YEAR 4 FE CHEMISTRY NOTES

Lin Shu Nuo (17) 4J

Year 3 stuff Year 4 stuff

Unit 1 - Chem Bonding & Structure Unit 7 - Periodic Table

Unit 2 - Mole Concept Unit 8 - QA

Unit 3 - ABS & Ionic Eqn Unit 9 - Equilibria

Unit 4 - Redox Unit 10 - Metal Reactivity

Unit 5 - Chem Energetics Unit 11 - Metal Properties

Unit 6 - Rxn Kinetics Unit 12 - Electrolysis

Unit 13 - Organic Chem

1 | CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE
1. Giant ionic
● Compounds are made of cations and anions
● Held together by strong ESFOA between ions of opposite charges in a giant
ionic lattice structure
● High mp/bp as a lot of heat energy is needed to overcome strong ESFOA
between cations and anions
● Cannot conduct electricity in solid state, but conducts electricity in aqueous
and molten states. In those states, ions are mobile and therefore can act as
charge carriers
● Generally soluble in polar solvents eg. water, as polar molecules can interact
with cations and anions
● Refer to solubility table to determine solubility of ionic compounds in water
2. Simple molecular
● Molecules made of simple molecules made of neutral atoms
● Within a molecule, atoms are held together via strong covalent bonds
● Weak IMFOA occurs between molecules
● Low mp/bp as little heat energy is needed to overcome weak IMFOA between
molecules
● Cannot conduct electricity in any state, as molecules are made of neutral
atoms which cannot act as charge carriers
● Solubility in solvents depends on their polarity: polar molecules can dissolve in
polar solvents (eg. sugar can dissolve in water), and vice versa (eg. oxygen is
more soluble in hexane than in water)
3. Giant metallic
● Strong ESFOA occurs between metal cations and negatively-charged “sea” of
delocalised electrons
● Pure metals are generally malleable as they are made of layers of metal
cations that can slide over each other
 ● Generally high mp/bp (exception: Hg) as a lot of heat energy is needed to
overcome strong ESFOA between metal cations and negatively-charged “sea” of
delocalised electrons
● Good conductors of electricity in solid and molten states as metals have a
“sea” of delocalised electrons which can act as charge carriers
● Not soluble in any solvent; however some metals (eg. Li, Na, K, Ca) do react
with water to form a base and H2 gas, which is observed as “dissolving”.
4. Giant molecular
● Made of neutral atoms which are covalently bonded to each other
● High mp/bp as a lot of heat energy is needed to overcome strong covalent
bonds between atoms
● Cannot conduct electricity in any state as they are made of neutral atoms
which cannot act as charge carriers
● Exception: graphite - structure of graphite similar to metals, where it is made of
carbon atom layers with delocalised electrons on every layer, thus it can
conduct electricity well and be used as a lubricant as layers of carbon atoms
can slide over each other easily.
2 | STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE

1. Ar, Mr, and molar mass

● Ar (relative atomic mass) is the average mass of 1 atom of the element compared
with 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
● Mr (relative molecular mass) is the average mass of 1 molecule compared with
1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
● Ar and Mr are relative masses and thus do not have units.
● Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of a substance.
● Molar mass has the same absolute value as Mr, but its unit is g mol-1.
● Eg. Ar of oxygen is 16, Mr of oxygen gas (O2) is 2(16) = 32, molar mass of O2 is
32 g mol-1.
● 1 mole of a substance contains 6 x 1023 particles.
● 1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.
3 | ACIDS, BASES, SALTS AND IONIC EQUATION
1. Acids and bases
● Acids dissociate in water to form H+ ions. [H+ donors]
● Bases dissociate in water to form OH- ions. [H+ acceptors]
● Alkalis are aqueous bases.
2. Acid and base reactions
● acid + base -> salt + water
○ eg. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
○ ionic equation: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) -> H2O (l)
● acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide
○ eg. 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (aq) -> CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
○ ionic equation: 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) -> H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
○ effervescence will be observed
● acid + reactive metal -> salt + hydrogen
○ eg. H2SO4 (aq) + Mg (s) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
○ ionic equation: 2H+ (aq) + Mg (s) -> H2 (g) + Mg2+ (aq)
○ effervescence will be observed
● base + ammonium salt -> salt + water + ammonia gas
○ heating is needed for this rxn to occur
○ eg. KOH (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) -> KCl (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
○ ionic equation: NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) —> NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
● alkali + (some) salts -> salt + insoluble hydroxide
○ also called precipitation reaction as the insoluble hydroxide is seen as a
precipitate (ppt)
○ eg. 2NaOH (aq) + Fe(NO3)2 (aq) -> 2NaNO3 (aq) + Fe(OH)2 (s)
○ ionic equation: Fe2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) -> Fe(OH)2 (s)
○ ppt colour: green
3. pH
● pH (power of hydrogen) shows how acidic or basic a solution is
● When neutral, pH = 7
● The lower the pH the more acidic a substance is, and vice versa
● pH = -lg [H+]
 4. Factors affecting pH
● Strength
○ A strong acid/alkali dissociates completely in water
○ A weak acid/alkali only dissociates partially in water
○ When a strong acid and a weak acid are of the same concentration and
basicity, strong acid has a higher concentration of H+ ions, and thus
strong acid has lower pH than weak acid (and vice versa for alkali)
● Concentration
○ The higher the concentration of an acid/alkali in water, the higher the
concentration of H+ ions, and thus the lower the pH (and vice versa for
alkali)
● Basicity
○ Number of moles of H+ in 1 mole of acid
○ Eg. HCl and HNO3 are monobasic, H2SO4 is dibasic
○ Comparing an aqueous HCl solution and an aqueous H2SO4 solution with
the same concentration, aqueous H2SO4 solution has a higher
concentration of H+ ions compared to aqueous HCl solution, and thus
aqueous H2SO4 solution has lower pH
5. Types of metal oxides

Basic oxides: reacts with acids

● Calcium oxide (CaO)
● Copper (II) oxide (CuO)
● Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Ampotheric oxides: reacts with both acids and bases
1. Zinc oxide (ZnO)
2. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
3. Lead (II) oxide (PbO)

Non-metal oxides

Acidic oxides: reacts with bases

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Neutral oxides: reacts with neither base nor acid
1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
2. Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
 3. Water (H2O)

Salt prep

Precipitation: to obtain insoluble salt from two aqueous salts

1. Add to aqueous salts into test tube, mix well
2. Filter the mixture
3. Desired product collected as residue, other product and excess reactants collected as
distillate
4. Rinse the residue with distilled water
5. Pat dry between two pieces of filter paper
Excess base: adding excess insoluble base to acid to obtain aqueous salt as product
1. Add excess base to acid in a test tube, making sure all acid has reacted
2. Filter the mixture
3. Excess base collected as residue, distillate with contain both salt and water
4. Transfer distillate to petri dish and heat over bunsen burner until one-third of solution is
left
5. Leave the solution to cool
6. Filter the solution and pat dry between two pieces of filter paper
Titration: titrating alkali into acid to obtain aqueous salt as product
1. Titrate alkali into acid with indicator, noting how much alkali was needed
2. Titrate alkali into acid without indicator
3. Heat solution over bunsen burner until one-third of solution is left
4. Leave the solution to cool
5. Filter the solution and pat dry between two pieces of filter paper.

Acid Rain

- defined as rain which has pH < 4

- primary causes of acid rain are emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx)
- sources of pollutant:
- sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power stations and motor vehicles
- S + O2 -> SO2
- gaseous nitrogenous oxides produced in car engines
- nitrogen and oxygen in the air in the engine, under high temperatures,
combines to form nitric oxide, which then converts to nitrogen dioxide by
reacting with oxygen
- N2 + O2 -> 2NO
- 2NO + O2 -> 2NO2
- effect of pollutant:
- SO2 and nitrogenous oxides damage human lungs, causing bronchitis
 - in the atmosphere, they combine with water and oxygen to form strong acids
(sulfuric and nitric acids), forming acid rain
- 2SO2 + 2H2O + O2 -> 2H2SO4
- 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 -> 4HNO3
- acid rain corrodes metal bridges and stone buildings
- it also lowers pH of water bodies, killing aquatic life
- it also lowers pH of soil, thus killing trees
- minimising SO2 pollution:
- remove sulfur from fossil fuels before burning them
- flue gas desulfurisation: removing SO2 from waste gases formed when sulfur-
containing fossil fuel undergo combustion
- CaCO3 + SO2 -> CaSO3 + CO2
- as shown here, calcium carbonate is used
- minimising NO2 pollution:
- fit cars with catalytic converters, which is used to react NO and CO in exhaust
gases:
- 2NO + 2CO -> N2 + 2CO2
- treating excess acids:
- in soils: use quicklime (CaO) or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2)
- however, they should not be added at the same time as nitrogenous
fertilisers eg. ammonium nitrate, as ammonium salts react with bases to
form ammonia gas which escapes into the atmosphere, rendering the
fertiliser ineffective
- in lakes: use limestone (CaCO3)
- this is because it is insoluble in water, thus it removes the acid and any
excess limestone remains undissolved in the water, keeping the
maximum pH of the lakewater at 7
- CaO and Ca(OH)2 are slightly soluble in water and thus may render the
water alkaline if they are used to treat excess acid
4 | REDOX
Ionic equations: ONLY separate ionic compounds into ions if it is AQUEOUS.
Cancel out the ions that do not change.
Eg. Turn CuSO4(aq) + PbNO3(aq) → PbSO4(s) + CuNO3(aq) into an ionic equation.
Ans: Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) [don’t separate solid into ions]
Redox = Reduction + Oxidation.
Oxidation = Loss of elections eg. 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Reduction = Gain of electrons eg. Zn2+ + 2e- → Zn
(OIL RIG - Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain)
Is C + O2 → CO2 a redox reaction? Yes.
Even though it does not include ions, reduction and oxidation still occurs.
We use oxidation state/number to explain this.
If substance only has 1 element, that element has oxidation number 0.
Otherwise, hydrogen is +1 (except in metal hydrides where it is -1)
Otherwise, oxygen is -2 (except when it is a peroxide ion where it is -1)
Most of the time, group 1 ions are +1, group 2 are +2, aluminium is +3, group 17 are -1.
Oxidation numbers are given to ELEMENTS.