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Evolution, Biological Communities, and Species Interactions

Natural Selection Leads to Evolution

Adaptation is one of the most important concepts in biology. It is the acquisition of traits that
allow species to survive in its environment.

We use the term adapt in two ways.

(1) An individual organism can respond immediately to a changing environment in a process
called acclimation.
(2) The process of better-selected individuals passing their traits to the next generation is
called natural selection.

All Species Live Within Limits

Limitations include the following:
(1) physiological stress due to inappropriate levels of some critical environmental factor, such
as moisture, light, temperature, pH, or specific nutrients;
(2) competition with other species,
(3) predation, including parasitism and disease; and
(4) luck

An organism’s physiology and behavior allow it to survive only in certain environments.

Temperature, moisture level, nutrient supply, soil and water chemistry, living space, and other
environmental factors must be at appropriate levels for organisms to persist. In 1840, the chemist
Justus von Liebig proposed that the single factor in shortest supply relative to demand is the
critical factor determining where a species live.

Ecologist Victor Shelford (1877–1968) later expanded Liebig’s principle by stating that each
environmental factor has both minimum and maximum levels, called tolerance limits, beyond
which a particular species cannot survive or is unable to reproduce.
Sometimes the requirements and tolerances of species are useful indicators of specific
environmental characteristics.

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The Ecological Niche is a Species’ Role and Environment

Habitat describes the place or set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism
lives.
A more functional term, ecological niche, describes either the role played by a species in a
biological community or the total set of environmental

The competitive exclusion principle, as it is called, states that no two species can occupy the
same ecological niche for long. The one that is more efficient in using available resources will
exclude the other (see Species Competition at the end of this chapter). We call this process of
niche evolution resource partitioning. Partitioning can allow several species to utilize different
parts of the same resource and coexist within a single habitat.

Speciation Maintains Species Diversity

The development of a new species is called speciation.
- One mechanism of speciation is geographic isolation. This is termed allopatric
speciation — species arise in non-overlapping geographic locations.
- This example of sympatric speciation takes place in the same location as the ancestor
species. Fern species and other plants seem prone to sympatric speciation by doubling
or quadrupling the chromosome number of their ancestors.

Taxonomy Describes Relationships Among Species

Taxonomy is the study of types of organisms and their relationships. With it you can trace how
organisms have descended from common ancestors.

Species Interactions Shape Biological Communities

Competition leads to resource allocation

Competition is a type of antagonistic relationship within a biological community. Organisms
compete for resources that are in limited supply: energy and matter in usable forms, living space,
and specific sites to carry out life’s activities. Plants compete for growing space to develop root
and shoot systems so that they can absorb and process sunlight, water, and nutrients. Animals
compete for living, nesting, and feeding sites, and also for mates. Competition among members

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of the same species is called intraspecific competition, whereas competition between members
of different species is called interspecific competition.

Predation affects species relationships

Predation is a powerful but complex influence on species populations in communities. It affects
(1) all stages in the life cycles of predator and prey species; (2) many specialized food-obtaining
mechanisms; and (3) the evolutionary adjustments in behavior and body characteristics that help
prey escape being eaten, and predators more efficiently catch their prey. Predation also interacts
with competition

Some adaptations help avoid predation

The response of predator to prey and vice versa, over tens of thousands of years, produces
physical and behavioral changes in a process known as coevolution. Coevolution can be
mutually beneficial: many plants and pollinators have forms and behaviors that benefit each other.

Often species with chemical defenses display distinct coloration and patterns to warn away
enemies. In a neat evolutionary twist, certain species that are harmless resemble poisonous or
distasteful ones, gaining protection against predators who remember a bad experience with the
actual toxic organism. This is called Batesian mimicry, after the English naturalist H. W. Bates
(1825–1892), a traveling companion of Alfred Wallace.

Another form of mimicry, Müllerian mimicry (after the biologist Fritz Müller) involves two
unpalatable or dangerous species who look alike

Symbiosis Involves Intimate Relations Among Species

In contrast to predation and competition, some interactions between organisms can be non-
antagonistic, even beneficial. In such relationships, called symbiosis, two or more species live
intimately together, with their fates linked. Symbiotic relationships often enhance the survival of
one or both partners
Mutualism - A type of symbiosis which both parties benefit from each other
Commensalism is a type of symbiosis in which one member clearly benefits and the other
apparently is neither benefited nor harmed.

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Parasitism, a form of predation, may also be considered symbiosis because of the dependency
of the parasite on its host.

Keystone Species Have Disproportionate Influence

A keystone species plays a critical role in a biological community that is out of proportion to its
abundance

Community Properties Affect Species and Populations

Productivity is a measure of biological activity

A community’s primary productivity is the rate of biomass production, an indication of the rate
of solar energy conversion to chemical energy.

Productivity is a measure of biological activity

A community’s primary productivity is the rate of biomass production, an indication of the rate
of solar energy conversion to chemical energy.

Community structure describes spatial distribution of organisms

Ecological structure refers to patterns of spatial distribution of individuals and populations within
a community, as well as the relation of a particular community to its surroundings. At the local
level, even in a relatively homogeneous environment, individuals in a single population can be
distributed randomly, clumped together, or in highly regular patterns.

Complexity and connectedness are important ecological indicators

Community complexity and connectedness generally are related to diversity and are important
because they help us visualize and understand community functions. Complexity in ecological
terms refers to the number of species at each trophic level and the number of trophic levels in a
community.

Resilience and stability make communities resistant to disturbance

Many biological communities tend to remain relatively stable and constant over time. An oak forest
tends to remain an oak forest, for example, because the species that make it up have self-
perpetuating mechanisms. We can identify three kinds of stability or resiliency in ecosystems:

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constancy (lack of fluctuations in composition or functions), inertia (resistance to perturbations),

and renewal (ability to repair damage after disturbance).

Edges and boundaries are the interfaces between adjacent communities

An important aspect of community structure is the boundary between one habitat and its
neighbors. We call these relationships edge effects. Sometimes, the edge of a patch of habitat
is relatively sharp and distinct. In moving from a woodland patch into a grassland or cultivated
field, you sense a dramatic change from the cool, dark, quiet forest interior to the windy, sunny,
warmer, open space of the meadow. In other cases, one habitat type intergrades very gradually
into another, so there is no distinct border.

Ecologists call the boundaries between adjacent communities’ ecotones. A community that is
sharply divided from its neighbors is called a closed community. In contrast, communities with
gradual or indistinct boundaries over which many species cross are called open communities.
Often this distinction is a matter of degree or perception. As we saw earlier in this chapter, birds
might feed in fields or grasslands but nest in the forest. As they fly back and forth, the birds
interconnect the ecosystems by moving energy and material from one to the other, making both
systems relatively open. Furthermore, the forest edge, while clearly different from the open field,
may be sunnier and warmer than the forest interior, and may have a different combination of plant
and animal species than either field or forest “core.”

Communities Are Dynamic and Change Over Time

Ecological succession describes a history of community development

In any landscape, you can read the history of biological communities. That history is revealed by
the process of ecological succession. During succession, organisms occupy a site and change
the environmental conditions. In primary succession land that is bare of soil—a sandbar,
mudslide, rock face, volcanic flow—is colonized by living

organisms where none lived before (fig. 4.26). When an existing community is disturbed, a new
one develops from the biological legacy of the old in a process called secondary succession.

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Appropriate disturbances can benefit communities

Disturbances are plentiful on earth: landslides, mudslides, hailstorms, earthquakes, hurricanes,
tornadoes, tidal waves, wildfires, and volcanoes, to name just the obvious. A disturbance is any
force that disrupts the established patterns of species diversity and abundance, community
structure, or community properties. Animals can cause
disturbance.

Introduced species can cause profound community change

Succession requires the continual introduction of new community members and the
disappearance of previously existing species. New species move in as conditions become
suitable; others die or move out as the community changes.

Biomes
Terrestrial Biomes

To understand what that community should be like, it is helpful for us to identify some of the
general types of communities, with similar climate conditions, growth patterns, and vegetation
types. We call these broad types of biological communities biomes.

Aquatic biomes include both freshwater and marine biomes. Freshwater biomes are bodies of
water surrounded by land—such as ponds, rivers, and lakes—that have a salt content of less than
one percent. Marine biomes cover close to three-quarters of Earth’s surface. Marine biomes
include the ocean, coral reefs, and estuaries.

Grasslands are open regions that are dominated by grass and have a warm, dry climate. There
are two types of grasslands: tropical grasslands (sometimes called savannas) and temperate
grasslands. Savannas are found closer to the equator and can have a few scattered trees. They
cover almost half of the continent of Africa, as well as areas of Australia, India, and South America.
Temperate grasslands are found further away from the equator, in South Africa, Hungary,
Argentina, Uruguay, North America, and Russia. They do not have any trees or shrubs, and
receive less precipitation than savannas. Prairies and steppes are two types of temperate
grasslands; prairies are characterized as having taller grasses, while steppes have shorter
grasses.

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Forests are dominated by trees, and cover about one-third of the Earth. Forests contain much of
the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, including insects, birds, and mammals. The three major forest
biomes are temperate forests, tropical forests, and boreal forests (also known as the taiga). These
forest types occur at different latitudes, and therefore experience different climatic conditions.
Tropical forests are warm, humid, and found close to the equator. Temperate forests are found at
higher latitudes and experience all four seasons. Boreal forests are found at even higher latitudes,
and have the coldest and driest climate, where precipitation occurs primarily in the form of snow.

Deserts are dry areas where rainfall is less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) per year. They cover
around 20 percent of Earth’s surface. Deserts can be either cold or hot, although most of them
are found in subtropical areas. Because of their extreme conditions, there is not as much
biodiversity found in deserts as in other biomes. Any vegetation and wildlife living in a desert must
have special adaptations for surviving in a dry environment. Desert wildlife consists primarily of
reptiles and small mammals. Deserts can fall into four categories according to their geographic
location or climatic conditions: hot and dry, semiarid, coastal, and cold.

A tundra has extremely inhospitable conditions, with the lowest measured temperatures of any
of the five major biomes with average yearly temperatures ranging from -34 to 12 degrees Celsius
(-29 to 54 degrees Fahrenheit). They also have a low amount of precipitation, just 15–25
centimeters (six to ten inches) per year, as well as poor quality soil nutrients and short summers.
There are two types of tundra: arctic and alpine. The tundra does not have much biodiversity and
vegetation is simple, including shrubs, grasses, mosses, and lichens. This is partly due to a frozen
layer under the soil surface, called permafrost. The arctic tundra is found north of boreal forests
and the alpine tundra is found on mountains where the altitude is too high for trees to survive.
Any wildlife inhabiting the tundra must be adapted to its extreme conditions to survive.

Geology and Earth Resources

Earth Processes Shape Our Resources

Natural resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet people’s
needs.

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Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, coal, natural
gas, metals, stone and sand are natural resources. Other natural resources are air, sunlight, soil
and water. Animals, birds, fish and plants are natural resources as well.

Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

Renewable resources are those natural resources such as trees, water, sun and wind that can be
replenished at about the same rate at which they are used. Renewable resources, however, can
be depleted if not properly managed or conserved.

Nonrenewable resources are those natural resources that are depleted more quickly than they
can regenerate. Fossil fuels like oil and natural gas were formed over millions of years. Once
mined and used completely, nonrenewable resources are gone forever.

Tectonic processes reshape continents and cause earthquakes

The huge convection currents in the mantle are thought to break the overlying crust into a mosaic
of huge blocks called tectonic plates. These plates slide slowly across the earth’s surface like
wind-driven ice sheets on water, in some places breaking up into smaller pieces, in other places
crashing ponderously into each other to create new, larger landmasses. Ocean basins form where
continents crack and pull apart. The Atlantic Ocean, for example, is
growing slowly as Europe and Africa move away from the Americas. Magma (molten rock) forced
up through the cracks forms new oceanic crust that piles up underwater in mid-ocean ridges.

Rocks and Minerals

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound with a definite chemical
composition and a regular internal crystal structure. “Naturally occurring” means not created by
humans (or synthetic).

A rock is a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals. Within the rock, individual mineral
crystals (or grains) are mixed together and held firmly in a solid mass.

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Metamorphic Rocks
Preexisting rocks can be modified by heat, pressure, and chemical agents to create new forms
called metamorphic rock.

Igneous Rocks
The most common rock-type in the earth’s crust is solidified from magma, welling up from the
earth’s interior. These rocks are classed as igneous rocks (from igni, the Latin word for fire).

Sedimentary rocks are also formed from crystals that precipitate out of, or grow from, a solution.
An example is rock salt, made of the mineral halite, which is the name for ordinary table salt
(sodium chloride). Salt deposits often form when a body of salt water dries up and salt crystals
are left behind.

Weathering and sedimentation wear down rocks

Most of these crystalline rocks are extremely hard and durable, but exposure to air, water,
changing temperatures, and reactive chemical agents slowly breaks them down in a process
called weathering.

Mechanical weathering is the physical breakup of rocks into smaller particles without a change in
chemical composition of the constituent minerals.

Chemical weathering is the selective removal or alteration of specific components that leads to
weakening and disintegration of rock. Among the more important chemical weathering processes
are oxidation (combination of oxygen with an element to form an oxide or hydroxide mineral) and
hydrolysis (hydrogen atoms from water molecules combine with other chemicals to form acids).

Economic Geology and Mineralogy

Economic mineralogy is the study of resources that are valuable for manufacturing and are,
therefore, an important part of domestic and international commerce. Most economic minerals
are metalbearing ores, minerals with unusually high concentrations of metals. Lead, for example,
generally comes from the mineral galena (PbS), and copper comes from sulfide ores, such as
bornite. Nonmetallic geological resources include graphite, feldspar, quartz crystals, diamonds,

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and other crystals that are valued for their usefulness or beauty. Metals have been so important
in human affairs that major epochs of human history are commonly known by their dominant
materials and the technology involved in using those materials (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age,
etc.). The mining, processing, and distribution of these materials have broad implications for both
our culture and our environment. We still are strongly dependent on the unique lightness, strength,
and malleability of metals. Most economically valuable crustal resources exist everywhere in small
amounts; the important thing is to find them concentrated in economically recoverable levels.

Metals are essential to our economy

The metals consumed in greatest quantity by world industry include iron (740 million metric tons
annually), aluminum (40 million metric tons), manganese (22.4 million metric tons), copper and
chromium (8 million metric tons each), and nickel (0.7 million metric tons).

Nonmetal minerals include gravel, clay, sand, and gemstones

Nonmetal minerals are a broad class that covers resources from silicate minerals (gemstones,
mica, talc, and asbestos) to sand, gravel, salts, limestone, and soils. Durable, highly valuable,
and easily portable, gemstones and precious metals have long been a way to store and transport
wealth. Unfortunately, these valuable materials also have bankrolled despots, criminal gangs, and
terrorism in many countries. In recent years, brutal civil wars in Africa have been financed—and
often motivated by—gold, diamonds, tantalum ore, and other high-priced commodities. Much of
this illegal trade ends up in the $100-billion-per-year global jewelry trade, two-thirds of which sells
in the United States. Many people who treasure a diamond ring or a gold wedding band as a
symbol of love and devotion are unaware that it may have been obtained through inhumane labor
conditions and environmentally destructive mining and processing methods. Civil rights
organizations are campaigning to require better documentation of the origins of gems and
precious metals to prevent their use as financing for crimes against humanity

Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction

The most obvious effect of mining is often the disturbance or removal of the land surface. Farther-
reaching effects, though, include air and water pollution. The EPA lists more than 100 toxic air
pollutants, from acetone to xylene, released from U.S. mines every year. Nearly 80,000 metric
tons of particulate matter (dust) and 11,000 tons of sulfur dioxide are released from nonmetal

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mining alone. Pollution from chemical and sediment runoff is a major problem in many local
watersheds.

Mining can affect water quality in several ways. Gold and other metals are often found in sulfide
ores. When these minerals are exposed to air and water, they produce sulfuric acid, which is
highly mobile and strongly acidic. In addition, metal elements often occur in very low
concentrations—10 to 20 parts per billion may be economically extractable for gold, platinum, and
other metals. Consequently, vast quantities of ore must be crushed and washed to extract metals.
A great deal of water is used in cyanide heap-leaching and other washing techniques.

In underground coal mines, another major environmental risk is fires. Hundreds of coal mines
smolder in the United States, China, Russia, India, South Africa, and Europe. The inaccessibility
and size of these fires make many impossible to extinguish or control.

Processing ores also has negative effects

Metals are extracted from ores by heating or with chemical solvents. Both processes release large
quantities of toxic materials that can be even more environmentally hazardous than mining.
Smelting — roasting ore to release metals—is a major source of air pollution.

Conserving Geological Resources

Conservation offers great potential for extending our supplies of economic minerals and reducing
the effects of mining and processing. The advantages of conservation are also significant: less
waste to dispose of, less land lost to mining, and less consumption of money, energy, and water
resource

Recycling saves energy as well as materials

Some waste products already are being exploited, especially for scarce or valuable metals

New materials can replace mined resources

Mineral and metal consumption can be reduced by new materials or new technologies developed
to replace traditional uses. This is a longstanding tradition; for example, bronze replaced stone
technology and iron replaced bronze. More recently, the introduction of plastic pipe has decreased

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our consumption of copper, lead, and steel pipes. In the same way, the development of fiber-optic
technology and satellite communication reduces the need for copper telephone wires.

Geological Hazards

Earthquakes - Liquefaction (Soils), Tsunamis

Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust that occur along faults (planes of
weakness) where one rock mass slides past another one. When movement along faults occurs
gradually and relatively smoothly, it is called creep or seismic slip and may be undetectable to the
casual observer. When friction prevents rocks from slipping easily, stress builds up until it is finally
released with a sudden jerk, which can cause the ground to shake like jelly. The point on a fault
at which the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the epicenter.

Earthquakes have always seemed mysterious, sudden, and violent, coming without warning and
leaving in their wake ruined cities and dislocated landscapes. Cities like San Francisco or Port-
au-Prince, parts of which are built on soft landfill or poorly consolidated soil, usually suffer the
greatest damage from earthquakes. Water-saturated soil can liquefy when shaken. Buildings
sometimes sink out of sight or fall down like a row of dominoes under these conditions.

Tsunamis are giant sea waves triggered by earthquakes or landslides. The name is derived from
the Japanese for “harbor wave,” because the waves often are noticed only when they approach
shore. Tsunamis can be more damaging than the earthquakes that create them. The tsunami that
struck the coast of Japan on March 11, 2011, for example, was triggered by a magnitude 9.0
underwater earthquake about 72 km (45 mi) out to sea. Although the earthquake shook buildings,
it did relatively little damage because Japan has high construction standards. The waves that
followed, however, were up to 38 m (124 ft) high. In some low-lying areas, the waves traveled up
to 10 km (6 mi) inland, washing away buildings, boats, cars, and even whole trains. As the wall of
water smashed through towns and villages, it carried a thick slurry of vehicles, building materials,
mud, and debris that was much more destructive than the water alone. At least 25,000 people
were listed as dead or missing, hundreds of thousands of buildings were damaged or destroyed
(many by fires resulting from broken gas lines; fig 14.20 ) and millions of residents were without
electricity or water.

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Volcanic Eruptions - Lava Flows, Ash Fall, Lahars

Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the earth’s crust. Over hundreds of
millions of years, gaseous emissions from these sources formed the earth’s earliest oceans and
atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions are very destructive and have the ability to cause mass
destruction to the natural environment. Lava burns down forests and everything in its path, and
lahars can flood certain areas to a ridiculous amount. This activity also causes severe health
problems from all animals including humans. Some of these effects include: gastrointestinal
problems from contaminated ash-filled food and water, trauma, burns and irritation from falling
rocks, debris, lava and ash, lung complications from volcanic ash and toxic gases, etc. However,
volcanic eruptions can also be helpful for the Filipino environment in the sense that they re-nourish
the soil, making it the perfect farmland and also create space for future construction. The land of
the Philippines is resilient to eruptions and will almost always bounce back, reformed better than
ever.

The Philippines is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire which where multiple tectonic plates meet.
Most of the world's volcanoes have formed in the Ring of Fire because of this tectonic plate
activity, more than 75% (452 volcanoes). With 53 volcanoes in the Philippines combining with
their tropical weather, volcanic eruptions and side effects of volcanic activity leave the Philippines
at a great risk for all kinds of destruction.

Landslides - Rock Falls or Slides, Debris Flows, Mud Flows

Gravity constantly pulls downward on every material everywhere on earth, causing a variety of
phenomena collectively termed mass wasting or mass movement, in which geological materials
are moved downslope from one place to another. The resulting movement is often slow and
subtle, but some slope processes such as rockslides, avalanches, and land slumping can be swift,
dangerous, and very obvious. Landslide is a general term for rapid downslope movement of soil
or rock. In the United States alone, over $1 billion in property damage is done every year by
landslides and related mass wasting.

Floods - Inundation, Erosion

Like earthquakes and volcanoes, floods are normal events that cause damage when people get
in the way. As rivers carve and shape the landscape, they build broad floodplains, level expanses
roads, parking lots, and building roofs, reduces water infiltration into the soil and speeds the rate

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of runoff into streams and lakes. Clearing forests for agriculture and destroying natural wetlands
also increases both the volume and the rate of water discharge
after a storm. In an effort to control floods, many communities build levees and floodwalls to keep
water within riverbanks, and river channels are dredged and deepened to allow water to recede
faster. Every flood-control structure simply transfers the problem downstream, however. The
water has to go somewhere. If it doesn’t soak into the ground upstream, it will simply exacerbate
floods somewhere downstream.

Climate Change Impacts on Natural Resources

Climate change will impact every type of natural resource. The distributions of plant and animal
species will continue to change as rising temperatures alter ecosystems and amplify existing
environmental concerns.

Forests and Vegetation

The impacts of climate change on forests will vary widely based on the species involved and other
factors. With increasing CO2, forest productivity will likely increase until other impacts of climate
change, such as increased risks of drought, forest fire, pests, and invasive species present
additional stressors to forests. As temperatures rise, the distribution and composition of tree
species will continue to shift northward. In practical terms, this translates into a transition from
maple and birch as the preferred tree species to oak and hickory by 2100. Some species, such
as red pine, may completely retreat from the Great Lakes region by the end of the century.

Forest management in the region will need to adapt as the potential impacts become clearer.
Planting species that will provide critical habitat for wildlife while remaining resistant to increased
risks from pests is one potential option. In many cases, the facilitation of new species into the
region may be more ecologically sound than the preservation of existing traditional species

Fish and Wildlife

As habitat zones shift northward with temperature, many animal species may also need to migrate
north as well. The Great Lakes will be a barrier for migration to many species, and will be a critical
obstacle for those unable to adapt. Wildlife that relies on wetlands may be at greatest risk, as
increased evaporation rates may reduce total wetland coverage, and further stress those species.

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Fish populations throughout the Great Lakes region may become less diverse. Warmer water
temperatures will likely lead to a decline in Coldwater fish populations as warmwater fish
populations become more abundant. The overall productivity in lakes and waterways may be
reduced by lake stratification and increased frequency of hypoxic conditions.

As species distributions change, the conservation of wildlife will require similar shifts in protected
natural areas, and accommodations in land use and development may be necessary. As with
changing vegetation, the facilitation of new, ecologically beneficial species into the region is an
option.

Rivers and Wetlands

Lower summer water levels are likely to limit groundwater recharge, cause small streams to dry
up, and lead to a reduction in wetlands, resulting in poorer water quality and less habitat for
wildlife.

More frequent and intense precipitation events due to climate change may amplify existing land
use impacts. Impervious surfaces impair the natural flood-absorbing capacities of wetlands and
floodplains, thereby increasing the risk of flooding and erosion. As severe storms increase in
number and strength, watersheds and other ecosystems adjacent to agricultural and urban
environments will be particularly vulnerable to damage and contaminated runoff.

Urban environments may need to allocate more “green” space and use more permeable
pavement to alleviate increased flooding and erosion risks from more severe precipitation events.
Appropriate land use practices, such as increasing development density and the expansion of
protected areas along waterways, will likely be necessary to alleviate increased risks of erosion,
and preserve increasingly critical wildlife habitat.

Reference/s:

Cunnigham, W. P., & Cunningham, M. A. (2012). Environmental Science: A Global Concern,

Twelfth Edition. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020: The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

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