
a. One of the drawbacks of I-TCP is the segmentation of the single
TCP connection into twoTCP connections.
b This loses the original end to end TCP semantic.
C Snooping TCP works transparently and hence does not lose end to
end semantics.
The main function of the enhancement is buffering of packets
close to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission.
e. Lost packets on the wireless link (both directions) will be
retransmitted immediately by the mobile host of foreign agent,
respectively (so called local" retransmission) the foreign agent,
90 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
therefore, "snoops" the packet flow and recognizes
acknowledgements in both directions.
f Data transfer to the mobile host in snooping TCP takes place as
follows : the Foreign Agent (FA) buffers data until it receives ACK
of the Mobile Host (MH), FA detects packet loss via duplicated
ACKs or time out and then fast retransmission possible, transparent
for the fixed network.
Local
Correspondent
retransmission Foreign host
agent
Wired
internet 3---:
Mobile Snooping ofACKs Buffering of data

host
End-to-end TCP connection
Fig. 2.22.2. Snooping TCP.
g. Data transfer from the mobile host takes place as FA detects
packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers
directly with a NACK to the MH. MH can now retransmit data
with onlyavery short delay.
h Problems with snooping TCP :
i. Snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as
ITCP
i. Snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes.
3. Mobile TCP:
Mobile TCP (M-TCP) also uses a split connection based approach
but tries to preserve end to end semantics. M-TCP adopts a three
level hierarchy.
b. At the lowest level, mobile hosts communicate with mobile support
stations in each cell, which are in turn controlled by a "supervisor
host".
C.
The supervisor host is connected to the wired network and serves
as the point where the connection is split.
d ATCP client exists at the supervisor host.
e.
The TCP client receives the segment from the TCP sender and
passes it to an M -TCP client to send it to the wireless device.
f Thus, between the sender and the supervisor host, standard TCP
is used, while M-TCP is used between the supervisor host and the
wireless device.
M-TCP is designed to recover quickly from wireless losses due to
disconnections and to eliminate serial timeouts.
h. TCP on the supervisor host does not accept ACK packets it receives
until the wireless device has acknowledged them.
91 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
This preserves end to end semantics, preserves the sender timeout
estimate based on the whole round trip time, and handles mobility
of the host with minimal state transformation.
Que 2.23. What kind of problem may arise, if TCP is implemented

over wireless networks ? Explain. UPTU2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
links
The wired networks are relatively reliable as compared to the wireless and
and so TCP assumes congestion to be the main cause of any packet loss,
of a
(part
invokes congestion control measures at the source. Wireless links
heterogeneous network) bring some serious problems with them:
1. Bit Error Rate (BER):
Wireless hosts use radio transmission or infrared wave transmission
a.
for communication.
b.
The BER of wireless links is typically higher than that of wired
networks.
C.
Also the wireless environment changes quickly, and so the BER
also varies by a large amount.
d.
The bit error rates of 10 or worse are coinmon on wireless links.
2 Bandwidth :
a Wireless links offer very less bandwidth (2 Mbps) as compared to
the wired links (10-100Mbps).
b Optimum use of available bandwidth is a major issue in
heterogeneous networks that has to be taken care of.
3. Round TripTime (RTT):
a
The wireless media exhibits longer latencies than wired media in
the case of satellite networks.
b. It is almost the same as in wired networks since radio waves travel
at the speed of light which is same as the transmission speeds in
wired media.
C Since the bandwidth is lower in wireless networks a packet takes
longer to get transmitted in wireless networks.
d This affects overall throughput and increases interactive delays.
e. Different versions of TCP pour data in the network depending on
the incoming acknowledgements, which depends on RTT.
f Thus networks (especially WANs) with high bandwidth-delay
product are severely affected.
4 Mobility:
a. Addition of mobile devices introduces huge amount of indeterminate
mobility in rather a stationary network.
b. This tends to introduce some amount of instability in existing
network topology.
C. Wireless hosts may move from one cell to another during handoffs.
d. During this movement the data sent to the wireless host by the old
base station is lost, since the mobile host has moved out of range.
e. Similarly, data sent by mobile host to the old base station is also lost
as it is out of range of the old base station.
5 Power consumption :
a. Mobile host has limited power and smaller processing capacity as
compared to base stations, which tend to introduce inefficiency in
the network.
b. Solutions that take power consumption into account have a clear
cut advantage over the otherwise designed solutions.
Que 2.24. Explain data broadcasting.

Answer
Data broadcasting :
1. Broadcast systems are classified as unidirectional distribution systems.
These are considered as asymmetric communication systems.
2, The reason for being asymmetric is bandwidth limitations, differences
in transmission power and cost factors.
3. Symmetrical communication system provides communication in both
directions.
4 The channelcharacteristics such as bandwidth and delay from A to B is
same as B to A.
5 For example, symmetrical communication system is the telephone line
in which the bandwidth is same for the subscriber and
receiver.
6 Asymmetric communication system provides one way communication.
7. Examples are pagers, radio system etc., in which device or the user can
only receive information.
8 Aspecial case of asymmetrical
communication systems are unidirectional
broadcast system where high bandwidth exists from one sender
receivers.
to many
9. For example, client/server environment.
10. One important issue of
data. Broadcast systemsunidirectional broadcasting is cyclic
are classified into two categories: repetition of
a. Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
b. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
Cyclic repetition of data:
1 The sender of data does not know when a receiver starts to listen to the
transmission.
2. The transmission of important information such as traffic or weather
conditions has to be repeated after certain amount of timne.
3 The cyclic repetition of data blocks sent through broadcast is called
"broadcast disk".
4 There are three different broadcast patterns:
a. Flat disk
b. Skewed disk
C. Multi disk
5 The sender repeats the three data blocks A, Band Cin a cycle.
6. Using a flat disk, all blocks are repeated one after another.
7 Every block is transmitted for an equal amount of time.
8 The average waiting time for receiving a block is same for A, B and C.
9 Multi-disks distribute blocks that are repeated more often than others
evenly over the cyclic pattern.
10. This minimizes the delay ifa user wants to access. For example, block A.
A B B CFlat disk
AA B A A Skewed disk
BA CA BMulti disk
Que 2.25. Explain mobile IP. List the entities of mobile IP.
Answer
Mobile IP:
1 Mobile IP (or IP mobility) is standard communication protocol that is
designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network to
another while maintaining a permanent IP address.
2. The mobile IP protocol was developed by the Mobile-IP Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) working group.
3. This protocol allows location-independent routing of IP datagram's on
the internet.
4. Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding of its
current location in the internet.
5 While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a
care-of-address which identifies its current location and its home address
is associated with the local end point of a tunnel to its home agent.
Wireless Networking
94 (IT-8) J
with its home agent and
6 Mobile IP specifies how a mobile node registersmobile node through the
the
how the home agent routes datagram to
tunnel.
mechanism for roaming within
7. Mobile IP provides an efficient, scalable
the internet.
point-of-attachment to the
8. Using mobile IP, nodes may change theiraddress.
internet without changing their home IP
higher layer connections
9. This allows them to maintain transport and
while roaming.
propagate host-specific
10. Node mobility is realized without the need to
routes throughout the internet routing fabric.
to future devices.
11. Mobile IP is a protocol which provides IP mobility
entities of mobile IP:
Entities of mobile IP: Following are the important
COA
Router Router
Home FA MN
network HA
Internet
I Foreign
CN Router \network,'
Fig. 2.25.1. Mobile IP.
1. Mobile node (MN) :A system (node) that can change the point of
connection to the network without changing its IP address.
2. Home agent (HA):A system in the home network of the MN, typically
to the
a rcuter registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams
COA.
3. Foreign agent (FA) : A system in the current foreign network of the
MN,typically a router. It forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN,
typically also the default router for the MN.
4. Care-of-address (COA) :Address of the current tunnel end-point for
the MN (at FA or MN) actual location of the MN from an IP point of view,
it can be chosen, for example, via DHCP.
5. Correspondent node (CN) : Communication partner.
Que 2.26. What is mobile IP ? Discuss the goals of mobileIP. Also,
discuss the features of IPv4. UPTU 2011-12, Marks 10
Answer
Mobile IP:Refer Q. 2.25, Page 93J, Unit-2.
Goals of mobile IP:
1. Mobile IP was developed as a means for transparently dealing with
problems of mobile users.
95 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
small
2. Tomake the size and the frequency of required routing updates as
as possible.
3 To make it simple to implement mobile node software.
addresses.
4 To avoid solutions that requires mobile nodes to use multiple
Features of IPv4:
1. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines
the connection of a device to the internet.
2. IPv4 addresses are unique.
only
3. They are unique in the sense that each address defines one and
one connection to the internet.
Two devices on the internet can never have the same address at the
4.
same time.
5 On the other hand, if a device operating at the network layer has m
connections to the internet, it needs to have m addresses.
6. The IPy4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system
must be accepted by any host that wants tobe connected to the internet.
Que 2.27. List and define the entities of mobile IP and describe
data transfer from amobile node to a fixed node and vice-versa.
|UPTU2012-13, Marks 05
OR
List the entities of mobile IP and describe data transfer from a mobile
node to a fixed node and vice-versa. Why and where is encapsulation
needed ? UPTU2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Entities of mobile IP :Refer Q.2.25, Page 93J, Unit-2.

Working of mobile IP or packet delivery in mobile :
1. As shown in Fig. 2.27.1 CN (correspondent node) wants to transmit data
to MN (mobile node), the following steps occur :
CN wants to transmit an IP datagram to MN.
b. The home address of MN is advertised and known to CN,
C. CN does not know whether MN is in its home network or
somewhere else.
d. Therefore, CN sends the packet toMN with MN's home address as
destination IP address in the IP header.
2 At the MN's home network, the incoming IP datagram is intercepted by
the home agent.
Home Router Router

FA
(MN
network HA
4 I
Foreign i
I network
Internet
1-...
CN Router
Fig. 2.27.1. Packet delivery to and from the mobile node.

3 The home agent discovers that MN is in foreign network.
4 Acare-of-address has been allocated to MN by this foreign network and
this is available to the home agent.
5 The home agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new
datagram, with MN's care-of-address as destination IP address and this
new datagram is retransmitted by the home agent.
6 At the foreign network the foreign agent intercepts the incoming IP
packet.
7 The foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the original
datagram to MN.
8 MN intends to respond to this message and sends a message to CN.
9 Since CN is fixed in this example, therefore it has a fixed IP address.
10. MN sends the packet through the foreign agent directly to the static IP
address of CN.
Function of mobile IP:
1. Mobile agent discovery :
a.
The process of detectingamobility agent is quite similar to that by
internet nodes to detect routers running Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) messages according to Router Discovery (RFC
1256).
b The basic operation involves periodic broadcasts of advertisements
by the routers onto their directly attached sub-networks.
2 Pegistration :
a. Having received a COA, the MN has to register with HA.
b. The main purpose of the registration is to inform the HA of the
current location for correct forwarding of packets.
C. Registration can be done in two different ways depending on the
location of the COA:
i If the COA is at FA
97 (IT-8)J
Mobile Computing
If the COA is co-located
3. Tunneling and encapsulation :
tunnel
a. Atunnel establishesavirtual pipe for data packets between a
entry anda tunnel endpoint.
and
b. Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel
leave the tunnel unchanged.
C. Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel is achieved by
using encapsulation.
d Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of
new
packet header and data and putting it into the data part of a
packet.
data part of
e. The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the
another packet, is called de-capsulation.
f Encapsulation and de-capsulation are the operations typically
performed when a packet is transferred from a higher protocol
layer to a lower layer or from a lower to a higher layer respectively.
write
Que 2.28. Discuss the wireless application protocol. Als0,
the applications of WAP.
Answer
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP):
1. WAP provides internet services for mobile
and wireless devices.
2 The goal of WAP is to bring the internet
content such as web pages and
terminals
telephone services to digital cellular phone and other wireless
such as laptops and PDA's.
forum to frame
3 In 1997, Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia founded WAP
standards and protocol specification.
called
4 WAPintegrates a light weight web browser into hand-held devices
MICRO browser with limited computing and memory capacity.
internet
5 Several constraints in mobile wireless network in order to access
from mobile phone are :
a. Size and weight of mobile equipment (portable).
b.
Restricted user interface (small keypad and displays, lower memory).
C. Limited bandwidth and lower reliability due to high error data.
d Different WAP sets (different screen size and features).
e Different wireless bearer network like GSM, CDMA, GPRS.
f Security and integrity of user data, protection of services.
(for
6 The basic objectives of the WAP is to bring diverse internet content
example, web pages, push services) and other data services (for example,
98 (IT-8) J
Wireless Networking
stock quotes) to digital cellular phones and other wireless, mobile
terminals (for example, PDAs, laptops).
7. Moreover, a protocol suit should enable global wireless communication
across different wireless network technologies, for example, GSM,
CDPD,UMTS etc.
8 The forum is embracing and extending existing standards and
technologies of the internet wherever possible and is creating a
framework for the development of contents and applications that scale
across a very wide range of wireless bearer networks and wireless
device types.
WAP applications:
1. Handling information of all types.
2. Access to e-mail and chat.
3. Weather information.
4 Information about currency rates.
5. Online music support of WAP multimedia etc.
Que 2.29. Discuss WAP model.
Answer
1. The WAP programming model as shown in Fig 2.29.1 is similar to the
WwW programming model.
2. This provides several benefits to the application developer community,
including a familiar programming model, a proven architecture, and
the ability to leverage existing tools (for example web servers, XML
tools, etc.).
3 Optimizations and extensions have been made in order to match the
characteristics of the wireless environment.
4 Wherever possible, existing standards have been adopted or have been
used as the starting point for the WAP technology.
Client Gateway Origin Server

Encoded
Request Request CGI
WAE Encoders Seripts)
etc.
User and
Agent Encoded Decoders Response
Response (content) Content
Fig. 2.29.1. WAP programming model.

5. WAP defines a set of standard components that enable communication
between mobile terminals and network servers, including :
a. Standard naming model : WwW-standard URLs are used to
identify WAP content on origin servers.WWW -standard URIs are
used to identify local resources in a device, for example,call control
functions.
b. Content typing:All WAP content is given aspecific type consistent
with WWW typing. This allows WAP user agents to correctly process
the content based on its type.
C Standard content formats: WAP content formats are based on
wWW technology and include display markup, calendar
information, electronic business card objects, images and scripting
language.
d. Standard communication protocols : WAP communication
protocols enable the communication of browser requests from the
mobile terminal tothe network web server.
6. The WAP content types and protocols have been optimized for mass
market, hand-held wireless devices.
7. WAP utilizes proxy technology to connect between the wireless domain
and the WWw.
8. The WAP proxy typically is comprised of the following functionality :
a. Protocol gateway : The protocol gateway translates requests
from the WAP protocol stack (WSP, WTP, WTLS, and WDP) to the
wwW protocol stack (HTTP and TCP/IP).
b. Content encoders and decoders :The content encoders translate
WAP content into compact encoded formats to reduce the size of
data over the network.
Que 2.30. Discuss the following :

i. IEEE 802.11
ii. WAP applications UPTU 2011-12,Marks 10|
Answer
IEEE 802.11 : Refer Q. 2.12, Page 69J, Unit-2.
WAP applications : Refer Q. 2.28, Page 97J, Unit-2.
Que 2.31. Discuss the basic principle of WAPprotocol architecture.

Write down the applications of WAP. UPTU2013-14,Marks 05
OR
Explain the architecture and protocol stack of Wireless Application

Protocol (WAP). |UPTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Architecture / Protocol stack of WAP:
Internet WAP
A-SAP
HTML, Java Application layer (WAE) Additional
S-SAP services and
Session layer (WSP) applications
HTTP TR-SAP
Transaction layer (WTP)
SEC-SAP
SSL/TLS Security layer (WTLS)
T-SAP
TCP/IP, Transport layer (WDP) WCMP
UDP/IP, Bearers:
Media GSM IS 136 CDMA DHS CDPD PDC-P
Fig. 2.31.1. WAP layered Architecture and protocol stack.
Wireless application environment (WAE):

1 WAE is a general-purpose application environment based on a
combination of World Wide Web (WwW) and mobile telephony
technologies.
2. The primary objective of the WAE effort is to establish an interoperable
environment that will allow operators and service providers to build
applications and services that can reach a wide variety of different
wireless platforms in an efficient and useful manner.
3. WAE includes a micro-browser environment containing the following
functionality :
101 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
markup
markup language (WML) : A lightweighthand-held
a. Wireless optimized for use in
language, similar to HTML, but
mobile terminals.
:A lightweight scripting language, similar to JavaScript.

b. WML script
(WTA, WTAI) :Telephony
C. Wireless telephony application
interfaces.
services and programming
including
Content formats : A set of well-defined data formats,
d. calendar information.
images, phonebook records and
Wireless session protocol (WSP):
session protocol (WSP) provides the application layer of
1 The wireless two session services.
for
WAP with a consistent interface
a connection-oriented service that operates above the
2. The first is
transaction layer protocol WTP.
service that operates above a secure or
3. The second is a connectionless
non-secure datagram service (WDP).
wireless session protocols currently consist of services suited for
4. The
browsing applications (WSP/B).
functionality:
5 WSP/B provides the following
compact over-the-air
HTTP/1.1functionality and semantics in a
encoding.
b. Long-lived session state.
migration.
C. Session suspend and resume with session
unreliable data push.
d. A common facility for reliable and
e Protocol feature negotiation.
Wireless transaction protocol (WTP) :
as a light-weight
1. WTP runs on top of a datagram service and provides "thin"
transaction-oriented protocol that is suitable for implementation in
clients (mobile stations).
wireless datagram
2 WTP operates efficiently over secure or non-secure
networkS and provides the following features:
a Three classes of transaction service.
b Unreliable one-way requests.

C Reliable one-way requests.
d Reliable two-way request-reply transactions.
e. Asynchronous transactions.
Wireless transport layer security (WTLS):
1 WTLS is a security protocol based upon the industry-standard transport
layer security (TLS) protocol, formerly known as secure sockets layer
(SSL).
2 WTLS is intended for use with the WAP transport protocols and has
been optimized for use over narrow-band communication channels.
3 WTLS provides the following features:
a. Data integrity : WTLS contains facilities to ensure that data sent
between the terminal and an application server is unchanged and
uncorrupted.
C. Authentication : WTLS contains facilities to establish the
authenticity of the terminal and application server.
C. Denial-of-service protection : WTLS makes many typical denial
of-service attacks harder to accomplish and protects the upper
protocol layers.
4 WTLS may also be used for secure communication between terminals,
for example, for authentication of electronic business card exchange.
Wireless datagram protocol (WDP) :
1 The transport layer protocol in the WAP architecture is referred to as
the wireless datagram protocol (WDP).
2. The WDP layer operates above the data capable bearer services supported
by the various network types.
3 As a general transport service, WDP offers a consistent service to the
upper layer protocols of WAP and communicate transparently over one
of the available bearer services.
4. Since, the WDP protocols provide a common interface to the upper layer
protocols the security, session and application layers are able to function
independently of the underlying wireless network.
Bearers :
1. The WAP protocols are designed to operate over a variety of different
bearer services, including short message, circuit-switched data, and
packet data.
2 The bearers offer differing levels of quality of service with respect to

throughput, error rate, and delays.
3. The WAP protocols are designed to compensate for or tolerate these
varying levels of service.
4. The list of supported bearers will change over time with new bearers
being added as the wireless market evolves.
Other services and applications :
1. The WAP layered architecture enables other services and applications
to utilize the features of the WAP stack through a set of well-defined
interfaces.
2. External applications may access the session, transaction, security and
transport layers directly.
3. This allows the WAP stack to be used for applications and services not
currently specified by WAP, but deemed to be valuable for the wireless
market.
4. For example, applications, such as electronic mail, calendar, phone book,

notepad, end electronic commerce, or services, such as white and yellow
pages, mnay be developed to use the WAP protocols.
Application of WAP :Refer Q. 2.28, Page 97J, Unit-2.

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Describe briefly about wireless networking and its types.

Ans, Refer Q. 2.1.
Q. 2. Write a short note on :

i. Cell splitting
ii. Near and far problem
iii. Hidden terminal problem
Ane Refer Q. 2.9.
3
UNIT
Management Issues
Data
...(106J - 119J)
Part-1 ....
Data Management Issues

Data Replication for Mobile Computers
106J
A. Concept Outline : Part-1. 106J
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions
(119J - 132J)
Part-2.
Adaptive Clustering for Mobile Wireless Networks
File System
Disconnected Operations
120J
A. Concept Outline: Part-2. 120J
105 (IT-8) J
106 (IT-8) J Data Management Issues
PART- 1
Data Management Issues, Data Replication for Mobile Computers.
CONCEPT OUTLIN E: PART-1
Data management is a process of managing data asa resource
that is valuable to an organization or business.
Some of the issues of data management are :
a. Mobility
b. Wireless medium
C. Transaction management
d Portability of mobile devices
" Data replication generates and manages multiple copies of data
at one or more sites.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Discuss the different data management issues with

respect tomobile computing environments.
OR
Explain the issues and challenges of data management in third
generation mobile standards. |UPTU2012-13, Marks 05
OR
Describe the different data management issues related to mobile
computing. |UPTU2012-13, Marks 10
Answer
Data management issues in mobile computing :
i. In mobile computing, mostly mobile technology support broadcast data
managemnent mechanism.
ii. A server broadcast information to all mobile clients in its cell.
i. On the other hand, clients only access data when needed.
iv. These two facts introduce new mechanism for data
management
different from the traditional algorithms proposed for traditional client
server distributed database system.
iv. There are various issues in data managemnent:

1. Mobility (Location Management)
2 Wireless medium
3. Cache consistency and data replication
4. Broadcasting and data management
5. Transaction management
6. Wireless security isues
7. Portability of mobile devices
8. Issues related to QoS (Quality of Service)
1. Mobility :
The location of mobile elements and therefore their point of attachment
to the fixed network change as they move. So, in location management
the following issues arise :
a. How to know the current position of mobile unit?
b Where to store location information ?
of
C. Who should be responsible for determination and updation
information?
i Location management :
element is
The configuration of a system that includes mobile
not static. So in designing distributed algorithm we can no
more rely on a fixed topology.
deployed
To locate user, distributed location database are
user.
which maintain the current location of mobile
b Efficient data surfaces, algorithms, and query execution
and
plans must be devised for representing, managinga fast
elements, which is
querying the location of mobile
changing data.
reading and
C Location management involves searching,
updating the information.
ii. Heterogeneity:
a. Connectivity becomes highly variant in performance and
reliability.
may have to rely
b. For instance, outdoors, a mobile client it may
on low bandwidth network, while inside a building
be offered reliable high bandwidth connectivity.
The number of devices in a network cell changes with
C.
the base station and
time and so do both the load at
bandwidth availability.
Wireless medium :
offers less bandwidth, and are
Wireless networks are more expensive,
networks.
less reliable than wireline
a. Weak and intermittent connectivity :
Wireless communication faces many obstacles because the
surrounding environment interacts with the signal.
Since the bandwidth is divided among the users sharing a cell,
the deliverable bandwidth per user is lower.
iüi. Data transmission over air is currently monetarily expensive.
b. Variant connectivity :
i. Wireless technologies vary on the degree of bandwidth and
reliability they provide.
C. Broadcast facility :
i There is a high bandwidth broadcast channel from the base
station to all mobile clients in its cell.
d. Tariffs
i. For some networks, network access charged per message (for
example, packet radio), while for others, it is charged per
connection time (for example, in cellular telephones).
3. Portability :
a. Mobile elements are resource poor when compared to static
elements :
Mobile elements must be light and small to be easily carried
around.
Such consideration will keep mobile elements having less
resource than static elements including memory,screen size
and disk capacity.
This results in asymmetry between static and mobile elements.
b. Mobile elements rely on battery :
i. Even with advances in battery technology, this concern will
not cease to exist.
i. Concern for power consumption must span various levels in
hardware and software design.
i . Mobile elements are easier to be accidentally damaged, stolen
or lost. Thus, they are less secure and reliable than static
elements.
4. Cache consistency and data replication :
a. In mobile computing,caching is useful during frequent relocation
and connection to different database servers.
b. Caching offrequently accessed data items is an important technique
that reduces contention on the smallwireless networks.
C. This will improve query response time and to support disconnected
or weakly connected operations.
d. Cache consistency is impend by both the disconnection and mobility
of client, since a server may be unaware of the current locations
and connection status of client.
109 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
e. This problem can be solved by the server, by periodically broadcasting
either the actual data, invalidation report, or even control
information such as log tables or logs.
f. Replicating the data objects is essential to increase availability and
performance.
Replicated systems need to provide support for disconnected mode,
data divergence, application defined reconciliation procedures and
optimistic concurrency control.
h. Replication raised many issues by relocated data and mobility of
user and services:
level of
i. How to manage data replications, providing the
consistency, durability and availability needed ?
How to locate objects of interest ?
replicate the
ii. What are the conditions under which we need to
data on a mobile site?
5. Broadcasting and data management :
Broadcast scheduling is another issue to investigate.
b. Generally more number of data to be broadcast, the more requests
reduce the
will be served from the data broadcast and this will
chance of mobile clients to send the request to the server.
will
C. However, at a certain point the advantage of the broadcast data
be diminished if there is too many data in the broadcast cycle.
d. Consequently, it will severely affect the query response time since
mobile users have to wait for considerably long delay before they
receive the desired data.
that
e Therefore, it is essential to decide what data to be broadcast
pattern is
serves most of the requests since the query access
changed dynamically.
modes : On
f. Data broadcast can be managed with three different
demand (pull-based), push-based and hybrid.
6. Transaction management :
Atransaction in mobile environment is different than
the transaction in
the centralized or distributed database in the following ways:
a. The mobile transactions might have to split their computations into
a mobile host while
sets of operations, some of which execute on
others execute on stationary host.
b A mobile transaction shares its states and partial results
with other
transaction due to disconnection and mobility.
C The mobile transactions require computations and communications
to be supported by stationary host.
d.
As the mobile host move from one cell to another, the state to
transaction, states of accessed data objects, and the location
information also move.
e. The mobile transactions are long-lived transactions due to mobility
of both data and users and due to frequent
disconnections.
f. The mobile transaction should support and handle concurrency
recovery, disconnection and mutual consistency of replicated data
object.
7. Wireless security issues:
To build an information security system, the following issues are raised:
a. Who is the attacker ?
b What are the vulnerabilities ? What are the weak links in the
system ?
C. What could be the possible exploitations of these vulnerabilities by
the resulting attack?
d What need special protection?
e. To protect our assets from attack how much does the security
system cost in terms of money resources and time ?
f. When security system is deployed, to what extent will it affect the
openness and add to inconvenience ?
Is prevention better than cure ? If prevention is expensive or
impractical, what is the strategy to recover from the loss following
an attack ?
Issues relating to Quality of Service :

a. Quality of Service (QoS) in a mobile network is affected due to
network connectivity.
b. QoS tools measures the bandwidth availability, which controls data
transfer rates, connection reliability and data-loss risks.
C Mobile device applications adapt to QoS. QoS is an important
consideration in distributed multimedia sreams.
d QoS is important for adaption of visual displays on small screen to
acertain sustainable level in case of loss of connectivity and loss of
frames.
Que 3.2. Discuss the impact of mobile computing on transaction
processing.
OR
Discuss the impact of mobile computing on following aspects of
data management :
Data dissemination
ii. Query processing
ii. Caching
iv. Database overflow UPTU2014-15, Marks 10
Mobile Conmputing 111(IT-8) J
Answer
a. Transaction processing :
1 Mobile transactions are, in general, distributed transactions where
some actions are performed in mobile computers and others in
fixed hosts.
2. It follows the ACID properties, i.e., atomicity, consistency, isolation
and durability.
3. These properties are hard to enforce, especially when the mobile
computers are disconnected.
4. In the disconnected case, techniques like two phase locking and
two phase commit may seriously affect the availability of the
database system.
5. For example, when a disconnected mobile computer owns a lock
over database items or if other computers are waiting for the mobile
computer to know ifit is ready to perform a commit or not.
6. Therefore, it is necessary to provide transaction support for mobile
environments.
7. Thus, transaction management is a core component of modern
database systems.
b. Data dissemination :
1. Generally data dissemination is done by using broadcasting.
2. Broadcasting consists of the delivery of data from a server to a
large set of clients.
3 Sometimes, it is also called push based. In push based, the server
avoids interruptions caused by requests ofclients and optimizes the
use of the bandwidth in the upstream direction.
4 The main aspects of the broadcasting system are the clients need
and whether to send the data periodically or aperiodically.
5 Periodic push means allowing clients to disconnect for certain periods
and stillnot miss out items.
6 Aperiodic dissemination means effective way of using bandwidth
available.
7 Broadcasting can be achieved by using multicast addresses.
8 The server sends data to a group of clients using the same address.
There also exist pull based and push based approach.
9 In pullbased operations, clients explicitly request items by sending
messages to the server,which in turn send the information back to
the clients.
C. Query processing :
1. Query processing is aflected when mobility is considered.
112 (IT-8)J Data Management Issues
2. Generally query optimization methods are tried to obtain execution
plans which minimize CPU, input/output and communication costs.
3 In a mobile distributed environment, the communication costs are
much more difficult toestimate because the mobile hosts may be
suited in different locations.
4 The work related to query processing in mobile computing tells
how to deal with queries with location constraints, i.e., queries that
involve the individual locations of users.
5 Because the location of users is not exact in position, they are much
more dynamic.
d. Caching :
1 Caching is a widely used mechanism for improving data access
performance and availability.
2. The main difference between caching and replication is that the
former occurs after the retrieval and use of the data while the
latter in apriori way.
3 Especially in a wireless mobile environment, caching of frequently
accessed data in a mobile node's local storage can reduce energy
and bandwidth consumption as well as query delays, while at the
same time increasing the system's flexibility in cases of disconnection.
4. However, a fundamental issue when considering caching policies is
data consistency.
5 A
client must always ensure that data in its cache is up-to-date in
order to be able to provide valid responses in submitted queries.
e. Database overflow:
1 Inapersonal communication service (PCS) network, mobile database
called visitor location registers (VLRs) are utilized to temporarily
store the subscription data and the location information for the
roaming users.
2 Because of user mobility, it is possible that the VLR is full when a
mobile user arrives.
3. Under such a circumstance, the incoming user has no VLR record
and thus cannot receive PCS service.
4 This issue is called VLR overflow or database overflow in mobile
computing.
Que 3.3. Write short note on mobile database. Also discuss the
need and architecture of mobile database.
Answer
Mobile database :
1. A mobile database is a database that can be connected to a mobile
computing device over a mobile network.
2. The client and server have wireless connections.

3. Acache is maintained to hold frequent data and transactions so that
they are not lost due to connection failure.
4. A
database is a structured way to organize information.
5. This could be alist of contacts, price information or distance travelled.
6 In mobile database, user would require to access and update information
from files in the home directories on a server or customer records from
a database.
7. This type of access and workload generated by such users is different
from the traditional workload seen in client server systems of today.
8 With the advent of mobile database, users can load up their smart phones
or PDA with mobile database toexchange data remotely without worrying
about time or distance.
Information can be synchronized with a server database at a later time.
Need for mobile databases :
1 Mobile users must be able to work without a wireless connection due to
poor or even non-existent connections.
2 Applications must provide significant interactivity.
Applications must be able to access local device/vehicle hardware such
3.
as printers, barcode scanners or GPS units.
4 Bandwidth must be conserved.
5 Usersdo not require access to truly live data, but only recently modified
data.
6. Limited life of power supply.
7. The changing topology of network.
Mobile database architecture :
1. In mobile computing, the network consists of fixed hosts (FHs), mobile
units(MUs) and base stations (BSs) or mobile support station (MSS).
2 MUs are connected to the wired network components only through BS
via wireless channels.
3 Here MUs are battery portable computers, which move around freely in
a restricted area.
4 The cell size restriction is mainly due to the limited bandwidth of wireless
communication channel.
5. At any given instant a MU communicateonly with the BS responsible of
its cell.
A
mobile unit (MU) changes its location and network connection
while computations are being processed.
b. While in motion, a mobile host retains its network connectious
through BS with wireless connection.
C. BSs and FHs perform the transaction and data management
functions with the help of database system (DBS)component to
incorporate database processing capability without affecting any
aspects of the generic mobile network.
Fixed Host
MU
MU
DBS
MU
(BS) Fixed Host
DBS
Fig. 3.3.1. Mobile database architecture.

Que 3.4. What isdata replication ?
OR
How does mobility affect data replicating on mobile platform ? Explain.
OR
How does mobility affect data replication when we consider
replicating on mobile platform ? |UPTU2013-14, Marks 10|
Answer
Data replication :
1. Data replication generates and manages multiple copies of data at one
or more sites, which allows an enterprise to share corporate data
throughout its organization.
2. It provides a backup system in case of system failure.
3. Data replication is a technique that was initially used in traditional
distributed environment to increase data availability and to improve
system performance.
4 These environments are characterized by a fixed infrastructure where
the user uses fixed machines that have sufficient resources and are
permanently connected to the network.
5 These characteristics are not verified in mobile environn1ents.
6 In this case, user devices such as laptops, PDAs and mobile phones have
limited memory space, disk space, battery power and process or capacity.
7. These limitations may prevent the replication system from creating and
placing replicas on the user device.
8. In mobile environment, the user may also change his device to access a
service.
9 So, the diversity of devices and consequently the context of use of services
or an application must be taken into account.
10. Infact the mobile environments are characterized by a frequent change
in their resources which comes from various sources such as the nature
of wireless network itself, the mobility of users and multi-terminal access.
11. This change may influence data replication because the creation of and
access to these data may need a set of resources.
12. For example, confidential data like credit card number may not be
replicated and exchanged across non-secure nodes and links.
13. Thus, variation in the level of security may prevent the user from
accessing this data.
14. So,a traditional system is not able to satisfy the client's request.
15. To ensure service continuity, the replication system functionalities like
creation, placement, read, write and consistency operation must be
adapted toall variations in resources that data may need.
Que 3.5. How the data replication works ?
Answer
1 Replication can be provided in many forms.
2 The basic objective of the replication technique is to improve the
performance and to increase the data availability and consistency.
3 The principle functionalities of a replication system are :
a. Replica creations b. Replica placement
C. Read/write operations d. Replica consistency
Application
Required
context repository HApplication
Replica
planner interface
Provided Application
Localization Strategy
manager manager context Trigger
repository
Consistency
manager
System state Context

monitor analyser
Environment
Fig. 3.5.1.
4. Replica planner is responsible for the creation and placement of replicas

on nodes.
5. The localization manager locates replicas for read/write operations and
then performs these operations.
6. The consistency manager ensures replica consistency by exchanging
and update message after each write operation and resolving update
conflicts.
7. The application interface and the context analyser provide context and
information respectively.
8. Next they store this change in required context repository and then
they notify different modules (replica planner, localization manager,
consistency manager) of this change.
9. To improve the performance and to increase data availability and
consistency our replication system monitors its own state.
10. The state is represented by all these above parameters.
11. The system state monitor detects the persistent change in these
parameters and notifies the replica planner, localization manager and
consistency manager of this change.
12. The strategy configuration is carried out at the application deployment
time.
13. While the replication strategy reconfiguration is carried out at application

run time.
14. After receiving the notification from the application trigger modules,
the strategy manager choose the adapted strategy, ensures system
consistency and implements this strategy in same or all modules (replica
planner, localization manager and consistency manager).
Que 3.6. Discuss different possible replicating strategies.
Answer
Data replications strategies : Replication can be provided in numerous
forms and combinations. There are mainly three strategies of replications :
1. Synchronous replication :
a.
Synchronous replication is atechnique for replicating data between
databases (or file systems) where the system being replicated does
wait for the data to have been recorded on the duplicate system
before proceeding.
b Under synchronous data replication strategy, updates are applied
toall database replicas of an object as part of the original transaction.
C The database replicas are then kept in a state of synchronization.
d. In synchronous replication, if one or more sites that hold replicas
are unavailable, transaction cannot complete.
117 (1T-8) J
Mobile Computing
e Also, a large number of messages required to coordinate
synchronization.
2. Asynchronous replication :
Asynchronous replication is a technique for replicating data between
does
databases (or files systems) where the system being replicated
not wait for the data tohave been recorded on duplicate system
before proceeding.
database
b. Here the target database is updated after the source
modified.
seconds
C. Also, the delay in regaining consistency may range from few
to several hours or even days.
d Asynchronous replication has the advantage of speed, at the
increased risk of the data loss during communication or duplicate
system failure.
for server and
e It is the latest technology to provide fault tolerance
network storage.
asynchronous
Unlike previously used replications technology, files at the
replication technology works by capturing changes in
operating system level (byte level).
replication works
As previous technology like SQL transaction,
within applications or at hardware layer.
3. Push and pull data replication : replication (a
a Push data replication strategy includes both snapshot
only the publishing sites
single updater form of replication wherereplication schemes.
can update the data) and near real time
b. Snapshot data replications is best suited
to applications which are
not in need of current data.
data mining as
C Such applications are found in data warehousing or
wellas non-real time decision support systems.
triggers that are stored at
d A near real time replication employs of replicated
each local database and executes each time a part
other remote
database is updated, propagating the changes to the
database.
independent
e Triggers allow the database to update transparently and
of the programs and users.
controls the data replication
f In the push strategy, the source data schemes, the local
procedures while with pull data replication
database determine the replication processes.
when replication is to
In push replication, a publisher site controls
subscribers.
occur and 'pushes' the changes out to the
when they
h While in pullreplication, the subseriber sites determine
wish to receive replication transactions.
118 (1T-8) J Data Management Issues
i. Here publisher is the originator of a replicated database change
and subscriber is a receiver of a replicated database change.
Asubscriber may also be a publisher and a publisher may also be a
subscriber so it is a bi-directional scheme.
Que 3.7. Discuss the concept of index replication. What purpose
it serves in mobile computing environment ?
Answer
Index replication:
1 Mobile computing environment have two major restrictions, i.e.,
bandwidth limitation and energy restriction.
2 Bandwidth limitation shows that there are very narrow bandwidths
that can be used for wireless communication.
3 Energy restriction shows the mobile computing devices usually use
batteries as their main energy sources.
4 Data broadcasting is a mechanism that can efficiently cope with the
above discussed limitations.
5. Server sends data stream to a large number of unspecified clients and
the clients receive the broadcast data.
6 As clients do not send requests to the server and the energy consumed
in sending data is much larger than that in receiving data, data
broadcasting isenergy-efficient.
7. It is also bandwidth-eficient because many clients share the broadcasting
channel.
8. Mobile units provide two kinds of operating modes, i.e., active and doze
mode.
9. The energy consumption in doze mode is about 1000 times less than that
in active mode.
10. The index" on wireless broadcast data stream enables the mobile unit
toremain in doze mode when it need not read the broadcast data.
11. Without the index, all data stream must be read from the time the data
access request is initiated to the time, the required data are completely
downloaded.
12. However, by using the index, client reads only some index portions in
the broadcast stream and recognizes the appropriate address of the
target data.
13. After obtaining the address, i.e., the temporal offset from the index to
the data, the client can remain in doze mode until the target data are
delivered.
14. The amount of time elapsed from the moment a client asks for data to
the time it receives appropriate data is called access time". The "tuning
time" is the amount of time for which the client actually listens to the
channel.
15. The major index replication schemes that have been developed so far
are (I, M) indexing and distributed indexing. (I, M) indexing replicates
the global index by Mtimes. This can reduce the tuning time for searching
index buckets in the broadcast stream.
16. Distributed indexing organizes the index structure hierarchically and
replicates some part of indexes appropriately. It performs better than (I,
M) indexing with respect to the tuning time, i.e., it is more energy
efficient.
17. A data bucket is the bucket whose contents are data.
18. A bucket whose contents are directory information is called an index

bucket.
19. The broadcast data stream, called "bcast", is composed of indexes and
data.
20. The index nodes that are replicated are called "control index nodes, and
rest are called non-control index nodes.
21. Index replication scheme replicates control index buckets in front of
their children when constructing broadcasts. The client remains in doze
mode between index probes.
Procedure:
Tune in broadcast., obtain the temporal offset of the next control index
1
bucket and go to doze mode.
2
Tune in again at the time of the appropriate index. Determine,on the
basis of the address value in the control index and the target data id,
whether to :
a. When the requested data had already passed over, go to doze
mode again until the beginning of the next broadcast and proceed
as in (3).
b. Otherwise, tune in again at the appropriate index.
3. Following the sequence of index probes, obtain the data.
PART-2
Adaptive Clustering for Mobile Wireless Networks, File Systemn
and Disconnected Operations.
CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2

Clustering is a process of organizing data objects intogroups
whose members are similar in some manner.
Adaptive clustering works on wirelesS network infrastructure,
which is fast and deployable.
The CODA (Constant Data Availability) file system helps to
maximize the client/server ratio.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.8. Explain clustering. What are the requirements and

application areas of clustering ?
Answer
Clustering :
1. Clustering is the process of organizing data objects into groups whose
members are similar in some manner.
2. A cluster is therefore a collection of similar type of objects and the
objects that are dissimilar of them belonging to other clusters.
3. The criteria for similarity in clustering can be distance i.e., two or more
objects belong to the same cluster if they are "close" according to a given
geometrical distance.
4 This kind of clustering is called distance-based clustering.
5. Another kind of clustering is conceptual clustering, in this two or more
objects belong to the same clusier if one defines a concept common to all
that objects.
6. It means that objects are grouped according to their fit to descriptive
concepts, not according to simple similarity measures.
Requirements of clustering:
The main requirements that a clustering algorithm should satisfy are :
1. Minimal requirements for domain
knowledge to determine input
parameters.
2. High dimensionality.
3 Discovering clusters with arbitrary shape.
4
Scalability.
5. Dealing with different types of attributes.
6. Interpretability and usability.
Applications areas of clustering :

1. Biology:Classification of plants and animals according to their features.
2. Library: Ordering of books.
3. Marketing : Finding groups of customers with similar behaviour given
a large database of customer data containing their properties and past
buying records.
4. City-Planning: Identifying groups of housesaccording to their house
type, value and geographical location.
5. WwW:Classification of documents and clustering the web data to
discover groups of similar access patterns.
Que 3.9.What do you understand by clustering? How clustering
is used for mobile wireless networks ? Discuss.
OR
Explain adaptive clustering for mobile wireless networks.
Answer
Clustering: Refer Q. 3.8, Page 120J,Unit-3.
Adaptive clustering:
1. Adaptive clustering works on wireless network infrastructure, which is
fast, and deployable.
2. The first infrastructure of this type was the Packet Radio Network
(PRNET).
3. It was totally asynchronous and based on a completely distributed
architecture.
4. One of the features of adaptive clustering is multihopping.
5. Multihopping means the ability of the radios to relay packets from one
to another without the base stations.
6. Most of the nomadic computing applications are based on a single-hop
radio connection to the wired network.
7. We may show single-hop and multihop with the help of following
diagram:
8
Fig. 3.9.1. Conventional cellular networks (single-hop).

8 In the Fig. 3.9.1, a mobile node is only one hop away from a base station.
9. Communications between two mobile nodes must be through fixed base
stations and the wired backbone.
10. Ifabase station fails, a mobile node may not be able to access the wired
network in a single-hop.
11. Fig. 3.9.2 shows the multihop situation.
3 8
B
D
6
Fig. 3,9.2. Multihop situation occurs when base station B fails.
Que 3.10.What is multicluster architecture ?

Answer
1. A major challenge in multihop multimedia networks is the ability to
account for resources so that bandwidth reservations can be placed on
them.
2. In cellular (single-hop) networks such accountability is made easy by
the fact that all stations learn of each other's requirements, either
directly, or througha control station (for example, base station in cellular
systems).
3. This solution can be extended to multihop networks by ereating clusters
of radios, in such a way that access can be controlled and bandwidth can
be allocated in each cluster.
4. The notion of cluster has been used in earlier packet radio nets, but
mainly for hierarchical routing rather than for resource allocation.
5. Most hierarchical clustering architectures for mobile radio networks
are based on the concept of clusterhead.
6.
The clusterhead acts as a local coordinator of transmissions within the
cluster.
7. It differs from the base station concept in current cellular systems, in
that it does not have special hardware and in fact is dynamically selected
among the set of stations.
8. However, it does extra work with respect to ordinary stations, and
therefore it may become the bottleneck of the cluster.
9. To overcome these difficulties, we eliminate the requirements for a
chusterhead altogether and adopt afully distributed approach for cluster
formation and intra-cluster communications.
10. The objective of the proposed clustering algorithm is to find an
interconnected set of clusters covering the entire node population.
11. The system topology is divided into clusters with independent control.
12. Agood clustering scheme will tend to preserve its structure when a few
nodes are moving and the topology is slowly changing.
13. Otherwise, high processing and communications overheads will be paid
to re-construct clusters.
14. Within a cluster, it should be easy to schedule packet transmissions and

to allocate the bandwidth to real time traffic.
15. Across clusters, the spatial reuse of codes must be exploited.
16. Since there is no notion of clusterhead, each node within a cluster is
treated equally.
17. This permits us to avoid vulnerable centers and hot spots of packet
traffic flow.
Que 3.11. What is multicluster architecture ? Discuss any one

algorithm required to partition the network into several clusters.
UPTU 2013-14,Marks 10
OR
Explain clustering algorithm.
Answer
Multicluster architecture: Refer Q. 3.10, Page 122J, Unit-3.

Clustering algorithm :
1. The objective of the clustering algorithm is to partition the network into
several clusters.
2. Optimal cluster size is dictated by the tradeoff between spatial reuse of
the channel (which drives toward small sizes), and delay minimization
(which drives towards large size).
3. Cluster size is controlled through the radio transmission power.
4. For the cluster algorithm, we have so far assumed that transmission
power is fixed and is uniform across the network.
5 Within each cluster, nodes can communicate with each other in at most
two hops. The clusters can be constructed based on node ID.
6. The following algorithm partitions the multihop network into some
non-overlapping clusters.
7. We make the following operational assumptions underlying the
construction of the algorithm in a radio network.
124 (IT-8)J Data Management Issues
8. These assumptions are common to most radio data link protocols.
a, Al :Every node has a unique D and knows the IDs of its 1
hop neighbours. This can be provided by a physical layer for
mutual location and identification of radio nodes.
b. A2:A message sent by a node is receiving correctly within a
finite time by all its 1-hop neighbours.
C. A3: Network topology does not change during the algorithm
execution.
9. We can find from this algorithm that each node only broadcasts one
cluster message before the algorithm stops, and the time complexity is
O|V)where Vis the set of nodes.
10. The custering algorithm converges very rapidly.
11. In the worst case, the convergence is linear in the total number of
nodes. Consider the topology in Fig. 3.11.1.
1213
14 15
16
10 17
6
20
19 18
9
(a) System topology
C 13
C14
12
14 15
2 3 11 16
17
20
19 18
C18
(b) Cluster formation
Fig. 3.11.1.
12. After clustering in Fig. 3.11.1(b), we can find six clusters in the system,
which are (1, 2), (3, 4, 11), (5, 6, 7, 8, 9), (10, 12, 13), (14, 15, 16, 17), (18,
19, 20).
13. To prove the correctness of the algorithm we have to show that:
Every node eventually determines its cluster and only one cluster.
b In a cluster, any two nodes are at most two hop away.
C. The algorithm terminates.
Distributed Clustering Algorithm (T)

G:the set of ID's of my one-hope neighbours
if (my_id == min(T)
{
my_cid my_id;
broadcast cluster (my_id, my_cid);
T=I-(my_id);
for(;;)
on receiving clustered (id, cid)
set the cluster ID of node id tocid;

if(id== id and (my_cid == UNKNOWN or my_cid> cid)
my_cid > cid;
T=[-{id};
if(my_id == main(T))
if (my_cid == UNKNOWN) my_cid = my_id;

broadcast cluster (my_id, my_cid);
G=G- (my_id};
if (T ==0) stop;
Que 3.12. What was the motivation for designing the CODA
system ? Discuss CODA file system in detail.
OR
Explain CODA file system.
Answer
1. CODA was designed to be a scalable, secure, and highly available
distributed file system.
2 An important goal was to achieve a high degree of naming and location
transparency so that the system would appear to its users very similar
to a pure local file system.
3 By also taking high availability into account, the designers of CODA
have also tried to reach a high degree of failure transparency.
4. CODA is a descendant of version 2 ofthe Andrew file system (AFS), and
inherits many of its architectural features.
5. CODA follows the same organization as AFS.
6 Every Virtue workstation hosts a user-level process called Venus, whose
role is similar to that of an NFSclient.
7. AVenus process is responsible for providing access to the files that are
maintained by the Vice file servers.
8. In CODA, venus is also responsible for allowing the client to continue
operation even if access to the file servers is (temporarily) impossible.
9 This additional role is a major difference with the approach followed in
NFS.
10. The important issue is that Venus runs as a user-level process.
11. Again, there is a separate Virtual File System (VFS) layer that intercepts
all calls from client applications, and forwards these calls either to the
local file system or toVenus.This organization with VES is the same as
in NFS.
12. Venus, in turn, communicates with Vice file servers usinga user- level
RPC system. The RPC system is constructed on top of UDP datagrams
and provides at-most-once semantics. There are three different server
side processes. The great majority of the work is done by the actual
Vice file servers, which are responsible for maintaining a local collection
of files.
13. Like Venus, a fle server runs as a user-level process. In addition, trusted
Vice machines are allowed to run an authentication server. Finally,
update processes are used to keep meta information on the file system
consistent at each Vice server.
14. CODA appears to its users as a traditional UNIX-based file system. It
supports most of the operations that form part of the VFS specification.
15. Unlike NFS, CODA provides a globally shared name space that is
maintained by the Vice servers. Clients have access to this namespace
by means of a special subdirectory in their local namespace.
16. Whenever a client looks up a name in this subdirectory, Venus ensures
that the appropriate part of the shared namespace is mounted locally.
Mobile client
Application Cache--Server
Fig.3.12.1. Coda architecture.
Transparent access
to a Vice file server
Virtue client
Vice file server

Fig. 3.12.2. The overall organization of AFS.
Que 3.13. Discuss the communication of CODAfile system.
Answer
1. Communication in CODA is done through remote procedure call (RPC)
and RPC2 systems.
2 In the call, each time a remote procedure called then RPC2 client code
starts a new thread that sends an invocation request to the server and
gets block until receives an answer.
3. In this case requesting process may take arbitrary time and server
sends message to client regularly.
4. If server fails to give response then side effects work.
5. A side effect is a mechanism by which the client and server can
communicate using an application specific protocol.
6 RPC2 allows the client and the server to set up a separate connection for
transferring the video data to the client on time.
7 Connection setup is done as a side effect of an RPC call to the server.
8 Venus runs as a user-level process. There is a separate virtual file
system (VFS) layer that intercepts all calls from client applications, and
forwards these calls either tothe local file system or to venus as shown
in Fig. 3.13.1.
9. Venus communicates with vice file servers using a user-level Remote
Procedure Call (RPC system).
10. The RPCsystem is constructed on top of UDP datagrams and provides
at-most-once semantics.
Client
Server
application
RPC
Application-specific
protocol
Client side Server side
effect effect
RPC client RPCprotocol RPC server

Stub stub
Fig. 3.13.1. Side effects in Coda's RPC2 system.
11. An important design issue in CODA is that server keeps track of which
clients have a local copy of a file.
12. When fle is modified, a server invalidates local copies by notifying the
appropriate clients through an RPC.
13. Ifa server can notify only one client at a time, invalidating all clients
may take some time as shown in Fig. 3.13.2(a).
14. Hence the problem is caused by the fact that an RPC may fail. To
overcome this problem, the server sends an invalidation message to all
clients in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.13.2 (b).
129 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Client Client
Reply Invalidate Reply

Server
Server
Reply Reply
Invalidate Invalidate
Client Client
Time Time
(b)Sending invalidation
(a) Sending an invalidation message in parallel
message one at a time
Fig. 3.13.2.
Processes in CODA:In CODA file system, clients are represented by

vice processes. Both
venus processes whereas servers appear as
concurrent threads. Threads
processes are organized as a collection of
in CODA are not preemptive.
into units
Naming inCODA:In CODA fle system, all files are grouped collection
referred to as volumes. Generally, a volume corresponds to a
of files associated with a user.
replicated and
File Identifiers : The collection of shared files are
physical as well
distributed across multiple vice servers. CODA contains
as logical volume. Alogical volume contains replicated physical volume
and replicated volume identifier (RVID). Each pbysical volume has its
96-bit file identifier to the
own volume identifier (VID). CODA assigns
file system.
explain the features
Que 3.14. Discuss the security in CODA. Also,
of CODA.
Answer
Generally, the security in CODA isdivided into two parts:

1.
Authentication and secure connection : In this case, RPC2 package
clients
works. This package has a mechanism for security authenticating
to server and vice-versa.
2.
Access control and protection database : The directory access
control list protects the files on coda server.
Features of CODA:
1. Itis freely available under a liberal license.
2 Server replication.
3. Security model for authentication, encryption, and access
control.
4. Well defined semantics of
sharing, even in the presence of network
failure.
5 Good scalability.
6 Continued operation during partial network failures in server network.
Que 3.15. What do you mean by CODAfile system and also
explain
the clients in C0DA ? How are disconnected
operations performed
in CODA ?
Answer
Coda file system:Refer Q. 3.12, Page 126J, Unit-3.
Disconnected operations in CODA:
1.
Disconnected operations is a mode of operations that enables a client to
continue accessing critical data during temporary failures of shared
data repository.
2. It is a temporary deviation from normal
operation as a client of a shared
repository.
3.
Disconnected operation in a file system is indeed feasible, efficient and
usable.
4. The central idea behind this is that the caching of
data, widely used to
improve performance, can also be exploited to enhance
Clients in CODA:
availability.
1. CODA contains a large collection of untrusted
number of trusted UNIX file servers. UNIX clients and a small
2. Each CODA client has a local disk and can
over a high bandwidth network. communicate with the servers
3. At certain times, a client may be
with some or all of the servers. temporarily unable to communicate
4. This may be due to a server or
of a portable client from the network failure, or due to the detachment
network.
Clients view CODA as a single,
system. location-transparent shared UNIX file
6 The CODA namespace is mapped to individual file servers at the

granularity of sub-trees called volumes.
7 At each client, a cache manager (venus) dynamically obtains and caches
volume mapping.
8. CODA uses two distinct mechanisms to achieve high availability.
9. The first mechanism is server replication, which allows volumes to have
read-write replicas at more than one server.
10. The set of replication sites for a volume is known as volume storage
group (VSG).
11. The subset of a VSG that is currently accessible is a client's accessible
VSG (AVSG).
12. The second high availability mechanism used by CODA, takes effect
when the AVSG becomes empty.
13. While disconnected, venus services file system requests by relying solely
on the contents of its cache.
14. Since cache misses cannot be serviced or masked, they appear as failures
to replication programs and users.
reverts
15. When disconnection ends, venus propagates modifications and
to server replication.
Que 3.16. Design the CODA file system and explain the different
disconnected
states. Draw the state transition diagram and
operation in CODA file system. |UPTU 2014-15, Marks 10
OR
Explain the various venus states for disconnected operations.
Answer
Coda file system and its states : Refer Q. 3.12, Page 126J and Q. 3.13,
Page 127J; Unit-3.
Disconnected operations : Refer Q. 3.15, Page 130J, Unit-3.
Venus states:
1 Hoarding, emulation and re-integration are three states in the
disconnected operation in the CODA file system.
2 These three states come under venus states or in other words it also
comes under disconnected operation in CODA file system.
1. Hoarding :
a. In this state, venus hoards the useful data in anticipation of
disconnection.
b. It manages its cache in such a way that balances the needs of
connected and disconnected operation.
C.
Many factors complicate theimplementation ofhoarding:
i. Disconnections and reconnections are often unpredictable.
Activity at other clients must be accounted for, so that the
latest version of an object is in the cache at disconnection.
iüi. Since cache space is finite, the availability of less critical objects
may have to be sacrificed in favor of more critical objects.
2. Re-integration :
It is a transitory state through which venus passes in changing
roles from pseudo-server to cache manager.
b. Re-integration is performed a volume at a time with all update
activity in the volume suspended until completion.
C During re-integration, conflicts are detected and, where possible,
automatically resolved.
3. Emulation :
When the number of servers in the clients AVSG (Accessible Volume
Storage Group) drop to zero, bringing in into an emulation state,
the behaviour of server for the volume will have to be emulated on
the client's machine.
b It means that all file requests will be directly serviced using the
locally cached copy of the file.
C When a client is in its emulation state, it may still be able to contact
servers to manage other volumes.
Venus states and transitions are shown in Fig. 3.16.1.
Hoarding
Disconnection Logical
reconnection
Disconnected
Emulation Re-integra
tion
Physical
reconnection
Fig. 3.16.1. Venus states and transitions.

4UNIT
Mobile
Agent Computing
Part-l .. (135J - 155J)
Mobile Agent Computing

Security and Fault Tolerance
A. Concept Outline :Part-1. 135J
B.Long and Medium Answer Type Questions. 135J
Part-2.. (155J- 164J)
Transaction Processing in Mobile Computing Environment

A. Concept Outline : Part-2. 155J
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions. 155J
134 (IT-8) J
135 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
PART- 1
Mobile Agent Computing, Security and Fcult Tolerance.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART- 1
Amobile agent is a process that can transport its state from one
environment to another, with its data intact.
Properties of mobile agents are :
Adaptive learning
b. Autonomy
C. Mobility
Various mobile agent system are:
a Agent TCL
b. Mobility
Various types of security attacks are :
Interception
b Modification
C. Virus and worms
d Denial of service
e Intrusion
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questicons
Que 4.1. What do you mean by mobile agent ?
Answer
Mobile agent :
1 An agent is a person whose job is to0 act for, or manage the affairs of
other people.
2 In context of computers, software agents refer to the programs that
perform certain tasks on behalf of the user.
3 Software agents have some propertiee, which distinguish them from
other programs, such as autonomy, responsiveness, communicative
ability, adaptability.
4 Amobile agent is a type of software agent, with the feature of autonomy,
social ability, learning and most importantly mobility.
136 (IT-8) J Mobile Agent Computing
5 In computer science, a mobile agent is a composition of computer software
and data which is able to move from one computer t0 another
autonomously and continue its execution on the destination computer.
6.
More specifically, amobile agent is aprocess that can transport its state
from one environment to another, with its data intact, and be capable of
performing appropriately in the new environment.
7. Mobile agents decide when and where to move.
8 Movement is often evolved from RPC methods.
9 When a mobile agent decides to move, it saves its own state, transport
this saved state to the new host and resumes execution from the saved
state.
10. Software agents can be classified as static agents and mobile agents.
11. Static agents achieve the goal by executing on a single machine.
12. On the other hand, mobile agents migrate from one computer to another
in the network and execute on several machines.
13. Mobility increases the functionality of the mobile agent and allows the
mobile agent to perform tasks beyond the scope of static agents.
Characteristics of mobile agent :
Following are the characteristics of mobile agent:
1. Situatedness: It means that an agent receives sensory input from its
environment and it can perform actions which change the environment
in some way.
2 Autonomy :It means that an agent is able to act without the direct
intervention of humans (or other agents) and it has control over its own
actions and internal states.
3. Flexibility : It can be defined to include the following properties :
a.
Responsive :Itrefers to an agent abilitytoperceive its environment
and respond in a timely fashion tochanges that occur in it.
b. Proactive : Agents are able to exhibit opportunistic, goal-driven
behaviour and take the initiative where appropriate.
C. Social: Agent[ should be able to interact, when appropriate, with
other agents and human in order to solve their own problems and
to help others with their activities.
4. Rationality : The assumption that an agent will not act in a manner
that prevents it from achieving its goals.
5. Mobility: The ability for an agent to move across networks and between
different hosts to fulfill its goal.
Que 4.2. State the advantages and disadvantages of mobile
agents.
137 (IT-8)J
Mobile Computing
Answer
Advantages of mobile agents :
They facilitate high quality, high performance, economical mobile
1.
applications.
2 Bandwidth :
communications protocols that
Distributed systems often rely on
a given task.
involve multiple interactions to accomplish
measures are enabled.
b. This is especially true when security
traffic.
C. The result is a lot of network
conversation and dispatching it to
d Mobile agents allow packaging a
interactions can take place locally, as
a destination host where the
shown in Fig. 4.2.1.
comes to reducing the flow of
e Mobile agents are also useful when it
raw data in the network.
stored at remote hosts, these
When very large volumes of data are
f
locality of the data rather that
data should be processed in the
transferred over the network.
Service
App
RPC-Based approach
Host B
Host A
Service
App
Mobile Agent-Based approach
network load.
Fig. 4.2.1, Mobile agents reduce
computations to the data rather
The motto is simple : move the
than the data to the computations.
: By migrating to the location of the resource, a mobile agent
3. Latency faster than from across the network.
much
can interact with the resource
Asynchronous task execution
4.
5. Fault tolerance
They enable use of portable, low cost personalcommunications.
6.
7. Peer topeer communication networks.
8. They permit secure intranet
style communications on public
Disadvantages of mobile agents :
1. The main drawback of
mobile agents isthe security risk involved in
using mobile agents.
A viruscan be disguised as mobile agents and distributed in the network
2. execute the agent.
causing damage to the host machines that
138 (IT-8) J
3. Mobile agent tools are still new and may have security bugs and
vulnerabilities that are yet unknown.
4 Network test suites tend to be relatively large. Managing many light
weight agents introduces additional communication and control
overhead.
5. Mobile agents are not a mature technology and most agent development
tools are alpha or beta version.
Que 4.3. Explain the working and lifecycle of a mobile agent.
Answer
1 The mobile agent is created in the home machine.
2 The mobile agent is dispatched to the host machine 'A' for execution.
3. The agent executes on host machine A'.
4. After execution the agent is cloned to create two copies, one copy is
dispatched to host machine Band the other is dispatched to host machine
C.
Host machine
7
(M.A) (M.A)
(M.A)
Host machine A
3
(M.A) (M.A (M.A
(M.A
Host machine B Host machine C
Fig. 4.3.1,
5. The cloned copies execute on their respective hosts.
6 After execution,host machine Band Csend the mobile agent received
by them back to the home machine.
7. The home machine interacts with the agents and the data brought by
the agents is analyzed. The agents are then disposed.
Amobile agent experiences the following events in its life cycle:
1. Creation : Abrand new agent is born and its state is initialized.
139 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
2. Dispatch :An agent
travels to new host.
original is
Cloning : A twin agent is born and the current state of the
3.
duplicated in the clone.
Deactivation: An agent is brought back from aremote host along with
4.
its state to the source machine.
state is lost forever.
5. Disposal: An agent is terminated and its
incoming
6 Communication:Notifies the agent to handle messages inter-agent
primary means of
from other agents, which is the
correspondence.
Que 4.4. Discuss the various mobile agent systems.
Answer
Mobile agent systems :
prevalent systems which are currently
The following systems are the most
available:
1. Agent TCL:
Agent TCL, a product of Dartmouth College, provides an agent
agents implemented in secure
a.
execution environment that allows

themselves over the
language like Safe-TCL and java to transport agents.
network and communicate with local and remote
agent.
b The agent TCLsystem is a model of supportingtransportable
the server model
C. The architecture of agent TCL is based upon
which consists of four levels as shown in Fig. 4.4.1.
Mobile agents
Interpreter Interpreter Interpreter

Server
TCP/IP E-mail
Fig. 4.4.1. The agent TCL architecture.

i. Mobile agent:All the services that are available within the
system are provided by agents, transportable or stationary.
ii. Interpreter : The execution of agents is handled by an
interpreter that is appropriate to the source language of the
mobile agent.
iüi. Server : It handles the management of local agents and
incoming agents. The server also provides mechanism for
enforcing security, providing a hierarchical namespace in which
agents can be referenced and allowing agents to address each
other locally.
iv. TCPIP, E-mail :These are the transport mechanism through
which agent communicates with each other. Agents move
between sites in state-oriented fashion by issuing the mobility
commands like agent_jump. The agents execute in the
interpreters and use the facilities provided by the server to
migrate from machine to machine and to communicate with
other agents.
2 TACOMA:
a. The TACOMA (Tromoso and Cornell Moving Agents) is being
developed by University of Tromoso and Cornell.
b The TACOMA system defines an agent based system with
abstractions of agents, places, briefcases, folders and file cabinets.
i. Folders : Folders are named objects that contain a list of
element in raw data form.
ii. Briefcase : Briefcase are containers that each agent owns.
Briefcase contains folders and is used for communication. For
example -an agent might meet another agent by presenting
that agent with a briefcase. The briefcase in this example might
contain a message for the other agent.
Folder Folder; Folder,

Filling cabinet Filling cabinet,
Site1
Folder1 Folder2
Briefcase,
Mobile Agent,
Folder; Folder, Folder,

Filling cabinet
Site
Fig. 4.4.2. TACOMA storage objects.

ii. File cabinets:File cabinets are local storage units associated

with a place. By this way, agents can communicate with other
agents that are not yet at that place. For example -agents
implementing adivide and conquer algorithm can mark places
already visited by leaving afolder in afle cabinet at that place.
C. The TACOMA system uses a firewall type mechanism between the
agent execution and the host system to protect the host from malicious
agents. In this manner agents do not need to be implemented in a safe
language.
Que 4.5. Discuss the requirements for the design of mobile agent
systems. UPTU2011-12, 2012-13; Marks 10
Answer
1 There are many technical challenges to implement mobile agent systems.
2 Most ofthese problems are in the structure of the computational medium,
the environment the agents operate in.
3. Servers must be designed, implemented, and deployed that not only
allow mobile agents to run, but allow them to run safely.
a. Portability:
i. Mobile agent code itself must be portable; when an agent arrives
at a server the server needs to be able to execute that agent.
Most mobile agent systems under development now rely, at
least in part on virtual machines to standardize the execution
environment.
b. Ubiquity :
i In order for mobile agents to be successful they need access to
many different computer resources.
i. Servers for agents must be at common place; there needs to be
awidely accepted framework for executing mobile agents
deployed on many machines across the internet.
C. Network communication:
Mobile agents that live in the network need to be written in a
language that makes network access simple.
ii. It must be easy totransfer objects across the network and to
invoke methods of remote objects.
d. Server security :
Amajor concern specific to mobile agents is the protection of
the servers running the agents.
i. Running arbitrary programs on a machine is dangerous, a
hostile program could destroy the hard drive, steal data, or do
all sorts of other undesirable things.
ii. Two types of security are possible to protect servers from
malfunctioning and hostile agents :physical and social.
1. Physical security refers to building servers for agents in
such a way that the agents cannot harm the server.
2 A second approach to server security is using social
enforcement mechanisms to punish the creators of
harmful agents.
e. Agent security :
The complement of server security is agent security; whether
the agent can bust the server on which it is executing.
i. A mobile agent might contain secret information, such as
proprietary data and algorithms.
f. Resource accounting :
1. If economic control and incentive are going to be factors in
netwide resource, use some mechanism to account for the
resources that an agent uses anda way for receiving payment
for those resources is necessary.
Que 4.6. What is mobile agent ? Discuss the server architecture

with the help of diagram. Also, list the security threats to a mobile
agent system. |UPTU2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Mobile agent : Refer Q. 4.1, Page 135J, Unit-4.
Server architecture : Refer Q. 4.4, Page 139J, Unit-4.
Security threats :
1. Agent-to-Platform:The agent-to-platform category represents the
set of threats in which agents exploit security weakness of an agent
platform or launch attacks against an agent platform.
Following are the set of threats :
a Masquerading :
i When an unauthorized agent claims the identity of another
agent it is said to be masquerading.
ii. The masquerading agent may pose as an authorized agent in
an effort to gain access to services and resources to which it is
not entitled.
ii. The masquerading agent may als0 pose as another
unauthorized agent in an effort to shift the blame for any
actions for which it does not want to be held accountable.
b. Denial of service :
i In this, an agent may attempt to consume or corrupt a host
resource to preclude other agents from accessing the host's
services.
143 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
ii. These denial of service attacks can be launched intentionally
by running attack scripts to exploit system vulnerabilities, or
unintentionally through programming errors.
ii. As a mobile computing paradigm requires an agent platform to
accept and execute an agent whose code may have been
developed outside its organization.
iv. This type of agent may carry malicious code that is designed to
disrupt the services offered by the agent platform, degrade the
performance of the platform, or extract information for which
it has no authorization to access.
C. Unauthorized access :
In this, an agent can obtain access to sensitive data by exploiting
security weakness.
ü. Applying the proper access control mechanism requires the
platform or agent to first authenticate a mobile agent's identity
before it is instantiated on the platform.
iii. An agent that has access to platform and its services without
having the proper authorization can harm other agents and
platform itself.
2 Agent-to-Agent: Agent-to-Agent category represents the set of threats
in which agents exploit security weakness of other agents or launch
attacks against other agents. This set of threats includes the following :
a. Masquerade :
Agent-to-Agent communication can take place directly between
two agents or may require the participation of the underlying
platform and the agent services it provides.
In either case, an agent may attempt to disguise its identity in
an effort to deceive the agent with which it is communicating.
ii. For example, an agent may pose as a well-known vendor of
goods and services, and try to convince another unsuspecting
agent to provide it with credit card numbers, bank account
information and digital cash or other private information.
b. Denial of service:
i Agents can also launch denial of service attacks against other
agents.
For example, repeatedly sending messages to another agent,
or spamming agents with messages, may place undue burden
on the message handling routines of the recipient.
ii. Agents that are being spammed may choose to block messages
from unauthorized agents, but even this task requires some
processing by the agent or its communication proxy.
C. Repudiation:
i. Repudiation occurs when an agent, participating in a
transaction or communication, later claims that the transaction
or communication never took place.
Whether the cause for repudiation is deliberate or accidental,
repudiation can lead to serious disputes that may not be easily
resolved unless the proper counter measures are in place.
d. Unauthorized access :
mechanisms in
i. If the agent platform has weak or no control
place, an agent can directly interfere with another agent by
invoking its public methods (for example, attempt buffer
overflow, reset to initial state etc.), or by accessing and
modifying the agent's data or code.
3 Platform-to-Agent : The platform-to-agent category represents the
set of threats in which platform compromise the security of agents. This
set of threats includes the following:
Masquerade :
in
One agent platfornm can masquerade as another platform
destination
an effort to deceive a mobile agent as to its true
and corresponding security domain.
i. An agent platform masquerading as trusted third
party may
and
be able to cheat unsuspecting agents to the platform
extract sensitive information from these agents.
both the visiting agent
ii. The masquerading platform may harm assumed.
and the platform whose identity it has
b. Denial of service :
the
i When an agent arrives at an agent platform, it expects
provide fair
platform to execute the agent's request faithfully,
allocation of resources and abide by the quality of service
agreements.
service
iü. Amalicious agent platform however may ignore agent such
requests, introduce unacceptable delays for critical tasks
execute
simply not
as placing market orders in a stock market, without
the agent's code or even terminate the agent
notification.
c. Eavesdropping :
and
i. The eavesdropping threat involves the interception
monitoring of secret communications.
In eavesdropping, agent platforms cannot only monitor
communications, but als0 can monitor every instruction
executed by the agent, all the unencrypted or public data it
brings to the platform, and all the subsequent data generated
on the platform.
ii. Since the platform has access to the agent's code, state and
data, the visiting agent must be wary of the fact that it may be
exposing proprietary algorithms, trade secrets, negotiation
strategiesor other sensitive information.
iv. Even though the agent may not be directly exposing secret
information, the platform may be ahble to infer meaning from
the types of services requested and from the identity of the
agents with which it communicates.
d. Alteration :
i When an agent arrives at an agent platform it is exposing its
code, state and data to the platform.
ii. Since an agent may visit several platforms under various
security domains throughout its lifetime, mechanisms must
be in place to ensure the integrity of an agent's code, state and
data.
üi. Acompromised or malicious platform must be prevented from
modifying an agent's code, state or data without being detected.
iv. Modification of an agents code, and thus the subsequent
behaviour of the agent on other platforms, can be detected by
having the original author digitally sign the agent's code.
4 Other-to-Agent Platform : The other-to-agent platform category
represents the set of threats, in which external entities, including agents
and agent platforms, threaten the security of an agent platiorm. This
set of threats includes the following:
a. Masquerade :
i
F: Agents can request platform services both remotely and locally.
An agent on a remote platform can masquerade as another
agent and request services and resources for which it is not
authorized.
iii. Agents masquerading as other agents may act in conjunction
with a malicious plYtform to help deceive another remote
platform or they may act alone.
iv. Aremote platform can also masquerade as another platform
and mislead unsuspecting platforms or agents about its true
identity.
b. Unauthorized access :
1
Remote users, processes, and agents may request resources
for which they are not authorized.
i. Remote access to the platform and the host machine itself
must be carefully protected, since conventional attack seripts
freely available on the internet can be used to subvert the
operating system and directly gain control of all resources.
146 (IT-8)J
or security
iüi. Remote administration of the platform's attributesresponsible
policy may be desirable for an administrator that is
remote
for several distributed platforms, but allowing account
administration may make the system administrator's
or session the target of an attack.
C. Denial of service:
remotely and
Agent platform services.can be accessed both
locally.
inter-platform
The agent services offered by the platform and
communications can be disrupted by common denial of service
attacks.
iii. Agent platforms are also susceptible to all the conventional
denial of service attacks aimed at the underlying operating
system or communication protocols.
the
These attacks are tracked by organizations such as
Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) at the Carnegie
Mellon University and the Federal Computer Incident Response
Capability (FedCIRC).
Que 4.7. Why security concerns in traditional systems are simple

Marks 10
than those in mobile systems ? Discuss. UPTU 2011-12,
Answer
Traditional systems vulnerabilities :
1. As the internet is increasingly becoming part of the corporate network,
the organizations information systems have become vulnerable to actions
from outsiders.
2. The architecture of traditional web-based application typically includes
a web client, a server and corporate information systems linked to back
end databases.
3. Each of these components is exposed to security challenges and
vulnerabilities due to their connection to the internet.
4. For example, a database that has been used internally for several years
but is now connected to the internet.
5. This new connection will expose the database to a much larger and
more varied set of users (including hackers) than ever before.
Wireless and mobile systems :
1. The security in a mobile code environment cannot rely on trust
relationship between the server and an agent because they are generally
not part of the same administrative domain.
2. In addition, the problem of protecting the agent and its results from
malicious and faulty servers arises.
147 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
3. Increased use of wireless communications further increases the chances
of eavesdropping and of compromising the integrity of information being
transferred between sources and destinations.
4.While it is possible to tap a wired connection also, wireless connections

are easier to intercept by using simple antennas.
5 For example, while the Wi-Fi systems are quite popular, many
vulnerabilities of Wi-Fihave been well documented.
Que 4.8. What are the security requirements in mobile agent
systems ?
Answer
Security requirements in mobile agent :
1 The users of networked computer system have four main security
requirements: confidentiality, integrity, accountability and availability.
have these same
2 The users of agent and mobile agent frameworks also
security requirements.
This section provides a brief overview of these security
requirements
3.
and how they apply to agent frameworks:
a, Confidentiality :
i Any private data stored on a platform or carried by an agent
must remain confidential.
Agent frameworks must be able to ensure that their intra
and inter-platform communications remain confidential.
iüi. Eavesdroppers can gather information about an agent's
activities not only from the content of the messages exchanged,
but also from the message flow from one agent to another
agent or agents.
b. Integrity :
The agent platform must protect agents from unauthorized
modification of their code, state, and data and ensure that only
authorized agents or processes carry out any modification of
shared data.
The agent itself cannot prevent a malicious agent platform
from tampering with its code, state, and data, but the agent
can take measures to detect this tampering.
C. Accountability :
Each process, human user, or agent on a given platform must
be held accountable for their actions.
i. In order to be held accountable, each process, human user, or
agent must be uniquely identified, authenticated and audited.
ii. Examples of the actions for which they must be held
accountable include: access to an object such as a file, or
making administrative changes to a platform security
mechanism.
iv. Accountability requires maintaining an audit log of security,
relevant events that have occurred and listing each event and
the agent or process responsible for that event.
d. Availability :
i The agent platform must be able to ensure the availability of
both data and services to local and remote agents.
The agent platform must be able to provide controlled
concurrency, support for simultaneous access, deadlock
management and exclusive access as required.
iii. Agent platform must be able to detect and recover from system
software and hardware failures.
iv. While the platform can provide some level of fault-tolerance
and fault-recovery, agents may be required to assume
responsibility for their own fault-recovery.
Que 4.9. What are the security measures for mobile agents ?
Answer
Security measures for mobile agent :
The following available technologies and research efforts addresses the
security issues arising from the mobility property of mobileagents:
1. Protecting agents :
a. This is due to the fact that an agent is completely susceptible toan
agent platform and cannot prevent malicious behaviour from
occurring.
b. Some more general purpose techniques for protecting an agent
include the following:
i Partial result encapsulation :
1. Encapsulation may be done for different purposes with
different mechanisms, such as providing confidentiality using
encryption or for integrity and accountability using digital
signature.
2. In general, there are three alternative ways to encapsulate
partial results:
Provide the agent with a means for encapsulating the
information.
b. Rely on the encapsulation capabilities of the agent
platform.
C.Rely on a trusted third party to timestamp a digital

fingerprint of the result.
ii. Mutual itinerary recording :
1 One interesting variation of path histories is a general scheme
for allowing an agent's itinerary to be recorded and tracked by
another cooperating agent and vice-versa, in a mutually
supportive arrangement.
2. When moving between agent platforms, an agent conveys the
last platform,current platform and next platform information
to the cooperating peer through an authenticated channel.
3 The peer maintains a record of the itinerary and takes
appropriate action when inconsistencies are noted.
4. Attention is paid so that an agent avoids platform already visited
by its peer.
5 The rationale behind this scheme is founded on the assumption
that only a few agent platforms are malicious and even if an
agent encounters one, the platform is not likely to collaborate
with another malicious platform being visited by the peer.
6 Therefore, by dividing up the operations of the application
between two agents, certain malicious behaviour of an agent
platform can be detected.
ii. Execution tracing :
1. Execution tracing is a technique for detecting unauthorized
modifications of an agent through the faithful recording of the
agent's behaviour during its execution on each agent platform.
2 The technique requires each platform involved tocreate and
retain a non-repudiatable log or trace of the operations
performed by the agent while executing on the platform to
submit a cryptographic hash of the trace upon conclusion as a
trace summary or fingerprint.
3. A trace is composed of a sequence of statements identifiers
and platform signature information.
4 The signature of the platform is needed only for those
instructions that depend on interactions with the computational
environment maintained by the platform for instructions that
rely only on the value of interval variables, a signature is not
required and therefore, is omitted.
2 Protecting the agent platform :
a. One of the main concerns with an agent system implementation is
ensuring that agents are not able to interfere with one another or
with the underlying agent platform.
b. One common approach for accomplishing this is to establish separate
isolated domains for each agent and the platform, and control all
interdonmain access.
150 (IT-8) J
C. In traditional terms, this concept is referred to as a reference
monitor.
d. Techniques devised for protecting the agent platform include the
following:
i. Software-based fault isolation :
1. It is a method of isolating application modules into distinct
fault domains enforced by software.
2. The technique allows untrusted programs written in an
unsafe language, such as C, to be executed safely within
the single virtual address space of an application.
3. Untrusted machine interpretable code modules are
transformed so that all memory accesses are confined to
code and data segments within their fault domain.
4. Access to system resources can also be controlled through
a unique identifier associated with each domain.
5. The technique is commonly referred to as sandboxing.
ii. Signed code:
1. A
fundamental technique for protecting an agent system
is signing code or other objects with a digital signature.
2. Adigital signature serves as a means of confirming the
authenticity of an object, its origin, and its integrity.
3. Typically the code signer is either the creator of the agent,
the user of the agent, or some entity that has reviewed
the agent.
4 Because an agent operates on behalf of an end-user or
organization, mobile agent systems commonly use the
signature of the user as an indication of the authority
under which the agent operates.
iii. Proof carrying code :
1 The approach of proof carrying code obligates the code
producers (for example, author of an agent) to formally
prove that the program possesses safety properties
previously stipulated by the code consumer (for example,
security policy of the agent platform).
2 It is a prevention technique, while the code signing is an
authenticity and identification techniques used together,
but not prevent the execution of unsafe code.
Que 4.10. Explain the various security threat during data
transfer in mobile communication and give suitable example of
authentication and privacy preceeding for mobile computing.
UPTU2012-13, Marks 10|
151 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Answer
Security threats in mobile communication :
from attacks or threats.
1. Security system is a system to defend our assets
2. Attacks are carried out at the point of vulnerability.
3. When the vulnerability is exploited for some interest or
selfish motive,
it is an attack on the system.
4. Where the vulnerability is exploited, there is a loss.
or an
5 This loss can be either of static information asset (static asset)
information asset in transit (dynamicasset).
6. Attacks on dynamic assets can be of the following types:
a. Interception :
part
i. An unauthorized party gaining access to an asset will be a
of this attack.
ii This is an attack on confidentiality like unauthorized copying
of files or tappinga conversation between parties.
iüi. Some of the sniffing attacks fall in this category.
b. Modification:
i An unauthorized party gaining control of an asset and
tampering with it is part of this attack.
This is an attack on integrity like changing the content of a
message being transmitted through the network.
of
ii. Different types of man-in-the-middle attacks are the part
modification attack.
Fabrication :
i An authorized party inserts counterfeited objects into the
system, for example, impersonating someone and inserting a
spurious message in a network.
d Interruption :
i An asset is destroyed or made unusable.
This is an attack on availability.
ii. This attack can be ona static asset or a dynamic asset.
iv. An example could be cutting a communication line or making
the router so busy that a user cannot use a server in a network.
7 Attack on static assets can be of the following types:
a. Virus and worms :
These are a type of program that replicates and propagates from
one system to another.
Most of the virus do malicious destructive functions in the system.
b. Denial of Service:
These are attacks on the system to prevent legitimate users from
using the service.
C. Intrusion :
These are people or software, which enter into computer systems

and perform functions without the knowledge of owner of the
asset.
ii. These are also called hackers.
d. Replay attack:
i Ina replay attack the opponent passively captures the data without
trying to analyze the content.
i. At a later time, the same is used in the same sequence to impersonate
an event and gain unauthorized access to resource.
e Buffer overflow attack :
In a buffer overflow attack, the vulnerability of an executable

program is exploited to force a stack overflow condition, including
the program counter of the process to change, which further work
for attacker.
Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) :

1. IS-54 and IS-136 are second generation (2G) mobile phone systems,
known as digital AMPS (D-AMPS).
2. It was once prevalent throughout the America, particularly in the United
States and Canada in the 1990s.
3. D-AMPS is considered end-of-life and existing networks have mostly
been replaced by GSMGPRS or CDMA 2000 technologies.
4. This s;stem is most often referred to as TDMA (Time Division Multiple
Access).
5. D-AMPS use existing AMPS channels and allows for smooth transition
between digital and analog systems in the same area.
6 Capacity was increased over the preceding analog design by dividing
30 KHz channel pair into three time slots and digitally compressing the
voice data, yielding three times the call capacity in asingle call.
7. A
digital system also made calls more secure because analog scanners
could not access digital signals.
Mobile 153 (IT-8) J
FDMAComputing
CTO/1
AMPS CT2 IMT-FT
NMT
TDMA
X IS-136 DECT
TDMA EDGE.
IMT-SC
D-AMPS
GSM IS-136HS
+GPRS
UMC-136
PDC
IMT-DS
CDMA UTRAFDD/W-CDMA
IMT-TC
UTRA TDDTD-CDMA
IMT-TC
TD-SCMA
IS-95 cdma2000 IMT-MC
cdma One 1X cdma2000 1X EV-DO
1X EV-DO
(3X)
1G 2G 2.5G 3G
Fig. 4.10.1. Development of different generations of mobile
telecommunication systems.
Que 4.11. Describe fault tolerance in mobile computing

environment in detail. UPTU2013-14, 2015-16; Marks 10
OR
Describe fault tolerance issues involve in mobile computing. What
are the monitoring processes ? UPTU2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. The ability of mobile agents to react dynamically to unfavourable
situations and events, make it easier to build robust and fault tolerant
distributed systems.
2. For example, if a host is being shut down, all agents executing on that
machine are warned, whenever possible and given time to dispatch and
continue their operations on another host in the network.
3 The ability of the mobile agents to move from one platform to another in
a heterogeneous environment has been made possible by the use of
virtual machine and interpreters.
4. Virtual machines and interpreters, however, can offer only limited
support for preservation and resumption of the execution state in
heterogeneous environments because of differing representations in
the underlying hardware.
5. For example, although a number of research efforts are underway to
address this issue, the full execution state of an object cannot currently
be retrieved in java.
154 (IT-8) J
frame stack
6. Information such as the status ofthe program counter and
is currently off limits for java programs.
7. Although mobile agents possess a great deal of autonomy and perform
well in disconnected operations, the failure of the home platform or
research projects,
other platforms that the agents rely on a number ofare using modified
such as Nomads at the university of West Florida security
Java Virtual Machines to capture the frame stack, to provide
functionality.
services that can seriously reduce their intended
8 Even though a mobile agent can become more fault tolerant by moving
safe operation of
to another machine, the mobile agents reliance on the functionality.
a safe home or trusted platform places restrictions on
its
trade-off between
9 Designers of mobile agent platforms are also faced with
security and fault tolerance.
security risks involved in "multi
10. For example, in order to address thearchitectures have been built on
hop agent mobility, some agent central
centralized client-server models requiring agents to return to a
server before moving on to another host machine.
manner renders all the
11. Clearly, addressing the security risks in thiscentral
mobile agents vulnerable to a failure of the server and raises
scalability issues.
Monitoring process :
1 prediction mechanism is built to identify eritical host agents s0 as to
A
prevent failure.
2 Therefore, updating of information in the system can be done in a
consistent fashion.
3.
Here, this mechanism includes the weighing calculation i.e., the weights
of hosts are considered.
4. The mobile agents which act as monitoring agents detect the unexpected
situations and then help in recovery.
5. Further the host dependence calculation is proposed by the use of an
algorithm to update weights.
6 In other words critically of hosts in mobile system is being calculated.
7. The aim is to monitor constantly but in order to obtain reliable behaviour
the host agents are monitored dynamically which will result in
improvement of response of system.
8. Hence, proposed monitoring mechanism has the following components :
a, Monitor Agent (MoA):
1. In the whole module of monitoring, these are at the lower
level i.e., they reside on hosts that provide services.
These service hosts keep a record of information in the form
of log tables.
155 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
ii. These agents monitor the surrounding atmosphere and gather
information of exchanging messages.
b. Manager Agent (MaM):
i. This resides at the higher level and controls the agents during
monitoring.
It can correlate different local events from various monitored
hosts in time.
C. Alert Agent (AlA) :
i It is made up of many blocks like time stamps that include the
alert message creation time, threshold event detection time,
alert in case of any fault and alarm information as well.
ii. But this works under the MaM.
PART-2
Transaction Processing in Mobile Computing Environment.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

A mobile transaction is a distributed transaction where some
parts of the computation are executed on mobile host and some
parts on non-mobile hosts.
Transaction processing is information processing that is divided
into individual and invisible operations called transaction.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.12.Define the term transaction and transaction processing.
Answer
Transaction :
1. The transaction is amodeling abstraction that groups multiple database
accesses as an atomic unit for the purpose of recovery, concurrency and
consistency.
2. Amobile transaction is a distributed transaction where some parts of
the computation are executed on mobile host and some parts on non
mobile hosts.
3. Transactions guarantee the consistency of data records when multiple
users or processes perform concurrent operations on them.
4. The access of distributed resources for example, database on different
computers within a transaction is called a distributed transaction for
committing the results, the peer involved in a distributed transaction
usually communicate via the two phase commit protocol (2PC).
5. Only distributed transaction processing (DTP) offers the posibility to
control the state of a mobile agent system.
6 At present, many type of mobile computing devices such as laptops,
personal digital assistant (PDA)are available.
7 The capacities of these mobile aevices become more powerful.
8. They have more processing speed and longer operating time.
9 Mobile computing devices are becoming the major work processing
equipments in every daily activity.
10. Combining with the expanding of the high-speed network like the
internet, mobile computing applications are growing rapidly.
Transaction processing :
1. Transaction processing is information processing that is divided into
individual and invisible operations called transaction.
2. Transaction processing is designed to maintain databases in a known,
consistent state, by ensuring that any operation carried out on the
database that are interdependent and either all completed successfully
or allcancelled successfully.
3. Transaction processing allows multiple individual operations on a
database to be linked together automatically as a single, individual
transaction.
4 The transaction processing system ensures that either all operations in
a transaction are completed without error, or none of them are.
5. If some of the operations are completed but errors occur when the
others are attempted, the transaction processing system "rolls back" all
of the operations of the transaction, thereby erasing all traces of the
transaction and restoring the database to the consistent, known state
that it was in before processing of the transaction began.
6. If all operations of a transaction are completed successfully, the
transaction is committed" by the system and all changes to the database
are made permanent; the transaction cannot be rolled back once this is
done.
7 If the computer system crashes in the middle of a transaction the
transaction processing system guarantees that all operations in any
uncommitted transaction are cancelled.
Features of transaction processing :

1. Rapid response :
Fast performance with arapid response time is critical.
b. Business cannot afford to have customers waiting for a TPS
(Transaction Processing System) to respond, the turnaround time
from the input of the transaction to the production for the output
must be a few seconds or less.
2. Reliability:
a. Many organizations rely heavily on their TPS; a breakdown will
disrupt operations or even stop the business.
b. For a TPS tobe effective, its failure rate must be very low.
C. Ifa TPS does fail, then quick and accurate recovery must be possible.
d. This makes welldesigned backup and recovery procedures essential.
3. Inflexibility :
a. A TPS wants every transaction to be processed in the same way
regardless of the user, the customer or the time for day.
b. If a TPS were flexible, there would be too many opportunities for
non-standard operations.
4. Controlled processing :
a. The processing in a TPS must support an organization's operations.
b. For example, if an organization allocates roles and responsibilities,
they must be able to process and accomplish it.
Que 4.13. Describe how transaction processing can be done in
mobile computing environment.
Answer
Transaction processing in mobile computing :
1. A mobile transaction is defined as a transaction submitted from a mobile
host.
2. The mobile host, which issues transaction and the mobile host, which
receives the result,can be different.
3. A transaction in mobile environment is different than the transactions
in the centralized or distributed database performed in the following
ways :
a. The mobile transaction might have to split their computations into
sets of operations, some of which execute on a mobile host while
others execute on stationary host.
b. Amobile transaction shares its states and partial results with other
transaction due to disconnection and mobility.
C The mobile transactions require computations and communications
to be supported by stationary host.
d. As the mobile host move from one cell to another, the state of
transaction, state of accessed data objects, and the location
information also move.
e The mobile transactions are long-lived transactions due to mobility
of both the data and users, due to the frequent disconnections.
f The mobile transaction should support and handle concurrency,
recovery, disconnection and mutual consistency of replicated data
objects.
4. Mobile transaction is more complicated than the conventional transaction
in both the design and execution states.
5. When mobile host moves from one cell to another cell, many computing
activities like establishing new communication channel, forwarding the
state of transaction to new mobile support station are involved.
6. The execution of mobile transaction is not only unpredictable but also
location dependent.
Coordinator Participant
Can_commit 2
Phase 1 :
Voting in case of
Yes failure
Write
data to Rollback
if all votes = yes Do_commit per
manent
storage
Have_ Phase 2:
commited completion
all participants sent
Have _committed
forget transaction
Fig. 4.13.1. Two Phase Commit Protocol (2PC).

7. Some of the techniques developed in conventional transaction such as
two phase commit (2PC) protocol, are also apply in mobile transaction.
8. For committing the result in adistributed transaction, the peers involved
in a transaction usually communicate via the 2PC protocol.
First phase :
The initiator of a transaction takes the role of the coordinator,
which in the first phase collects the votes about the result of
transaction from different partners.
159 (IT-8) J
Mobile Conmputing
b. Second phase :
In the second phase, it transmits the result (commit: make the
results of transaction permanent; or rollback: discard all
changes) to the other partners, which subsequently confirm
the receipt. Thus, the 2PC is quite robust for the communication
in distributed system.
Que 4.14. Discuss the various mobile transaction models.
OR
Discuss the schems of mobile transaction management.
OR
What do you mean by online transaction processing ? Explain
various mobile transaction models. UPTU2013-14,Marks 10
Answer
Online transaction processing :
1. Online transaction processing, or OLTP, refers to a class ofsystems that
facilitate and manage transaction-oriented applications, typically for data
entry and retrieval transaction processing.
2. OLTP has also been used to refer to processing in which the system
responds immediately to user requests. An automatic teller machine
(ATM) for bank is an example of a commercial transaction processing
application.
3 Online transaction processing increasingly requires support for
transactions that span a network and may include more than one
company.
4 For this reason, new OLTP software uses client/server processing and
brokering software that allows transactions to run on diferent computer
platforms in a network.
5 In large applications, efficient OLTP may depend on sophisticated
transaction management software (such as CICS) and/or database
optimization tactics to facilitate the processing of large numbers of
concurrent updates to an 0LTP-oriented database.
6. For even more demanding decentralized database systems, OLTP
brokering programs can distribute transaction processing among
multiple computers on a network.
7. OLTP is often integrated into SOA service-oriented architecture and
web services.
8 Because there is a need for transactions you will need online processing.
9 Online transaction processing has two key benefits: simplicity and
efficiency.
10. Reduced paper trails and the faster, more accurate forecasts for revenues
and expenses are both examples of how OLTP makes things simpler for
businesses.
11. It also provides a concrete foundation for a stable organization because
of the timely updating.
12. Another simplicity factor is that of allowing consumers the choice of
how they want to pay, making it that much more enticing to make
transactions.
13. OLTP is proven efficient because it vastly broadens the consumer base
for an organization, the individual processes are faster, and it's available
24/7.
Various mobile transactions models :
1. A mobile transaction is a distributed transaction where some parts of
the computation are executed on mobile host and some parts on non
mobile hOsts.
2 The use of wireless medium and the mobility of data consumers and
producers affect transaction processing in various ways.
3 Location and time of mobile host are the two major factors that affect
mobile transaction processing.
4 Twomobile transaction models are available as follows:
a. High Commit Mobile Transaction Model (HiCoMo) :
i The execution model is mainly for processing aggregate data
stored in a data warehouse which resides in mobile units.
iüi. Since the data warehouse resides in mobile units, HiCoMo
transactions are always initiated on mobile unit where they
are processed in a disconnected model.
ii. As a result transaction commit1nents are quite fast.
iv. The base database resides on the fixed network.
V. The structure of HiCoMo transaction is based on nested
transaction model.
vi. It is manipulated by transaction called base or source
transactions. These transactions initiated at the fixed network.
vii. To install updates of HiCoMo transaction they must be
converted tosource transactions.
vii. This conversion is done by a transaction transformation
function.
b. Kangaroo mobile transaction model :
It captured both data and the movement of mobile unit.
i. The model based on a split transaction and enforces the ACID
properties.
iii. Aglobal or parent Kangaroo transaction, KT, is composed of a
number of subtransactions. Each subtransaction is similar to
an ACID transaction, which is composed of a set of reads and
writes. These subtransactions are called Joey Transaction (JT)
161 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
and are local to a base station.
transaction, a base station creates
iv. Upon initiation of a Kangaroo
a JT for its execution.
the initial BS (base
V. AKT, when initiate by a MU (mobile unit), identity and
station) immediately creates a JT withaunique
become responsible for its execution.
cell, the BS of this cell
vi. When the MU migrates to another transaction.
takes control of the execution of this
split in two JTs,
vii. When a MUencounters with handoff, KT is
thus the mobility of a MU is captured by splitting a KT.
management.
Que 4.15. Discuss the schemes of mobiletransaction
transaction management.
List out various issues concerned to
OR
processing
Discuss various issues which are related to transaction
in mobile computing. UPTU2011-12, 2012-13; Marks 10
Answer
Mobile transaction schemes: Refer Q. 4.14, Page 159J, Unit-4.
Issues of transaction processing in mobile computing environment :
highly distributed
1 Mobile environments can be considered to be similar to
environments in many respects.
hosts are not
2 But unlike in distributed environments, locations of some
permanent in mobile environments.
bandwidth, frequent
3 This along with the low communication
disconnections and high vulnerability throws up many challenges to
researchers.
a. Data consistency and concurrency control:
i In mobile environments, data could be replicated on a number
of servers throughout the network.
Some of these servers could be MUs. Moreover, a MH might
operate on cached data while being disconnected from the
fixed network.
iüi. The data conflicts arising in mobile environments could partly
be due to the locality of the users accessing the data.
iv. The execution of a mobile transaction could also be distributed
and relocated among fixed hosts and the mobile nodes.
V
The non-deterministic lifetime of a mobile transaction and the
low bandwidth of communication links are other factors that
affect concurrency control and cache management.
b. Infrastructure requirements :
For any model to be successful, it is important that it can be
moved from the research labs and deployed in the real world.
i. Assuming a wireless communication infrastructure to be well
in place, it is important to determine the additional resources
required for having a mobile transaction system in place.
i. These resources could range from protocols for location
sensitive service access to mechanisms for optimized query
management and controlled query release mechanisms.
C. Communication costs :
i. The high cost of the communication links is one of the major
constraints in mobile environments.
i. Efficient utilization of bandwidth is thus an important factor
on evaluating a transaction model.
d. Relocation mechanism and user profiles :
i. Mobile agents are processes or set of processes that perform
an activity on the fixed network on behalf of the MU.
ii. These agents will typically be a transaction activity that access
several databases and report some results to the mobile node.
iii. Relocation of transaction execution or mobile agents is
necessary to improve response times in mobile environments.
iv. Performance can still be improved if the user profiles or user
directivescan be used to effect anticipatory relocation or to
avoid unnecessary relocation.
e. Scalability :
i As mobile computing grows to be more affordable and popular,
the number of MUs handled by every base station could be
large.
Hence, it is very important that a mobile transaction model
scale up efficiently.
Que 4.16. Discuss the challenges in transaction processing.
What are the counter measures to security threat in computing
environment ? UPTU 2014-15, Marks 10|
Answer
Challenges in transaction processing :
1. Enhanced failure model:
a. Compared to fixed-wired networks, mobile environments suffer
from a variety of failures : Message loss occurs in fixed wired
networks due to rare problems like buffer over-flows or data packet
collisions.
b. In mobile networks, however, message loss occurs more frequently.

C. For example, if the sender or receiver moves out of scope, if the
channel suffers from interference, if obstacles hamper the
transmission, or if the sender's or receiver's battery drains suddenly
during message transmission.
d. Network partitioning due to the movement of participants occurs
in mobile environment more frequently than in fixed-wired
networks, in which this event is very seldom.
2. Message reception model:
a. In mobile adhoc networks, a message that is sent is not only received
by the destined recipient.
b. Each participant that is close to the sender can hear the message.
C. When a routing strategy is used, participants those are located
close to the path that the message takes will get the message.
3. Device controllability :
Distributed databases in fixed-wired networks are usually used for
performance and availability reasons.
b Thus, there is often a single database owner that controls all of its
databases.
C In mobile networks, however, each user owns and controls only a
single device.
d In case of wirelesS network, we cannot guarantee that all individual
users cooperate and do not move away, since there is no central
instance that controls the devices.
4. Compensation applicability :
Transaction processing models that apply the concept of
compensation, explicitly allow databases to run into a possibly
inconsistent state that is compensated later.
b. However, the models using compensation assume that databases
are somehow connected to a single site that controls the
compensation.
C. Thus, participants having inconsistent states will not participate in
proceeding transactions with ifferent participants as long as their
inconsistent states have not been compensated.
5. Capabilities:The mobile devices have limited capabilities like memory,
processing, and storage constraints.
6. Input mechanism(s):
The most common input mechanisms for mobile devices are built
in keypads, pens and touch sereen interfaces.
b. Usually, PDAs contain software keyboards, some PDAs may also
support external keyboards.
7. Network stack
Measures to security threats in computing environment : Refer
Q. 4.6, Page 142J, Unit-4.

|Following questions are very important. These questions
maybe asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
Q. 1. What do you understand by mobile agent ?

Ans. Refer Q. 4.1.
Q.2. Explain the working and lifecycle of mobile agent.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.3.
Q.3. State the security threats to mobile agent.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.6.
Q.4. What are security requirements and measures for mobile

agent system ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8 and Q. 4.9.
Q.5. Discuss the various mobile transaction models.
Ang, Refer Q. 4.14.
Q.6. Discuss various issues related to transaction processing.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.15.
5
UNIT
Adhoc Network
Part-1 (166J - 181J)
"Adhoc Network
Localization
"MAC Issues
" Routing Protocols
Global State Routing (GSR)
" Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)

166J
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions.
Part-2 (181J- 195J)
" Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

" Adhoc on Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
" Temporary Ordered Routing Algorithmn (TORA)
" QOS in Adhoc Network Applications
181J
A. Concept Outline : Part-2.
181J
165 (IT-8) J
166 (IT-8) J Adhoc Networks
PART- 1
Adhoc Network, Localization, MAC Issues, Routing Protocols,
Global State Routing (GSR), Destination Sequenced
Distance Vector Routing (DSDV).
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART- 1
An adhoc network is a peer-to-peer wireless network that
transmits from computer to computer without the use of a
control base station.
Manet is a self-configuration wireless adhoc network of mobile
nodes.
Global state routing is based on link state routing.
DSDV is a proactive distance vector routing protocol.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. What do you mean by adhoc networks ? What are the
characteristics of adhoc network ?
Answer
1. In contrast to infrastructure based networks, in adhoc networks all
nodes are mobile and can be connected dynamically in an arbitrary
manner.
2 All nodes of these networks behave as routers and take part in discovery
and maintenance of routers to other nodes in the network.
3. Adhoc networks are very useful in emergency search-and-rescue
operations, meetings or conventions in which persons wish to quickly
share information, and data acquisition operations in inhospitable terrain.
4 Adhoc networks are autonomous networks operating either in isolation
or as "stub networks" connecting to a fixed network.
5. They do not necessarily rely on existing infrastructure.
6. No "access point". Each node serves as a router and forwards
for other nodes in the network. packets
7. Topology of the network continuously changes.
Characteristics of adhoc network :
i. An adhoc network comes up together when needed.
167 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
ii. An adhoc network grew out of packet radio network.
iü. It requires more battery power to maintain full connectivity between
nodes.
iv. The wireless range is smaller.
V. Becomes more vulnerable for intrusion.
vi. Consecutive packets associated with a given message may take different
routes to destination.
vi. Adhoc network has limited computational power.
vii. Restricted range and lack of infrastructure together indicate the need
for a multibop routing.
Fig. 5.1.1. Adhoc network.
Que 5.2. Describe the classification of wireless adhoc network.
Answer
Following are the three types of wireless adhoc network:
1. Mobile Adhoc Network (MANETs)
2 Wireless Mesh Network (WMN)
3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
1 Mobile AdhocNetwork (MANETs):
A MANET is an autonomous collection of mobile users that
communicate over relatively bandwidth constrained wireless links.
b. It is a self configuring network of mobile devices connected by
wireless links.
C. Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any
direction and will therefore change its links to other devices
frequently.
d. Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change
rapidly and unpredictable over time.
e. The network is decentralized, where all network activity including
discovering the topology and delivering messages must be executed
by the nodes themselves, i.e., routing functionality will be
incorporated intomobile nodes.
168 (1T-8) J Adhoc Networks
2. Wireless MeshNetwork (WMN):

A WMN is a communication network made up of radio nodes
organized in a mesh topology.
b WMN often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways.
The mesh clients are often laptops, cell phone and other wireless
devices while mesh routers forward traffic to and from the gateways
which may connect to the internet.
d. AWMG can be seen as a special type of wireless adhoc network.
e. Awireless mesh network often has a more planned configuration
and may be deployed to provide dynamic and cost effective
connectivity over a certain geographic area.
f Mesh networks may involve either fixed or mobile devices.
g An important possible application for wireless mesh networks is
VOIP.
h. By using a quality of service scheme, the wireless mesh may support
local telephone calls to be routed through mesh.
3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) :
a. WSN consists of spatially distributed autonomous sensor to
cooperatively monitor physical motion or conditions such as,
i. temperature of wireless sensor network was motivated by
military applications such as battle field surveillance and are,
now used in many industrial and civilian application areas,
including:
1. industrial process monitoring and control, machine
2. health monitoring environment and habitat monitoring
3. health care application
4. home automation and
5. traffic control.
Que 5.3. What do you understand by Mobile Adhoc Networks

(MANET)? Describe some real life scenarios where it can be used.
Answer
1. MANET is a self configuration wireless adhoc network of mobile nodes.
2, Each node has a router or a switch connected by the wireless connection.
3 The union of
connections is in an arbitrary topology.
4. Network can function independently or
IPy6.
connect to internet IPv4 or
5. The MANET organization depends upon the location of thenodes, their

connectivity, their service discovery capability and their ability to search
and route messages using nearest node or nearby nodes.
D E
Multipoint relay Router
node
Sensor node |Derive node
Router
Access point
Hand-held PC base station
or gateway Mobile node
node
A
Router
Base station
B
or gateway
Fig. 5.3.1. Mobile adhoc network architecture.
Description :
1 Fig. 5.3.1 demonstrates the adhoc network formed by the nodes A, B, C,
D, E, F and G.
2 It shows that each mobile device or sensor functions as a node with a
switch or router.
3 An important characteristicof adhoc network architecture is that its
organization can change due to movement of a device or sensor.
4 In other words, the adhoc networks are self-organizing.
established and how
5. The following points illustrate how MANETs are
they recognize themselves.
a. The network organization will change ifD and E move away from
each other such that they reach out of the range ofwireless coverage.
b. Two new adhoc networks willthen be formed
by (i) A, CandD, (ii)
connect to each
A, G, F and E. The devices on two networks can still
other through the common node A.
Real life scenario:
1 Consider a bluetooth-enabled mobile device,
a bluetooth-enabled
computer, and internet with Wi-Ficonnection at home.
TCP/IP internet
2 There is a bluetooth-enabled computer connected to
and also to client printer at ofice.
to home and
3. When the user carrying the device moves from office
handheld PDA mobile device reaches near the home computer, an adhoc
printer
network isestablished between the mobile device at home and
atoffice through intermediate nodes: Wi-Fi, internet and oflice computer.
Adhoc Networks
170 (IT-8) J
Que 5.4. Write short note on issues and challenges in adhoc
networks. UPTU 2011-12, Marks 10|
Answer
Issues and chalenges in MANETs :
1. MANETs differ from the traditional wired internet infrastructures.
2. The differences introduce difficulties for achieving quality of service in
such networks.
3. Following are some of the problems:
Dynamic topologi3s:
Nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus, the network topology
which is typically multihop, may change randomly and rapidly
at unpredictable times and may consist of both bidirectional
and unidirectional links.
b. Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links:
i. Wireless links will continue to have significantly lower capacity
than their hardwired counterparts.
In addition, the realized throughput of wireless
communications after accounting for the effects of multiple
access, fading, noise and interference conditions etc. is often
much less than a radio's maximum transmission rate.
ii. One effect of the relatively low to moderate link capacities is
that congestion is typically the norm rather than the exception,
i.e., aggregate application demand will likely approach or
exceeds network capacity frequently.
iv. As the mobile network is often simply an extension of the
fixed network infrastructure, mobile adhoc users will demand
similar services.
V. These demands will continue to increase as multimedia
computing and collaborative networking applicaticn rise.
Energy-constrained operation :
1 Some or all of the nodes in a MANET may rely on batteries or
other exhaustible means for their energy.
ii. For these nodes, the most important system design eriteria for
optimization may be energy conservation.
Que 5.5. Why is routing in adhoc network is complicated, what
are the special challenges ? Give some examples of adhoe network.
UPTU2013-14, Marks 10|
UPTU2015-16, Marks 7.5
Mobile Computing 171(IT-8) J
Answer
Routing inadhoc networks is complicated because:
1. In wireless networks with infrastructure support, a base station can
always reach the mobiles nodes, this is not always the case with adhoc
networks.
2. Adestination node might be out of range of a source node transmitting
packets.
3. Routingis needed to find a path between source and destination and to
forward the packet appropriately.
4 In wireless networks using an infrastructure, cells have been defined.
5. Within a cell, the base station can reach all mobile nodes without routing
via a broadcast.
6 In the case of adhoc networks, each node must be able to forward data
for other nodes.
7 This creates many additional problems.
The fundamental differences between wired network and adhoc
network related to routing are :
1 Asymmetric link :
In case of adhoc networks the links are not symmetric that is, a link
from nodeA to node Bmight be good link butthereverse might not
be true.
b. Hence, routing information collected for one direction is of almost
no use for the other direction.
C. However, many routing algorithm of wired network rely on a
symmetric scenario.
2 Redundant link:
a In wired network if some type of redundancy is there between
links, it is controlled by a network administrator.
b In adhoc network nobody controls redundancy.
C
So, there might be many redundant links upto the extreme of a
completely meshed topology.
3. Interference:
In adhoc networks, links depend on the transmission characteristics,
one transmission might interfere with another, and nodes might
overhear the transmission of other nodes.
b. Thus, it creates the problem of unplanned links between nodes.
4 Dynamic topology :
a As when the mobile moves, the medium characteristics might be
changed.
The result is frequent changes in topology, so the snapshots available

are valid for very small time only.
C In adhoc network, the routing tables must reflect these changes.
d. Routing algorithms for wired networks will either react very slowly
or with t00 many updates for this type of topology.
Examples of adhoc network :
1. The decentralized nature of wireless adhoc network makes them suitable
for a variety of applications.
2. The rapid advents of mobile telephony, PDAs and the increasing of
diverse monitoring tools involving inexpensive wireless sensors have
brought a number of commercial applications of adhoc networks.
3. Following are the applications :
Mobile adhoc network (MANETs)
Disaster Relief
ii. Home Networking
iv. Conferencing
Habitat Monitoring
vi. Warehouse Inventory Monitoring
vii. Personal Area Network
vii. Ships need tocommunicate with each other.
Que 5.6. Why we need new routing protocols ? Write down the
type of routing protocols.
Answer
1. In adhoc networks, nodes do not have a priori knowledge of topology of
network around them, they have todiscover it.
2. The basic idea is that a new node (optionally) announces its presence
and listens to broadcast announcements from its neighbours.
3 The node learns about new near nodes and ways to reach them, and
may announce that it can als0 reach those nodes.
4. As time goes on, each node knows about all other nodes and one or
more ways how to reach them.
5. These routing protocols can be divided into three categories based on
when and how the routes are discovered :
Pro-active routing or table driven protocols
b. Reactive routing or On demand routing protocols
C. Hybrid (Pro-active/reactive)
173 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Adhoc Routing Protocols
Source-Initiated
Table Driven On-Demand Hybrid
EIGRP ZRP
GSR DSDV WRP AODV DSR LMR ABR
TORA SSR ZHLS

CGSR
HSR FSR
Fig. 5.6.1. Routing protocols.
reactive routing
Que 5.7. Explain the proactive routing and
protocols.
Answer
1 Proactive or table-driven routing protocol :
node maintains one or
a. In a table-driven routing protocol, each
more table containing routing information to every other node in
the network.
consistent and up
b. Allnodes update their tables so as to maintain a
to-date view of the network.
C.
propagate update
When the network topology changes, the nodemaintain consistent
message throughout the network in order to
whole network.
and up-to-date routing information about the
are
d. The adhoc protocols, that follows the proactive routing protocol
as follows:
Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing Protocol
(DSDV)
Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
iüü. Global State Routing (GSR)
iv. Fisheye State Routing (FSR)
Hierarchical State Routing (HSR)
vi. Zone-based Hierarchical Link State Routing
vii. Clusterhead Gateway Switched Routing (CGSR)
2 Reactive routing protocol :
a. The on-demand routing protocols take a lazy approach to routing.
b. Incontrast to table-driven routing protocols, all up-to-date routes
are not maintained at every node, instead the routes are created
when required.
C.
When a source wants to send to a destination, it invokes the route
discovery mechanisms to find the path to the destinations.
d. The route remains valid till the destination is reachable or until the
route is no longer needed.
e. There are some on-demand routing protocols as discussed below :
Adhoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP)
ii. DynamicSource Routing Protocol (DSR)
iv. Temporally Ordered Routing Protocol (TORA)
V. Associativity Based Routing (ABR)
vi. Signal Stability Routing (SSR)
Que 5.8. Compare table-driven and on-demand routing protocols.
Answer
Comparison of table-driven and on-demand routing protocols :
S.No. Table-driven On-demand

1 Attempts tomaintain A route is built only when
consistent, up-to-date required.
information from each node
to every other node in the
network.
2. Constant propagation of No periodic updates. Control

routing information information is not propagated
periodically even when unless there is a change in the
topology change does not topology.
Occur.
3. Incurs substantial traffic and Does not incur substantial traffic

power consumption, which is and power consumption
generally scarce in mobile compared to table- driven routing
computer. protocols.
4. First packet latency is less First packet latency is more as
when compared with on compared to table-driven because
demand protocols. a route needs to be built.
5 A route to every other node Not available.
in adhoc network is always
available.
Que 5.9. Name the main differences between adhoc network and
other network. What advantages do adhoc networks offer ? Explain
in detail by giving suitable example. UPTU 2013-14,Marks 10
175 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Answer
Q. 5.5,
Difference between adhoc network and other network:Refer
Page 170J, Unit-5.
The advantages of an adhoc network include:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2 Self-configuring nodes are also routers.
3. Self-healing through continuous re-configuration.
4. Scalability incorporates the addition of more nodes.
situation where
5 Mobility allows adhoc networks created on the fly in any
there are multiple wireless devices.
6. Flexible adhoc can be temporarily setup at anytime, in any place.
administration.
7 Lower getting-started costs due to decentralized
and
8 The nodes in adhoc network need not reply on any hardware
software.So, it can be connected and communicated quickly.
Que 5.10. Write a short note on GSR protocol.

Answer
Global State Routing (GSR) :
1.
Global State Routing (GSR) is based on link state (LS) routing.
2. It takes the idea of link state routing but improves it by avoiding flooding
of routing messages.
3.
In link state routing method,each node floods the link state information
directly into the whole network (global flooding) once a link change
between itself and its neighbours is detected.
4
For each destination node, the topology and table contain link state
information as reported by the destination and time stamp of information.
5 If links change quickly at high-mobility, frequent global flooding will
lead to huge control overhead (large amount of small packets) where
routing messages are generated on a link change as in link state protocols.
6 GSR could be described as being based on link state routing, which has
the advantage of routing accuracy, and the dissemination method used
in Distributed Bellman-Ford (DBF) to avoid inefficient flooding like in
link state routing.
7. In GSR every node maintains :
a. A neighbour list : The neighbour list of a node contains the list of
its neighbours.
b. Atopology table : For each destination node, the topology table
contains the link state information as reported by the destination
and the timestamp of the information.
C. Anext hop table:For each destination, the next hoptable contains

the next hop to which the packets for this destination must be
forwarded.
d. A distance table : The distance table contains the shortest distance
toeach destination node.
8. Initially, each node learns about its neighbours by examining each
received packet and then builds up its neighbour list.
9. On receiving a link state message from its neighbours, every node
updates the link state information in its topology table.
10. Link state packets with larger sequence numbers replace the older ones
with smaller sequence numbers. So, every node learns the entire
network topology.
Advantages of GSR:
1. GSR reduces the control overhead as it avoids flooding for disconnects/
reconnects and updates are time triggered than event triggered.
2. The routing accuracy of GSR is superior to the traditional DBF.
Disadvantages of GSR:
1. Its main disadvantage is large size of the routing message.
2 Entire topology table is broadcasted with each update, considerable
amount of bandwidth is consumed.
Que 5.11. Write short note on destination sequenced distance

vector routing (DSDV). UPTU 2011-12, Marks 10
Answer
Destination sequence distance vector routing (DSD): DSDV is the
extension to Bellman-Ford routing algorithm. This routing protocol was
developed in 1994 by C. Perkins and it is a proactive distance vector routing
protocol. This protocol guarantees loop freeness.
In DSDV:
1. Each node maintains a routing table that contains the information
regarding allpossible routes within a network, the number of hops of
each route and the sequence of each node.
2 This sequence number assigned by the destination node of the route,
shows how old the route is. The lower the sequence number, the older
the route is.When a node Aneeds to select a route to node B it checks
its routing table. If more than one such route is found, the newer one is
used and if more than one route shares the same sequence number
than the shortest route is chosen.
3 The network nodes periodically broadeast their routing tables in order

to propagate topology knowledge throughout the network. Apart from
this periodic transmission, a station (node) also transmits its routing
table if a significant change occurs in topology.
4. The propagation of routing table's results in large overhead. To solve
thisproblem, two types of updates are defined:
Full dump update
b Incremental update
5 In fulldump update, stations (nodes) transmit full routing table. Since
routing table is large, a full update typically involves more than one
packet broadcast.
6. Incremental updates are transmitting between full dumps and convey
only that information which was carried over a single packet. Here a
unique sequence number is also assigned by the transmitter after
updation. In a network of a slowly changing topology, full dump are
rarely used, since the incremental dumps are able to convey the slow
topologieschanges.
Advantages of DSDV:
1 It is suitable for creating adhoc network with small number of nodes.
2 Since no formal specification of this algorithm is present, so there is no
commercial implementation of this algorithm.
Disadvantages of DSDV:
1 DSDV requires a regular update of its routing tables, which uses up
battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even when the network
is idle.
2 DSDV is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.
Examples of DSDV in operation:
1 Consider MH, in Fig. 5.11.1. Table 5.11.1 shows a possible structure of
the forwarding table which is maintained at MH,.
2. Suppose the address of each mobile host is represented as MH, Suppose
further that all sequence numbers are denoted as SNNN_MH where
MH, specifies the computer that created the sequence number and
SNNN is a sequence number value.
3. Also suppose that there are entries for all other mobile hosts with
sequence numbers SNNN_MH, before MH, moves away from MH,.
4 The installtime field helps to determine when to delete the stale routes.
5. With this protocol, the deletion of stale routes, rarely occur since the
detection oflink breakages should propagate through the adhoc network
immediately.
(MH,) (MH,) (MH,)
MH,) (MHe) (MH|)

(MH,
(MH,
MH,
Fig. 5.11.1. Movement in and DSDV adhoc network.
Structure of the MH, forwarding table :
Table 5.11.1.
Destination Next Hop Sequence Install Flags Metric Stable Data

Number
MH, MH, S406 _MH, T001_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH,

MH, MH, S128 _MH, T001_MH, 1 Ptr1 MH,
MH, MH, S564_MH, T001_MH, 2 Ptrl _MH,
MH, MH, S710_MH, T001_MH, Ptrl_ MH,
MH, MH, S392 MH, T002_MH, 2 Ptr1 _MH.
MH, MH, SO76 MH, TO01 MH, 1 Ptr1_MH.
MH, MH, S128 _MHI, TO02_MH, 2 Ptr1 _MH,
MH, MH, S050_MH, TO02_MH, 3
Ptrl_MH,
Now suppose that MH, moves into the general vicinity of MH, and
MH,, and away from others especially (MH,). The new internal
forwarding tables at MH, then appears as shown in Table 5.11.2.
Table 5.11.2.
Destination Next Hop Sequence Install Flags Metric Stable Data
Number
MH, MH, S516 MH, T001_MH, M 3 Ptrl_MH,

MH, MH, S238 MH TO01 MH, 1 Ptr1_MH,
MH, MH, S674 _MH, T001_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S820 MH, TO01 MH,
MH,
Ptrl_MH,
MH, S502_MH, TO02_MH, 2 Ptr1_MH,
MH MH, S186 MH, T001 MH, 1 Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S238_MH, T002_MH, 2 Ptrl_MH,
MH, MH, S160_MH, TO02_MH, 3
Ptrl_MI,
Que 5.12. Explain Fisheye state routing. Also,give the advantages

and disadvantages.
Answer
Fisheye State Routing (FSR):
1. FSR is an improvement of GSR(both are based on the link state protocol).
2. The large size ofupdate messages in GSR wastesaconsiderable amount
of network bandwidth.
3. This technique was used to reduce the size of information required to
represent graphical data.
4. The eye of a fish captures with high detail of the pixels near the focal
point.
5. The detail decreases as the distance from the focal point increases.
6. In routing, the Fisheye approach translates to maintain the
accurate distance and path quality information about the immediate
neighbourbood of a node, with progressively less detail as the
distance increases.
6. Here nodes maintain a link state table based on the up-to-date information
received from neighbouring nodes, and periodically exchange it with
their local neighbours only.
7. In FSR, every up-to-date message does not contain information about
all nodes in the network. Here the information about closer node is
exchanged more frequently than it is done about farther nodes, thus
reducing the update message size.
8 The centre node has most up-to-date information about all the nodes in
the inner circle and the accuracy of information decreases as the distance
from node increases.
9 This procedure of dividing network into different scope levels is done at
each node meaning that it is independent on the central entity.
10. Even if anode does not have accurate information about far away
nodes,the packets will be routed correctly because the route information
becomes more and more accurate as the packet gets closer to the
destination.
11. When network size grows large, the update message could consume
considerable amount of bandwidth, which depends on the update period.
12. In order to reduce the size of update messages without seriously affecting
routing accuracy, FSR uses the Fisheye technique.
13. Fig. 5.12.1 illustrates the application of Fisheye in a mobile, wireless
network.
14. The number of levels and the radius of each scope will depend on the
size of the network.
15. The reduction of routing update overhead is obtained by using different
exchange periods for different entries in routing table.
180 (IT-8) J Alboe Nolworka
9
6
(10) Hop - 1
(13
O Hop =2
36 OHop =2
(25) 27 29)23)
24
20) 28 84)
30
(32)
31)
Fig. G.12.1.
16. More precisely, entries corresponding to nodes within the smaller scope
are propagated to the neighbours with the highest frequency.
TT Hop
0
TT Hop 0:(1) 2
0 :(1) 1 1 :(0, 2,3) 1
1 : (0, 2, 3) 0 2: (6, 1, 4) 2
2: (5, 1, 4) 1 3 : (1,4)
3 :(1,4) 1 4 : (5,2, 3) 1
4 : (5, 2, 3) 2 5: (2, 4) 2
5 : (2, 4) 2
TT Hop
0 : (1) 2
1 :(0, 2,3)
2 : (6,1, 4) 1
3 : (1,4) 1
4 : (6, 2, 3) 0
6 : (2, 4) 1
Fig.5.12.2. Message reduction using Fisheye.
Protocol operation :
1 Fisheye state routing is a table-driven or proactive routing protocol. It is
based on link state routing and able to immediately providing route
181 (1T-8) J
Mobile Computing
information when needed. FSR functionality is similar to link state as it
maintains a full topology map at each node.
2. The topology labels are send to local neighbours only. Sequence numbers
are used for entry replacements and for loop free routing
3 The Fisheye scope message updating scheme is highly accurate for
inner scope node as entries in the routing table corresponding to nodes
within the smallest scope are send to the neighbours may blur due to
longer exchange interval but there is no need to find the destination
firstly.
Advantages of FSR:
1. FSR is suitable for large and highly networked environment.
2. It is robust to host mobility.
3. Reduce routing and update traffic.
Disadvantages of FSR :
1. Routing table storage is complex.
2. FSR does not provide any kind of security.
PART-2
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Adhoc on Demand Distance
Vector Routing (AOVD), Temporary Ordered Routing Algorithm
(TORA), QOS in Adhoc Networks Applications.
CONCEPT DUTLINE : PART-2
Dynamic source routing isa source routed on-demand routing
protocol in adhoc networks.
AODV minimizes the number of broadcasts by creating routes
on-demand as opposed to DSDV.
TORA isa source initiated on-demand routing algorithm.
Static routing is simply the process of manually entering routes
into a device's routing table via a configuration file that is loaded
when the routing device start up.
Dynamic routing protocols are supported by software applications
running on the routing device which dynamically learn network
destination and how toget tothem.
Questions-Answers
182 (IT-8)J AdhocNetworks
Que 5.13. Explain source routing.

OR
Explain the following terms:
i. Global State Routing (GSR)
ii. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
ii. Destination Sequence Distance Vector routing (DSD)
Answer
Global state routing: Refer Q.5.10, Page 175J, Unit-5.
Dynamic source routing :
1 Dynamic source routing is asource routed on-demand routing protocol
in adhoc networks.
2. It uses source routing, which is a technique in which the sender of a
packet determines the complete sequence of nodes through which the
node has travel.
3. Thus the source nodes stores the whole path to the destination, source
stores path with every message, so nodes on the path simply chop off
themselves and send the message to the next node.
4. So, the nodes do not need to exchange the routing table information
periodically and thus reduces the bandwidth.
5. Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a "route cache"
which contains the list of routes that a node has learnt.
6. Whenever the node finds a new route it adds the new route in its
"routing cache".
7. Each node also maintains a sequence counter "request id to uniquely
identify the requests generated by the mobile host.
8. The pair<source address, request id> uniquely identifies any request in
the adhoc network.
9 The protocol does not need transmissions between hosts to work in
bidirection.
10. The main phases in the protocol are route discovery process and route
maintenance process.
Destination sequence distance vector routing : Refer Q. 5.11,
Page 176J, Unit-5.
Que 5.14. What are the characteristic of MANET ? Explain the
process of path discovery and path maintenance in DSR routing
protocols.
183 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Answer
Characteristic of Manet :
routing protocols
The process of path discovery and path maintenance in DSR
are as follows :
1. Route discovery:
route
a. Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover the
to any destination in the adhoc network.
destination, it
b. When a source node wants to send a packet to a
looks up its route cache to determine ifit already contains a route
to the destination.
exists, then it
C. Ifit finds that an unexpired route to the destination
uses this route to send the packet.
Ifit does not havea valid route, then it sends a route request packet
by broadcasting it to the neighbours.
source address,
e The route request (RREQ) packet contains the
of hops
request id and a route record in which the sequence destination
traversed by the request packet before reaching the
are noted down as shown in Fig. 5.14.1.
2<1,2> <1,3,5,7>
Source 5 <1,3,5>
<l>
8) Destination
<1,3>
<1> <14,6>
<1,4>
Fig. 5.14.1. Building record route during route discovery.

a route to the
f Each intermediate node checks whether it knows
destination.
record of the packet and
It does not append its address to the route
forwards the packet to its neighbours.
h. To limit the number of route requests propagated, a node processes
the packet
the route request packet only if it has not already seen packet.
and its address is not present in the route record of the
i A route reply (RREP) is generated when either
the destination or
the destination
an intermediate node with current information about
receives the route request packet.
the
If the route reply is generated by the destination then it places
route record from route request packet into the route reply packet.
k
On the other hand, if the node generating the route reply is an
intermediate node then it appends its cached route to destination to
184 (IT.8) J
Adhoc Networks
the route record of route request packet and puts that into the
route reply packet as shown in Fig. 5.14.2.
Tosend the route reply packet, the responding node must have a
route to the source. If it has a route to the source in its route cache,
it can use that route.
Source( 1)
5
8)Destination
<1,4,6>
<1,4,6>
<1,4,6>
Fig. 5.14.2. Propagation of route reply with the route record.
2 Route maintenance :
a. Route maintenance is the procedure of monitoring the correct
operation of route in use.
b. The host that uses the route does this maintenance.
C. DSR uses two type of packets for route maintenance :
Route error packet
Acknowledgements
d. When a node encounters a fatal transmission problem at its data
link layer, it generates a Route Error Packet (RERR).
e. When a node receives a route error packet, it removes the hop in
error from its routing cache.
All routes that contain the hop in error are truncated at that point.
Acknowledgement packets are used to verify the correct operation
of the route links.
h. This also includes passive acknowledgements in which a node hears
the next hop forwarding the packet along the route.
Que 5.15. Describe any two of the following:

i. DSDV
ii. DSR
iüi. AODV UPTU2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
DSDV: Refer Q. 5.11, Page 176J, Unit-5.
DSR: Refer Q. 5.13, Page 182J, Unit-5.
AODV:
1. AODV routing is an improvement on the DSDV algorithm.
185 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
2 AODV minimizes the number of broadcasts by creating routes on-demard
as opposed to DSDV that maintains the list of all the routes.
3. AODV is designed to improve upon the performance characteristics of
DSDV in the creation and maintenance of routes.
4. The primary objectives of AODV protocol are :
a. To broadcast discovery packets only when necessary.
b To distinguish between local connectivity management
(neighbourbood detection) and general topology maintenance.
C.
To disseminate information about changes in local connectivity to
those neighbouring mobile nodes that are likely to need the
information.
5. AODV deals with routing table.
6. Every node hasa routing table.
7. When a node knows a route to the destination, it sends a route reply to
the source node.
8. Its entries are :
a. Destination IP address
b. Prefix size
C Destination sequence number
d. Next hop IP address
e. Lifetime (expiration or detection time of the route)
f. Hop count (Number of hops to reach the destination)
Network interface
h. Routing states (for example, RREQ for route request, RREP for
route reply and RERR for route error)
Advantages of AODV:
1. Loop free routing.
2. Optional multicast.
3. Reduced controloverhead.
Disadvantages of AODV:
1. Delay caused by route discovery process.
2 Bidirectional connection needed in order to detect a unidirectional
link.
Que 5.16. Describe the working of AODV routing protocols in
MANETs. Describe how routing table will be maintained in AODV
routing protocol. UPTU2012-13, Marks 10
Answer
The path discovery and path maintenance of AODV is done as follows :
Path discovery :
1 AODV uses a broadcast route discovery mechanism. Path discovery
process is initiated when a node reguires to comm1nicate with a node
for which it has no route by broadcasting a route request (RREQQ packet
containing the source address, source sequence number, broadcast ID,
destination address, destination segquence number, hop count to its
neighbours.
2. Hop count is initially 0and is incremented by each node as it forwards
the RREQ towards the destination.
3. An intermediate node upon receiving a RREQ first checks that RFEQ
was received over a bidirectional link.
4. Ifit has then it checks if it has already processed a similar RREQ packet
and if it has then the RREQ packet is discarded.
5. Otherwise, the node checks if it has a route entry for the destination. If
it has a routing table entry for the destination then it replies to the
source only if the destination sequence number in RREQ is greater
than the destination sequence number in its route table otherwise it
rebroadcasts the RREQ packet.
6. Reverse path is established as the RREQ traverses towards the
destination.
7. The destination or the intermediate node responds to RREQ packet
with a route reply (RREP)packet having similar fields as that of RREQ
packet, RREP travels back to the source using the reverse paths.
Route request in AODV:
B
(M)
_Represents a node that has received RREQ for Dfrom S

F
B
G
H
N
K
Represents transmission of RREQ
(M) L
D N
Represents links on reverse path
Reverse path setup in A0DV:
M L
Node C receives RREQfrom Gand H but does not forward it again,

because node C has already forwarded RREQ once.
(B)
M
(A
{D
Node Ddoes not forward RREQ, because node Dis the intended target
of the RREQ.
Route reply in AODV:
+---- Represents links on path taken by RREP

Forward path setup in AODV:
A
H
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along the reverse path.
Represents a link on the forward path
Data delivery in AODV:
Fig. 5.16.1.
Routing table entries is used to forward data packet. Route is not
included in packet header.
Que 5.17. Write short note on Temporally Ordered Routing

Algorithm (TORA). UPTU 2011-12, Marks 10
OR
mechanism of
Describe route discovery and route maintenance
AODV and TORA. UPTU2014-15,2015-16; Marks 10|
Answer
AODV: Refer Q. 5.16, Page 185J, Unit-5.
TORA:
algorithm.
1 The TORA is a source initiated on-demand routing
distributed routing algorithm
2 It is a highly adaptive, efficient and scalable
based on the concept of link reversal.
reaction to topology
3 This protocol is mainly designed to minimize the
changes.
multihop wireless
4. TORA is proposed for highly dynamic mobile,
networks.
to a destination node.
5. TORA finds multiple routes from a source node
messages are localized to
6 The main feature of TORA is that the control
topological change.
avery smallset of nodes near the occurrence of a
about adjacent nodes.
7. To this, the nodes maintain routing information
8
: Logical time of a link
Each node has a quintuple associated with it ordering parameter, the
failure, a reference indicator bit, a propagation level.
reference
unique ID of the node that defined new
9. In this protocol a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each

destination node of the network.
10. The protocol has mainly three phases :
Route discovery or route creation
b. Route maintenance
C. Route erasure
11. These three types of packets used in the protocol are :
a. QRY packets, used for creating routes.
b. Update (UDP) packets, used for both creating and maintaining
routes.
C. CLR packets, used for erasing routes.
The TORA protocol has mainly three phases :
1. Route discovery or Route creation :
Route discovery is initiated only when a node having no route to
the destination requires a route.
b Route creation is done using QRY and UDP packets.
C. Aquery packet consists of a Destination ID.
d. An UDP packet consists of Destination_ID and the height of the
node.
e.
The route creation algorithm starts with the height (propagation
ordering parameter) of destination set to 0 and all other node's
height set to NULL.
Source (1)Y
(-, -)
Destination
Fig. 5.17.1. Propagation of the QRY packet through the network.

node's id
The source broadcast a QRY packet with the destination
in it.
that
f Anode with anon-NULL height responds with a UDP packet
has its height in it.
A node receivinga UDP packet sets its height to one more
than
that of the node that generated the UDP.
h. Anode with higher height is considered up stream and a node with
lower height down stream.
0,3)
Source (1
(0,3) 6
(0,2) (0,0)
8
3(0,3) Destination
(0,2) (0,1)
4 6
Fig. 5.17.2. Height of each node updates as a result of UDP message.

In this way a directed acyclic graph is constructed from source to
the destination. Fig. 5.17.1l and 5.17.2 illustrates a route creation
process in TORA.
As shown in Fig. 5.17.1, node 5 does not propagate QRY from node
3 as it has already seen and propagated QRY message from node 2.
k. In Fig.5.17.2, the source (i.e., node 1) may have received a UDP
each from node 2 or node 3 but since node 4 gives it lesser height,
it retains that height.
2. Route maintenance :
When a node moves the DAG route is broken and route maintenance
is needed to re-establish a DAG for the same destination.
b When the last down stream link of a node fails, it generates a new
reference level.
C This results in the propagation of that reference level by
neighbouring nodes as shown in Fig. 5.17.3.
d. Links are reversed to reflect the change in adapting to the new
reference level.
e This has the same effect as reversing the direction of one or more
links when a node has no down stream links.
3. Route erasure :
In the route erasure phase, TORA floods a broadcast clear packet
(CLR)throughout the network to erase invalid routes.
b In TORA there is a potential for oscillations to occur, especially
when multiple sets of coordinating nodes are concurrently detecting
partitions, erasing routes and building new routes based on each
other.
C.
Because TORA uses internodal coordination, its instability problem
is similar to the "count-to-infinity" problem in distance vector routing
protocols, except that such oscillations are temporary and route
convergence willultimately occur.
21,-1) G0,1)
Source 1
(1,-3) 5
(1,0) (0,0)
8
3) (1,1) Destination
(0,2 (0,1)_
6
Fig. 5.17.3. Route maintenance in TORA.
Que 5.18. Explain hybrid routing protocols.

Answer
1. Hybrid routing protocols combines the advantages of both table-driven
and on-demand routing.
2. In this the distance vector routing (DVR) works by sharing its knowledge
of entire network with its neighbours and link state routing (LSR) tell
every router on the network about its closest neighbours so it is the
combination of both DVR and LSR.
3. Hybrid routing protocols use distance vectors for more accurate metrics
to determine the best paths to destination networks and report routing
information only when there is a change in the topology of the network.
4. Hybrid routing allows for rapid convergence but requires less processing
power and memory as compared to link state routing.
Some examples of hybrid routing protocols are:
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), developed
by CISC0.
b ZRP (Zone Routing Protocol).
Que 5.19. Explain with example:

Proactive routing and reactive routing protocols
ii. State and dynamic routing
iii. Source routing |UPTU 2012-13,Marks 10
Answer
Proactive routing and reactive routing protocols : Refer Q. 5.7,
Page 173J, Unit-5.
193 (IT-8) J
Mobile Computing
Static and dynamic routing :
Static routing :
entering routes intoa
1. Static routing is simply the process of manually
file that is loaded when the
device's routing table via a configuration
routing device start up.
by a network administrator
2, As an alternative, these routes can be entered
who configures the routes manually.
Since these manually configured, routes do not change after they are
3. called 'static' rouLes.
configured (unless a human changes them) they are
process.
4. Static routing is the simplest form of routing but it is a manual
to configure
devices
5. Static routing is appropriate when you have very few change.
and when you know the routes will probably never
external networks well
6 Static routing also does not handle failures in
be updated to
because any route that is configured manually must
reconfigured manually to fix or repair any lost connectivity.
Dynamic routing :
by software applications
1. Dynamic routing protocols are supported learn network
running on the routing device which dynamicallythose definitions
destinations and how to get to them and also advertise
to other routers.
routers to learn about all
2. This advertisement function allows all the
the destination networks that exist.
learn the routes to all networks
3. A router using dynamic routing will
that are directly connected to the device.
that run the same
4. The router will learn routes from other routers
routing protocol (RIP, RIP2, BGP etc.).
and select one or
5. Each router will then sort through its list of routers
the router knows.
more best routes for each network destination
this best route'
6. Dynamic routing protoccls will then distribute
information to other routers running the same routing protocol,
exist and can be
thereby extending the information on what network
reached.
to logical
7. This gives dynamic routing protocols the ability to adaptoutages on
network topology changes, equipment failure or network
the fly.
Source routing : Refer Q. 5.13, Page 182J, Unit-5
Que 5.20. Write down the key issues, objectives and criteria of
QOS routing. UPTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5|
Answer
Issues of QOS routing : Issues of QoS routing in adhoc networks :
1 Dynamic varying network topology

2. Imprecise state information
3. Scarce resources
4 Absence of communication infrastructure
5. Lack of centralized control
6 Power limitations
7 Heterogeneous nodes and networks
8 Error prone shared radio channel
9 Hidden terminal problem
10. Insecure medium
Objectives and eriteria of QoS routing:
1 To meet QoS requirements of end users.
2 To optimize network resource usage.
3. To gracefully degrade network performance under heavy load.
4 Difficulties arise because node mobility can cause frequent network
topology changes.
5 Channels can have high error rates, the jitter rate is high and several
different applications can be sharing the use of the communication
medium.
Criteria of QoS routing classification :
1 Routing information update mechanism such as proactive/table-driven,
reactive/on-demand and hybrid.
2 Proactive table based routing scheme : It requires each node of the
network to maintain tables to store routing information.
3 Reactive on-demand source based routing:Routes are created when
necessary. Route will be maintained until it is no longer needed.
4. Use of information for routing such as information of past history,
prediction.
5 State maintenance such as local, global.
Que 5.21. How can we obtain quality of service on MANET ?
OR
Explain the mechanisms to address quality of services issues in
MANET. UPTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
1. For obtaining QoS (Quality of Service) on a MANET, it is not sufficient
to provide a basic routing functionality.
2. Other aspects should also be taken into consideration such as bandwidth

constraints due to a shared media, dynamic topology since MNs are
mobile and the topology may change and power consumption due to
limited batteries.
3. For wired networks there are two approaches to obtain QoS : an over
provisioning and network traffic engineering.
4. Over provisioning consists of the network operator offering ahuge
amount of resources such that the network can accommodate all the
demanding applications.
5. Instead, network traffic engineering classifies ongoing connections and
treats them according to a set of established rules.
6. Two proposals belorging to this class has been done inside the IETF:
Integrated Service (IntServ) and Differentiated Service (DiffServ).
7. IntServ is a reservation oriented method where users request for the
QoS parameters they need.
8 The resource reservation protocol (RSVP) has been proposed by IETF to
set up resource reservations for IntServ.
9. Opposite to IntServ, DiffServ is a reservation-less method.
10. Using Diffserv, service providers offer a set of differentiated classes of
QoS to their customers to support various types of applications.
11. IPv6 traffic class octet is used to mark a packet to receive a particular
QoS class.
12. In general, the specific aspects of MANET's make the wire-based QoS
models not appropriate for MANETs.
13. Over-provisioning, for instance, may not be possible because resources
are scarce.
14. IntServ/RSVP may require unaffordable storage and processing for MNs,
and signaling overhead.
15. DiffServ on the other hand, is a light weight overhead model that may
be more suitable for MANETs.
16 However, DiffeServ organization in customers and service providers
does not fit the distributed nature of MANETs.

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
Q.1. What do you mean by adhoc network?

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1

Part-1 (5J- 27J)

Part-2 eeeeee (27J- 53J)

GSM : Air Interface

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 27J

7. Now, organizations are able to connect their portable PC's to reliable

Que 1.2. What are the various characteristics of mobile

computing environment ? Discuss challenges being faced to support

b. Location management, again due to mobility location management

Que 1.3. Discuss some limitations of mobile computing.

Que 1.4. What do youunderstand by mobile computing ? Discuss

available and enabled with the wireless network standard

Que 1.8. Compare the three generations of wireless telephone

Reliability high reasonably high

(ee Computer with

Que 1.8. Give some overview of wireless transmission.

Fig. 1.8.1. Time domain representation of a signal.

Fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred as

Fig. 1.8.2. Space division multiplexing (SDM).

Fig 1.8.3. Frequency division multiplexing.

Fig, 1.8.4. Time division multiplexing (TDM).

Fig. 1.8.5. Code division multiplexing (CDM).

Que 1.9. What is cellular system ? Write the advantages and

Fig, 1.10.2. 3-cell cluster.

Fig. 1.10.3. 7-cell cluster.

Fig. 1.10.4. Frequency reuse.

Large cells for

Small cells for

Fig. 1.10.6. Handoff between adjacent cells.

Describe the various components of cellular system.

b. When a call is placed to a mobile station, a packet is sent to the

CONCEPT OUTLINE: PART-2

Que 1.14. Explain GSM communications along with its history

1. Support for international roaming.

b. Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical

Radio cell BTS

OSS EIR AUC OMd

iii. Visitor Location Register (VLR):

3. Operations Sub-systems (0SS):

Fig. 1.18.1. Authentication and encryption.

Que 1.19. In context to cellular networks, explain the location

Que 1.30. What do you mean by handover ? Explain the reasons

MS) MS) (MS MS

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC |BSC

Fig. 1.20.1. Types of handover in GSM.

The BSC forwards a handover (HO)request acknowledgement to the

ch. activation ack

Clear command Clear command HO complete HO complete

Fig. 1.20.3. Intra-MSC handover.

9 On receiving HO acknowledgement the MSC issues an HO command

Que 1.21. Discuss CDMA channel access method.

a Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) comprises all algorithms

f. Here duplex channel is used totransmit data from mobile station

Fig. 1.21.1. Frequency division multiplexing for

Fig.1.21.2. Time division multiplexing for

i. Idea: Spread the spectrum using orthogonal codes.

2 GPRS became the first-stepping-stone on the path between the second

Fig. 1.23.1. GPRS architecture.

3. Connectivity between the SGSN and GGSN:

d. You could have multiple APN's programmed into your phone so

Que 1.24. Discuss about the following :

4. Virtual private network: GPRS network can be used to offer

1. Limited cell capacity for all users: