MOBILE COMPUTING

SEM -VI(CSC603)

CHAPTER: 1
By,
1
Prof. Urjashree Patil
COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To introduce the basic concepts and principles in mobile
computing. This includes major techniques involved, and
networks & systems issues for the design and
implementation of mobile computing systems and
applications.
 To explore both theoretical and practical issues of mobile
computing.
 To provide an opportunity for students to understand the
key components and technologies involved and to gain
hands-on experiences in building mobile applications.

 Prerequisite: Computer Networks

2
COURSE OUTCOMES
 On successful completion of course learner will be able:
1. To identify basic concepts and principles in mobile communication
& computing, cellular architecture.
2. To describe the components and functioning of mobile networking.
3. To classify variety of security techniques in mobile network.
4. To apply the concepts of WLAN for local as well as remote
applications.
5. To describe and apply the concepts of mobility management
6. To describe Long Term Evolution (LTE) architecture and its
interfaces. 3
SYLLABUS

4
SYLLABUS

5
SYLLABUS

6
TEXT BOOKS
 Jochen Schilller,‖Mobile Communication , Addision wisely,Pearson
Education
 Wireless Communications & Networks,‖ By William Stallings,
Second Edition, Pearson Education
 Raj Kamal, Mobile Computing, 2/e , Oxford University Press-New
Delhi

7
REFERENCE BOOKS
 LTE Self-Organizing Networks (SON): Network Management Automation for
Operational Efficiency, Seppo Hamalainen, Henning Sanneck , Cinzia Sartori,
Wiley publications
 2 Christopher Cox, ―An Introduction to LTE: LTE, LTE-Advanced, SAE and
4G Mobile Communications,‖ Wiley publications
 3 Mobility Protocols and Handover Optimization: Design, Evaluation and
Application By Ashutosh Dutta, Henning Schulzrinne, IEEE Press, Wiley
Publication
 4 Michael Gregg, ―Build your own security lab,‖ Wiley India edition
 5 Emerging Wireless Technologies and the Future Mobile Internet, Dipankar
Raychaudhuri, Mario Gerla, Cambridge.
 6 Andreas F.Molisch, ―Wireless Communications,‖ Second Edition, Wiley 8
Publications.
MOBILE APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT LAB
 Lab Outcome:
1. To develop and demonstrate mobile applications using various
tools
2. Students will articulate the knowledge of GSM, CDMA &
Bluetooth technologies and demonstrate it.
3. Students will able to carry out simulation of frequency reuse ,
hidden terminal problem
4. To develop security algorithms for mobile communication
network
5. To demonstrate simulation and compare the performance of
Wireless LAN
6. To implement and demonstrate mobile node discovery and route
maintains.
 Description: The softwares like Android Studio, J2ME, NS2, NS3 and any
other software which is suitable are recommended for performing the 9
practicals.
 CSL702: MOBILE APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT LAB
LIST OF EXPERIMENT
1. To understand the cellular frequency reuse concept to find the co-channel cells for a particular cell. Design a game

based application on the above concept.

2. To understand the cellular frequency reuse concept to find the cell clusters within certain geographic area. Design

a game based application on the above concept.

3. Implementation a Bluetooth network with application as transfer of a file from one device to another.

4. To implement a basic function of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) to test the orthogonality and

autocorrelation of a code to be used for CDMA operation. Write an application based on the above concept.

5. To implement Mobile node discovery.

6. Develop an application that writes data to the SD card.

7. Develop an application that uses GUI components.

8. Write an application that draws basic graphical primitives on the screen.

9. Develop an application that makes use of database.

10
10. Implement an application that creates an alert upon receiving a message.
TERM WORK
 Laboratory work will be based on above syllabus with
minimum 10 experiments to be incorporated.

 Oral & Practical exam will be based on the above and

CSC702: Mobile Communication & Computing syllabus.

11
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
12
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE
COMPUTING
 In Mobile communication world there are two important terms
 Mobile
 Wireless

 There are two different kinds of mobility:

 User mobility
 Device portability.
 User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same
or similar telecommunication services at different places.
 e.g. call-forwarding solutions known from the telephone or
computer desktops supporting roaming
 With Device portability the communication device moves
with or without a user.
 e.g. the mobile phone system, where the system itself hands the
device from one radio transmitter (also called a base station) to the
13
next if the signal becomes too weak.
INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING
 Mobile communication is the process of communication
on a mobile device.
 It is also transfer of data to and from handheld devices.

 The term describes one’s ability to use technology while

moving. 
 It requires a wireless network to support outer mobility
and handoff from one network to the next network.
 In mobile computing, a set of distributed computing
systems or service provider, servers participate, connect
and synchronize through mobile communication protocol.

14
INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING
 In mobile computing both physical and logical computing entities
move.
 The physical entities like computers change the locations.
 The logical entities like instances of a running user application
move from one location to another.
 It is the mobility of physical objects (wireless devices) and virtual
objects (data in bits/bytes)
 User of mobile computing environment can access data, information
and other logical objects from any device in network while moving.
 Allows user to perform task from anywhere using computing device 15
in public, corporate and personal information spaces.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION DEVICES

1. Fixed and wired

e.g. Typical desktop computer in an office

2. Mobile and wired

e.g. Laptop connecting to the company’s network via the telephone

network and a modem

3. Fixed and wireless

e.g. Installation of networks

4. Mobile and wireless

Use of wireless networks e.g. GSM

16
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
Vehicles
 Transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via
DAB(Digital Audio Broadcasting)
 Personal communication using GSM
 Position via GPS
 Local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents,
guidance system, redundancy
 Vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be
transmitted in advance for maintenance

Emergencies
 Early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status,
first diagnosis
 Replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes,
hurricanes, fire etc.
 Crisis, war, ... 17
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
Travelling salesmen
 Direct access to customer files stored in a central location
 Consistent databases for all agents
 Mobile office
Replacement of fixed networks
 Remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
 Flexibility for trade shows
 LANs in historic buildings
Entertainment, education, ...
 Outdoor Internet access
 Intelligent travel guide with up-to-date, location dependent
information
 Ad-hoc networks for multi user games
18
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
Location dependent services: Several services that might depend
on the actual location can be distinguished:
 Follow-on services
 Location aware services
 Privacy
 Information services
 Support services
Mobile and wireless devices
 Sensor
 Embedded controllers
 Pager
 Mobile phones
 Personal digital assistant
19
 Pocket computer
 Notebook/laptop
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,

 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
20
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
TELECOMMUNICATION GENERATIONS
 As the Cellular systems improvised with respect to voice
quality and data rate, they were categorized into generations.

 Refer: https://www.ques10.com/p/48241/generations-of-mobile- 21
communication-1/
TELECOMMUNICATION GENERATIONS

22
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,

 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
23
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
CELLULAR SYSTEM
 A cellular network or mobile network is a communication
network where the last link is wireless.
 The network is distributed over land areas called "cells", each
served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, but more normally,
three cell sites or base transceiver stations.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon

A hexagon cell shape is highly

recommended for its easy
coverage and calculations. It
offers the following
advantages −
1. Provides equidistant antennas
2.Distance from center to vertex
equals length of side
24
FEATURES OF CELLULAR SYSTEM
o Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
o Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
o Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large
number of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage
region.
o Communication is always between mobile and base station (not
directly between mobiles).
o Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels
within a small geographic area called a cell.
o Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
o By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel
o groups may be reused to cover different cells.
o Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
o Frequency reuse or frequency planning. 25
o Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
FEATURES OF CELLULAR SYSTEM
 Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio
frequencies within a given area, that are separated by
considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish
communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits

 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
 e.g. when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and K
be the total number of frequencies used in systems. Then each cell
frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.

 University Question: What is frequency reuse concept in

cellular communication?(5M) 26
COMPONENTS OF CELLULAR
SYSTEM

27
CELLULAR SYSTEM
Advantages of Cellular System:
 Higher capacity
 Implementing SDM allows frequency reuse .
 Less transmission power
 Local interference only
 Robustness: More robust against the failure of single components

Disadvantages of Cellular System:

 Infrastructure needed : Need complex infrastructure to
connect all base stations includes many antennas, switches,
location registers.
 Handover needed : Mobile station has to perform handover when
changing from one cell to another.
 Frequency planning: to avoid interference between transmitters
using the same frequency. 28
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,

 1.2Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
29
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
 Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy in which electric and
magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular to each other and these two
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.
 It exhibits wave like behavior when it is travelling through space.
 Electromagnetic waves can be classified and arranged according to
their various wavelengths/frequencies; this classification is known as
the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Electromagnetic radiation comprises of oscillating electric and magnetic
field components through which information transfer can occur.
 These oscillations are sinusoidal in nature and expressed in cycles per
second or hertz (Hz).
 The range is of these oscillations is quite wide from as low as 1 Hz and
can extend up to a large value.

30
 University Question: Draw and explain electromagnetic spectrum
for communication.(5M)
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
 The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from below the low
frequencies which are used for radio communication to gamma
radiation at the high-frequency, thereby covering wavelengths
from thousands of kilometres down to a fraction of the size of an
atom.
 Most of the frequencies of Electromagnetic spectrum are used for
wide range of communication systems based on different
applications.
 Electromagnetic waves are distinguished by three physical
properties, which are frequency f, wavelength λ and photon
31
energy E.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
 The transmission over the air (i.e. radio transmission) can take place using
many different frequency bands. Each band has its own advantage as well as
disadvantage.

 The above diagram shows the frequency spectrum used that can be used for
data transmission. It starts from 30 Hz and goes upto 300 THz.
 Along with the frequencies are show the wavelength of the signals calculated 32
by the formula: λ=c/f where c=speed of light in vacuum i.e. 3.8*108 m/s.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY
SPECTRUM
Band Range Details/Application
Very low frequency From 3 KHz onwards They are long waves, having large wavelength

Low frequency (LF) 30 KHz to 300 KHz Used by submarines due to their water-penetrating
ability and can also follow earth’s surface.

Medium frequency 300 KHz to 3 MHz Used for radio broadcast using AM/SW/FM
(MF) modulation techniques.,Also used for aircraft
navigation

High frequency (HF) 3 MHz to 30 MHz Used for radio broadcast using AM/SW/FM
modulation techniques.,Also used for aircraft
navigation

Very,High Frequency 30 MHz to 300 MHz TV broadcast range begins here:,Used for TV
(VHF) broadcast, Land mobile.

Ultra-High Frequency 300MHz to 3 GHz WLANs, Analog-based mobile phones, cordless

(UHF) telephones, 3G cellular systems etc.

Super High Frequency 3 GHz to 30 GHz Directed microwave links, radar, satellite
(SHF)
Extremely 30 GHZ to 300 GHz Very close to the infrared region; also used for
High,Frequency (EHF) satellite, radar. 33
Infra-red 3 THz to 30 THz Used for directed links e.g. to connect different
buildings via laser links.
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,

 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
34
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
ANTENNA
 An Antenna is a structure affiliated with the region of transition
between the “guided wave” and “free space”.
 An Antenna (or sometimes called as an Aerial), is an electrical
device that converts electric power into electromagnetic waves (or
simply radio waves) and vice-versa.
 A signal from a transmission line or the guiding device (hence the
term guided wave) like a co-axial cable, is given to an antenna,
which then converts the signal into electromagnetic energy to be
transmitted through space (hence the term free space).
 Antenna can be used for both Transmission and Reception of
electromagnetic radiation i.e. a Transmitting Antenna with collect
electrical signals from a transmission line and converts them into
radio waves whereas a Receiving Antenna does the exact opposite
i.e. it accepts radio waves from the space and converts them to
electrical signals and gives them to a transmission line.
35
 University Question: Write short note on antenna.(10M)
ANTENNA

36
Refer: https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-antennas/
ANTENNA: ISOTROPIC RADIATORS
What antenna basically does….
 To couple the energy from the transmitter to the outside world and ,in reverse,
from the outside world to the receiver.
 To couple electromagnetic energy to and from space to and from a wire or
coaxial cable(or any other appropriate conductor).

Fig : Radiation pattern of an isotropic radiators

 Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for

radio transmission
 Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a
theoretical reference antenna
37
 Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally)
 Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
ANTENNA: SIMPLE DIPOLES
 Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g. dipoles with lengths 𝜆/4 on car
roofs or 𝜆/2 as Hertzian dipole.
 Shape of antenna proportional to wavelength.
 The figure beside is of simple antenna.

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

 A 𝜆/2 dipole has a uniform or omnidirectional radiation pattern in one plane

and a figure eight pattern in the other two planes as shown in above fig. 38
 This type of antenna can only overcome environmental challenges by
boosting the power level of the signal.
ANTENNA: DIRECTED AND SECTORIZED
 Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile
phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
 When antenna is positioned in a particular valley or building an
omni- directional radiation pattern is not very useful in that case
directional antenna with certain fixed preferential transmission and
directional can be used.
 Directed antennas are typically applied in cellular systems

39
Fig. Radiation pattern of Directed antenna
ANTENNA: SECTORIZED
 Several directed antennas can be combined on a single pole to
construct a Sectorized antenna .
 A cell can be Sectorized into three or six sectors as shown in
below fig. ,thus enabling frequency reuse concept.

Fig. Radiation pattern of Sectorized antenna

40
ANTENNA: DIVERSITY
Grouping of 2 or more antennas
Multi-element antenna arrays Antenna diversity
 Switched diversity, selection diversity
 Receiver chooses antenna with largest output
Diversity combining

 combine output power to produce gain

 Co-phasing needed to avoid cancellation

Fig. Diversity Antenna System 41

CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,

 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
42
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
SIGNAL PROPAGATION
 Signal propagation is the act of propagating i.e, movement of
waves. Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel.
Transmission range

 communication possible
 low error rate
Detection range

 detection of the signal possible

no communication possible
Interferencerange
 signal may not be detected
signal adds to the background
noise

43
SIGNAL PROPAGATION
Propagation is in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power is proportional to 1/d²

 (d = distance between sender and receiver) Problems occurred in

wireless transmission
1.Path loss of radio signals
2.Additional signal propagation effects
 Fading (frequency dependent)
 Shadowing
 Reflection at large obstacles

Fig. Blocking(Shadowing), Reflection and Refraction of waves. 44

 University Question: What are various issues in signal propagation?
(10M)
SIGNAL PROPAGATION
 Scattering at small obstacles
 Diffraction at edges

3. Multipath propagation

45
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,

 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
46
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Signal characteristics describe the nature and features of a
signal.
 In data communication the signal is represented by using the
following four characteristics,

1. Frequency of a Signal

2. Amplitude of a signal

3. Time Period of a Signal

4. Phase of a Signal

47
1. FREQUENCY OF A SIGNAL
 Frequency is the rate at which a signal repeats in one second. It is
my measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency is basically the number of
waves passing through a point in one second. 

48
Fig: (a) Sine wave (b) Saw-tooth Wave
1. FREQUENCY OF A SIGNAL

Fig: (a) Sine wave (b) Saw-tooth Wave

 If one wave is passing through a point in one second then frequency is 1 Hz. If
10 waves are passing then frequency is 10 Hz. 49
 A random signal can have more than one frequencies because it is not
following a particular pattern. So it is usually described in terms of bandwidth.
2. AMPLITUDE OF A SIGNAL
 Amplitude of a wave basically explains how strong is the
signal.
 If you observe above figures the amplitude is equivalent to the
height of the signal.
 It basically represents fluctuation or displacement of a signal
above and below the reference point or mean value.
 If it’s a voice signal then amplitude may be loudness of the
voice.
 If it’s an electric signal amplitude could be the voltage level.
50
3. TIME PERIOD OF A SIGNAL
 Time period is the time of completion of one wave. Refer figure below to
understand this. Time period and frequency are reciprocal to each other i.e
T = 1/f.

51

Fig. Periodic Signal Examples

3. TIME PERIOD OF A SIGNAL
 If a signal has small time period then its frequency is high. Because
the length of a wave is small. So more waves will pass through a
point in one second. Signal with large time period has low
frequency. Because less number of waves will pass through a point
in one second.

52

Fig.: (a) large time period, (b) small time period

4. PHASE OF A SIGNAL
 Phase is basically the starting point of a signal. Phase difference brings
the concept of leading and lagging between the two waves. We can
distinguish the two signals on the same channel by their phase
difference.
 Another meaning of the phase is that how much a signal has been
shifted from the reference point. A signal starting before the reference
is lagging behind a signal starting on the reference or beyond the
reference point by some phase angle measured in radians.

53
Fig. Phase Difference between two waves
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,

 Multiplexing,
54
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
MULTIPLEXING
 In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the
subscriber to send information simultaneously from the mobile station to
the base station while receiving information from the base station to the
mobile station.
 A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit
in each cell communicates with a base station.
 The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to increase the
capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a
given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
 There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These
includes mainly the following −
 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
55
 University Question: Discuss multiplexing in wireless
communication.(10M)
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (SDMA)
 Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple
access is a technique which is MIMO (multiple-input
multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.
 All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
 SDMA is completely free from interference.
 A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of
the same frequency.
 The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base
station in SDMA, can track a moving user.
56
 Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 In wireless transmission SDM implies a separate sender for each
communication channel with wide enough distance between senders.
 In below figure the channel K1 to K6 can be mapped onto the three
different spaces S1 to S3.
 Fig. SDMA
 The space between
interference range is called
Guard space. It is needed
to avoid frequency band
overlapping.
 Example : In FM radio
stations the transmission
range is limited to a certain
region – many radio stations
around the world can use 57
the same frequency without
interference.
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS (FDMA)
 FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services.
 The features of FDMA are as follows.
 FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different
user to access the network.
 If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to
the other users.
 FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less
complex than TDMA.
 Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
 The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive
58
simultaneously and continuously in FDMA.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
 FDM describes schemes to subdivide the frequency dimension into
several non-overlapping frequency bands as shown in below fig.
 Each channel ‘Ki’ allotted its own frequency band .
 FDM is used for radio stations within the same region ,where each
station has its own frequency.
 Fig. FDM
Advantages:

 No dynamic coordination
necessary
 Works also for analog signals
Disadvantages:

 Waste of bandwidth if
the traffic is distributed unevenly
 Inflexible
59
 Guard spaces
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)
 In the cases where continuous transmission is not required,
there TDMA is used instead of FDMA.
 The features of TDMA include the following.
 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users
where each users makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
 Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in
bursts. Hence handsoff process is simpler.
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception
thus duplexers are not required.
 TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different
numbers of time slots per frame to different users.
 Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by
concatenating or reassigning time slot based on priority.
60
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 It is more flexible scheme for mobile communication .
 Here channel Ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount
of time
 i.e. all senders use the same frequency but at different points of
time.
Advantages:

 Only one carrier in the

medium at any time
 Throughput high even
for many users
Disadvantages:

 Precise synchronization
necessary
61
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
(CDMA)
 Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple
access where several transmitters use a single channel to send
information simultaneously.
 Its features are as follows.
 In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting
allotted by separate frequency.
 CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
 While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users
having same code can communicate with each other.
 CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
62
 The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 It is relatively new scheme in commercial communication systems.
 First used in military applications due to its inherent security features.
 CDM has built in security: if the language is unknown, the signals can
still be received, but they are useless.
 By using a secrete code (or language), a secure channel can be
established in ‘hostile’ environment.
Advantages:

 Bandwidth efficient
 No coordination and
synchronization necessary
 Good protection against
interference and tapping
Disadvantages:

 Lower user data rates.

 Relatively high complexity 63
of the receiver.
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW
 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing,
 Telecommunication Generations,
 Cellular systems,
 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum,
 Antenna ,
 Signal Propagation,
 Signal Characteristics,
 Multiplexing,
64
 Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS
SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
 It is form of encoding in wireless communication.
 It uses wideband technology
 The frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately spread in the
frequency domain.
 The resultant signal has much greater bandwidth than the original
signal.

65
SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
 Fig. (i) shows narrowband signal transmitted from a sender which is signal
user wants to send.
 dP/df is the power density of this signal.
 The energy required to transmit the signal is equal to area covered by the
signal.
 In Fig.(ii) Second step is to spread user signal.
 The process of spreading the signal is converting a narrowband signal into
broadband signal.
 This can be achieved by multiplying a PN sequence with the user data.
 The energy required to transmit the signal is same, but the power level is
much lower than the narrowband signal. 66
SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
 During the transmission, narrowband and broadband interference get added
to the signal shown in fig. (iii).
 At the receiver, sum of interference and user signals is received, shown in
fig. (iv)
 The receiver now despreads the signal i.e. converts the spread user signal
into a narrowband signal.
 This is achieved by multiplying the received signal with the same PN
sequence used in step (ii) and by using band pass filter to cut off
frequencies left and right of the narrowband signal shown in fig. (v).

67
ADVANTAGES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM
TECHNIQUES
1. Good protection against narrowband interference: A signal with
narrow frequency is subject to catastrophic interference that can wipe out
narrowband signals for the duration of the interference. Spread spectrum
technique spreads the narrowband signal into a broadband signal using a
special code to achieve resistance against this narrowband interference.
2. Resistance to interception: A constant frequency signal is easy to
intercept, and is therefore not well suited to applications in which
information must be kept confidential. In spread spectrum technique, the
signal is spread using a specific, but complicated mathematical function.
In order to intercept the signal, a receiver must know how to despread the
signal.
3. Spread spectrum systems can co-exist with other radio systems, without
being disturbed by their presence and without disturbing their activity.
Thus the spread spectrum systems may be operated without the need for
license.
68
4. Spread spectrum techniques can resist multi-path fading.
DISADVANTAGES OF SPREAD
SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
1. Complexity of receiver is increased.

2. Large frequency band is needed for spreading the signal.

3. Spread signals with low strength may interfere with other

transmissions and appear as noise.

4. Precise power control is needed.

 University Questions: What are the main benefits of spread

spectrum? Explain Direct sequence spread spectrum in detail?
How can DSSS systems benefit from multipath propagation?
(10M) 69
 Explain different types of spread spectrum technique used in
cellular system.(5M)
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
(DSSS)

70
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
(DSSS)
 Each bit is represented by multiple bits using spreading code,
Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band and in
proportion to number of bits used,
 e.g., 10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times bandwidth
of 1 bit code
 One method: Combine input with spreading code using XOR
 a. Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
 b. Input zero bit doesn't alter spreading code bit.
 Data rate is equal to original spreading code and performance is
similar to FHSS 71
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
(DSSS)
DSSS systems take a user bit stream and perform an
(XOR) with so-called chipping sequence as shown in
below figure.
 Fig. Spreading with

DSSS

72
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
(DSSS)
 The example sows that the result is either the sequence 0110101 (if
user bit equals to 0) or its complement 1001010 (if user bit equals to
1)
 The spreading factor

s = tb / tc
 Where tb - Duration of user bit

 tc - Duration of smaller pulses (also called chips) of chipping

sequence
 Civil applications uses spreading factors between 10 to 100.
73
 Military applications uses spreading factors upto10000.
DSSS TRANSMITTER
As shown in the above figure steps involved in DSSS transmitter are
1. Spreading of the user data with chipping sequence(digital
modulation).
2. The spread signal is then modulated with a radio carrier
signal(radio modulation).
3. The radio signal then shifts this signal to the carrier frequency
.
4. This signal is then transmitted.
e.g. assume a user signal with a bandwidth of 1MHz. Spreading
with the 11-chip barker code(10110111000) would result in a
signal with 11MHz bandwidth.

74

Fig. DSSS Transmitter

DSSS RECEIVER

Fig. DSSS Receiver

75
DSSS RECEIVER
 Receiver of DSSS is more complex than transmitter. The receiver
has to perform the inverse functions of the steps of transmitter.
1. Demodulating the received signal.
This is achieved using the same carrier as the transmitter
reversing the modulation and results in a signal with the same
bandwidth as the original spread spectrum signal.
2. Apply additional filtering to generate this signal.
3. Generate same pseudo random sequence as the transmitter.
4. Calculate the product of a chip with incoming signal(by
comprising XOR operation) together with the medium access
mechanism .
5. An integrator adds all these products.
Correlator calculates the products of chips and signal, and adding
the products in an integrator(called as correlation)
6. Finally, in each bit period a decision unit samples the sum
generated by the integrator and decides if this sum represents a
binary 1 or a 0.
76
CHARACTERISTICS OF DSSS
 Secure Communication: If pseudo random code is used then the signal can be
detected at the receiver end. It avoids unauthorized signal access.
 Jamming resistance: The DSSS spectrum power is distributed over a wideband.
Hence, these signals are difficult to jam. The PSD(Power Spectral Density) of
jamming signal decrease by a factor N because of the spectrum spreading.
 Hiding of signal: The DSSS signal spectrum is spread over a wideband . The PSD is
small. Hence, it is simple to hide the signal within the noise floor.
1) Multiple access: Many users can use the same band with a better signal-to-noise
ratio.
2) Resistance to multipath fading: The signal received because of reflection is
delayed version of DSSS signal. The DSSS signal has a low auto correlation with its
delayed version. This minimizes the effect of multi path signals.

3) Near-far problem: The DSSS is affected by the near-far problem. It occurs

77
because of unequal power that is received by the user.
DSSS
 Advantages:
 It has best discrimination against multipath signals.
 It has best noise and antijam performance.
 The unidentified receivers find it difficult to detect the direct
sequence signals
 Disadvantages:
 It has longer acquisition time.
 It requires wide band channel with small phase distortion.
 The pseudo noise generator must generate sequence at high
rates.
 Example:
 CDMA radios
 WLAN ( IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.11 b, Wi-Fi)
 Cordless Phones. 78
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)

 For FHSS systems, the total available bandwidth is split into many
channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard spaces between the
channels.
 Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for a certain
time and then hop to another channel. This pattern of channel usage
is called the hopping sequence.
 Example of FHSS system is Bluetooth.
 This systems implements FDM and TDM.
 FHSS comes in two variants slow hopping and fast hopping (as
shown in below figure).
 In slow hopping , the transmitter uses one frequency for several
bit
periods(no. of hops per signal element). e.g. used in GSM
 For fast hopping , the transmitter changes the frequency
79
several times during the transmission of a single bit.
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)

80
Fig. Slow and fast frequency hopping
FHSS TRANSMITTER
 Step 1: Modulate user data using digital to analog modulation such as FSK
or BPSK. e.g. frequency f0 is used for a binary 0 and f1 is used for binary 1.
 Step 2: Frequency hopping is performed by using hopping sequence. The
hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer generating the carrier
frequency fi.
 Step 3: Second modulation is done. It uses modulated narrowband signal
and carrier frequency to generate a new spread signal with frequency of f i+f0
for a bit 0 and fi + f1 for bit 1.

Fig. FHSS Transmitter 81

FHSS RECEIVER
 Performs reverse functions to reconstruct user data
 Step 1: Demodulate received data by using hopping sequence and
convert signal into narrowband signal.
 Step 2: Perform analog to digital modulation to reconstruct user
data.

Fig. FHSS receiver 82

FHSS
 Advantages:
 It has less distance effect
 The bandwidth of these system is large
 It has short acquisition time
 It can be programmed to avoid some parts of the spectrum.
 Disadvantages:
 It needs error correction
 It needs complex frequency synthesizers
 It is not useful for range and range rate measurement.
 Applications:
 Used in GSM which uses slow frequency hopping
 It is used in Military
 Bluetooth
 WLAN 83
 Walkie-Talkie
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FHSS AND
DSSS
FHSS
Multiple frequencies are used
Hard to find the user’s frequency at
any instance of time
Frequency reuse is allowed
Sender need not wait
Power strength of the signal is high
Stronger and penetrates through
the obstacles
It is never affected by interference
It is cheaper
This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used
DSSS / CDMA
Single frequency is used
User frequency, once allotted is
always the same
Frequency reuse is not allowed
Sender has to wait if the spectrum is
busy
Power strength of the signal is low
It is weaker compared to FHSS
It can be affected by interference
It is expensive
84
THANK YOU.

85